Bridge Design Manual - 2002

Chapter 4 Planning Stage/Feasibility Study/Site Investigation

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4.1

PLANNING STAGE/FEASIBILITY STUDY/SITE INVESTIGATION

GENERAL

In this first stage of design the highway engineer identifies a preferred location for the bridge and decides on the type, size and capacity of the structure. He reaches these decisions on the basis of field surveys and information concerning: the proposed road alignments the local terrain and site conditions the required design life of the bridge the likely traffic volumes the resources he has available The local terrain and site conditions dictate the height, length and number of spans, and the design of the substructure foundations. The required design life and the resources available to construct the bridge will influence the choice of materials and building methods. The traffic predictions enable the engineer to determine the necessary width of the bridge. The data required for the Preliminary Design stage, specifically for the geotechnical analyses, hydraulic design and site investigations, are discussed in Chapter 5: Preliminary Design/Layout of Bridges and Culverts. 4.2 SITE SELECTION

For the highway engineer, rivers are the most common obstructions needing to be bridged. Occasionally the highway engineer shall be called upon to design a rail or road grade-separated crossing. These are relatively simple compared to river crossings because they involve considerations only of height and span. The design of a river crossing also has to take hydraulic requirements into account. There are three initial considerations to bear in mind in selection of the site: a bridge site must offer appropriate vertical and horizontal alignments (skew angle above 20 should be avoided due to increased bridge costs). its soils must be of sufficient strength to ensure the stability of the structure (the site selection should if possible be made together with a soils engineer and, for a large bridge, with a bridge engineer, to minimize costs and select the best site). the bridge and its associated works should not have an adverse impact on adjoining land or buildings, or be susceptible to damage from/to the local environment (an environmentalist and a hydrologist are advantageous in some cases to avoid these impacts).

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4.2.1 RIVER TYPE Rivers are classed as either alluvial or incised, as follows. Alluvial rivers are winding and erode their banks and scour their beds; they have flood plains on either side of the channel and the flow regularly overtops the channel banks to spread across the flood plain. They are continually active, scouring and depositing materials on the banks and transporting quantities of sediment. The main channels and any of the minor channels can change position and islands can disappear in the course of a single major flood. Incised rivers have relatively stable banks and are generally narrower and deeper than alluvial rivers. Some overtop their banks during flood, but the flow returns to the existing channel when the flood subsides. Steeply graded tributary streams flowing into a major river commonly exhibit abrupt changes in channel width and bed gradient where they enter the main flood plain. These changes result in the deposition of large quantities of sediment in the form of alluvial fans of gravel to clay sized debris. 4.2.2 BRIDGE SITES In selecting the location for small- or medium-sized bridges (below 50 m length), the engineer often has to reach a compromise between the easiest river crossing and the shortest road alignment. The choice of location then becomes an economic decision. The most economic bridge site and the one that has potentially the longest service life is a location that: is on a straight reach of the river is beyond the disturbing influence of larger tributaries has well defined banks has reasonably straight approach roads permits as perpendicular a crossing as possible has a good foundation condition.

The site shall also allow the gradient of the approach roads to be appropriate to the types of vehicles likely to travel on the road and to conform to the ERA Geometric Design Manual-2002, Chapter 9: Vertical Alignment. It should offer vertical curves and sight distances suitable for the design speed of vehicles using the bridge. A bridge aligned at right angles to the river results in the shortest superstructure. A skewed bridge requires more material and is more complicated to design and construct. If a skew is unavoidable the angle should preferably not exceed 20, due to the increased cost, and the abutments and piers should, if possible, be set parallel to the direction of flow during maximum flood (see following section: Site Conditions), which may not be the same as during normal flow. Bridge crossings over alluvial rivers nearly always require training works to stabilize the channel flow within the bridge waterway opening.
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4.3

SITE CONDITIONS

Once the engineer has identified a likely site for the bridge, he needs to obtain field information on the local terrain and river conditions in addition to the soil information and hydraulic data that are outlined in the ERA Drainage Design Manual-2002, chapter 5: Hydrology. The key points of field information relate to: the catchment area of the river water levels navigational and other clearance requirements

4.3.1 CATCHMENT AREA Usually the road plans with contours are not prepared at this early stage, which makes it necessary to use the topographical maps available in the country. The Ethiopian Mapping Authority has prepared maps to scale 1:250 000 for the whole country. In addition to that there are also maps to scale 1:50 000 available for large areas of the country shown in the current "Map Catalogue" published by the Ethiopian Mapping Authority. The area west of GobaKorem and south of GondarKorem is mainly covered by 1:50 000 topographic maps. These are especially suited for the planning stage to calculate catchment areas, possible provisional road alignments, aggregate quarries, and other uses. The extent of the river catchment area determines the area to be included in plans and sections, and can be used to estimate flow volumes (see ERA Drainage Design Manual2002, Chapter 4: Hydrographic Survey). Using maps or aerial photographs to an appropriate scale, the catchment area can be marked and its size calculated, using transparent squared graph paper or a planimeter. 4.3.2 WATER LEVELS Information is needed on the highest known flood level, the ordinary flood level and the low water level at the proposed site. The historical flood level/ highest-known flood level (HFL) should be determined by calculation and supplemented with local observation and inquiries in the locality (see also the ERA Drainage Design Manual2002, Chapter 5: Hydrology). The silt marks that high floods generally leave on tree trunks and rocks remain visible for several years. If there are old trees at the site vicinity, they should be examined for the presence of small twigs left adhering to the bark at high water levels. It is usually helpful to ask people who have been living in the area for a long time about their recollections of particularly high floods, with a caution that this source of information is variable in reliability. It is usually better to make such inquiries by talking to people individually rather than in groups. The normal high water level, the ordinary flood level (OFL), is the level to which the river normally rises during the wettest part of the year. The normal low water level, the low water level (LWL), is the level prevailing in the river during dry weather. If there is little or no flow in dry weather, the period during which the riverbed remains dry should be noted.

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4.4

CROSS-SECTION OF RIVER (SEE ERA DRAINAGE DESIGN MANUAL-2002, ERA SITE INVESTIGATION MANUAL-2002)

In order to develop a sketch for a large bridge, cross sections of the waterway at the approximate proposed crossing are essential. The cross sections should extend at least 20 m in length beyond the assumed high water mark, or 2 m vertically above the same. 4.5 PROPOSED TYPICAL SECTION OF ROAD

The proposed typical section of the road is based on parameters including ADT (Average Daily Traffic) and/or road classification as developing in the ERA Geometric Design Manual-2002, Chapter 5: Design Controls and Criteria and will be obtained from the road engineer. The width of the bridge should be somewhat wider than the roadway, in order to allow the vehicles to pass the bridge without retardation of speed, for safety, and for pedestrian requirements as specified in Chapter 2, Table 2-2 of this manual. 4.6 SKETCH OF PROPOSED BRIDGE AND BRIEF TECHNICAL DESCRIPTIONS OF BRIDGES

The result of the planning stage conducted by the bridge engineer (or by the road engineer for small and sometimes medium sized bridges) should be a sketch of the proposed bridge(s) containing the following information essential for the subsequent preliminary design stage (see Figure 4-1 at end of chapter, and Chapter 5: Preliminary Design/Layout of Bridges and Culverts, Section 5-21: Checklist for the Preliminary Design). waterway name direction of flow direction of north the direction and name of the nearest town and/or project beginning and end of project width of road proposed clear width of bridge proposed inclination of embankment slopes overall proposed length of bridge span lengths clearance heights type of bearings (fixed/expandable) proposed position of fixed bearings, quantity of flow design water velocity (the calculated velocity at the statistical flow at design year) design water level (the highest statistical level at design year) normal water level (statistically) lowest water level (at design year), cross section of the waterway in the alignment, spot levels of the river bed and the surrounding ground in the area, crossfall of bridge deck proposed grade of bridge angle of skew and proposed angle of abutments and piers the approximate horizontal alignment of the road approaches and the bridge
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4.7

the stations of the piers and abutments towns adjacent to the bridge bench mark used, and its location and elevation EXISTING BRIDGES

If any part of a bridge must be replaced, needs widening, or to be exchanged for a new bridge, the existing bridge shall be inspected, and data on the bridge shall be collected. Regarding a Checklist for existing structures (Ref. 3), see Form 4-2. For the strength evaluation rating of existing bridges, refer to Chapter 14: Strength Evaluation of Existing Steel and Concrete Bridges. If a junior engineer is performing the field inspection, the result should always be verified with a senior bridge engineer to determine whether further inspection is needed, and what maintenance has to be accomplished to secure the bridge in the future. 4.8 COST/BENEFIT ANALYSIS AND EVALUATION

It is most common that two to five different alignments are compared and evaluated from technical, economical, environmental, and other points of view, to select the most beneficial alignment(s). This shall be performed either by hand or by a computer program. The preliminary cost of the bridges shall be calculated by unit cost, per m2 of bridge deck. Several computer programs are available. An example is a computer program developed in 1993-98 by the Overseas Centre Transport Research Laboratory (TRL) in Berkshire, United Kingdom is "RTIM3 - Road Transport Investment Model". It is widely used to carry out cost benefit analysis on road construction, upgrading and maintenance projects in developing countries. The program runs on a microcomputer and operates as a series of linked compiled spreadsheets for traffic flow, road deterioration, and vehicle operating costs and economic analysis. The program is supported by an interactive Help facility and a users manual. 4.9 SITE INVESTIGATION

4.9.1 GENERAL Field reviews shall be made by the designer in order to become familiar with the site. The most complete survey data cannot adequately depict all site conditions or substitute for personal inspection by someone experienced in bridge and drainage design. There are several criteria that should be established before making the field visit. Does the magnitude of the project warrant an inspection, or can the same information be obtained from maps, aerial photos, or by telephone calls? What kind of equipment should be taken, and most important, what exactly are the critical items at this site? Factors that most often need to be confirmed by field inspection (see Form 4-1) are: high-water marks or profiles and related frequencies. selection of roughness coefficients,
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evaluation of apparent flow direction and diversions, flow concentration (main stream), observation of land use and related flood hazards, and geomorphic relationships and soil conditions

An actual visit to the site where the project will be constructed shall be made before any design is undertaken. This shall be combined with a visit by others, such as the roadway designers and soil investigators, environmental reviewers, and local officials. The designer may visit the site separately, however, because of interests which are different from the others, and the time required to obtain the data as warranted below. It may not be possible to survey the entire watershed, therefore a sample area may have to be studied. It is important to set out the exact field needs by a checklist before the trip is made to ensure that all information needed is collected and all important areas are visited (see Form 4-1). 4.9.2 HYDROLOGY Information required by the designer for analysis and design include not only the physical characteristics of the land and channel, but all features that can effect the magnitude and frequency of the flood flow which will pass the site under study. These data may include climatological characteristics, land runoff characteristics, stream gauging records, high water marks and the sizes and past performances of existing structures the vicinity. The exact data required will depend upon the methods utilized to estimate discharges, frequencies, and stages. It should be noted that much of the hydrologic data would not be used during the planning and location phase. However, it is important at this stage to emphasize the need for such data, because of the time necessary for collection and evaluation of such data. By starting this process during the planning and location stage, delays during the design stage should be minimized. The collection of flood data is a basic survey task in performing any hydraulic analysis. The field collection will consist mainly of interviews with local people, maintenance personnel, and local officials who may have recollections of past flood events in the area. In some cases, if a stream gauging station is on the stream under study, close to the crossing site, and has many years of measurements, this shall be the only hydrologic data needed. These data should be analyzed to ensure stream flows have not changed over the time of measurement due to watershed alterations such as the construction of a large storage facility, diversion of flow to another watershed, addition of flow from another watershed, or development which has significantly altered the runoff characteristics of the watershed. High-water marks are often the only data of past floods available. When collected, these data should include, when possible, the date and elevation of the flood event. In the search for marks local people could be of great help. The cause of the high-water mark should also be noted, often the mark is caused by unusual debris build-up rather than an inadequate structure, and designing roadway or structure to such an elevation could lead to an unrealistic, uneconomical design. High-water marks can be identified in several ways. Small debris, such as grass or twigs caught in tree branches, elephant-grass or similar matted down, mud lines on stones or bridges, are all high-water indicators. Beware however that grass, bushes, and tree branches could be bent over during flood
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flows and spring up after the flow has passed, which may give a false reading of the high water elevation. The hydrologic characteristics of the basin or watershed of the stream under study are needed for any predictive methods used to forecast flood flows. Although many of these characteristics can be found from office studies, some are better found by a field survey of the basin. The size and configuration of the watershed, the geometry of the stream network, storage volumes of ponds, lakes, reservoirs, and flood plains, and the general geology and soils of the basin can be found from maps. Having determined these basin characteristics, runoff times, infiltration values, storage values, and runoff coefficients can be found and used in calculating flood flow values using methods outlined in the ERA Drainage Design Manual-2002, Chapter 5: Hydrology, Section 5.6: Hydrologic Procedure. Rainfall records are available from the Ethiopian Meteorological Services Agency (Weather Bureau). This data should be used to supplement, update, and refine the data developed and presented in the ERA Drainage Design Manual-2002 (Appendix B: Rainfall Data). 4.9.3 LAND USE Field visits including discussions with local residents can yield information not elsewhere available. If there are wildlife or livestock tracks or paths crossing the proposed roadway alignment it would be wise to provide for the passing of the animals under the bridge if possible. This may keep accidents with animals down once the road is in use. The types and extent of vegetal cover should be noted since it affects the velocity and quantity of runoff. It also affects the quality of the water. In order to make a study of the water resources of the area, an environmental team should obtain those data commensurate with the needs to evaluate the highway impacts on the surface water. A coordination meeting with representatives of the various environmental disciplines concerned is often beneficial at this stage. Data may need to be collected on such facts as fish and wildlife, vegetation and the quality of the water. A judgment may need to be made on aesthetic values. Detailed test on environmental concerns and coordination in presented in given in the ERA Standard Environmental Methodologies and Procedures Manual-2002. Land use and vegetal cover information shall be determined to the extent needed for preliminary design from soils and land use maps, but with rapidly changing land uses, a more accurate survey will be achieved from aerial photographs and field visits. To determine the disturbance and interference factor it should be noted whether the upstream land areas include farming, cattle and/or fishing activities. If the roadway, the bridge site and especially the upstream land-areas are influenced by villages, houses, etc this should be noted at the site.

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4.9.4 OTHER STRUCTURES All existing structures along the stream that could possibly be affected by or affect the new bridge, such as old bridges, dams and irrigation channels, shall be investigated as to size, location, type and condition. This can be a valuable indicator when selecting the size and type of any new structure. Data to be obtained on existing structures includes such parameters as size, type, age, existing flow line elevation, and condition, particularly in regards to the channel. Scour holes, erosion (around the abutments or just upstream or downstream), or abrupt changes in material gradation or type can all indicate a structure too small for the site. With knowledge of flood history, the age and overall substructure condition may also aid in determining if the existing structure is too small. If a structure is relatively new, information may still be available on a previous structure, and why it had to be replaced. When structures upstream or downstream of the site under study exist, they should always be inventoried for the factors just discussed. In addition to highway structures, any other crossings, which might exist, should be investigated. 4.9.5 SAMPLING AND SOIL INVESTIGATION Once at the site it is easy and of great value to sample for soil, rock, stone, water, etc. in cooperation with the soil investigators. Samples as specified in ERA Site Investigation Manual-2002, Chapter 3: Preliminary Design, Section 3.3: Sampling Program: Earthworks and subgrade soils should be collected, marking the station number where they are collected. In this early stage, the soil investigation could be very brief, since the final alignment of the roadway is not yet decided. The most probable location should be investigated to get a general view of the soil conditions. If the conditions are complex or if there is only one possible bridge site the investigations could preferably be extended. This work should be made under the guidance of a geotechnical engineer. See also the ERA Soils and Materials Investigation Manual-2002. 4.9.6 FIELD SKETCHING AND PHOTOS It has proved very practical to make a simple sketch of the bridge site with approximate water shores, existing structures, scour holes, main stream location, etc including very rough dimensions with approximate measurements (see Figure 4-1). As a minimum, photos shall be taken looking upstream and downstream from the site as well as along the contemplated highway centerline in both directions. Details of the streambed and banks should also be photographed along with any existing structures in the vicinity both upstream and downstream. Close-up photographs complete with a scale or grid shall be taken to facilitate estimates of the stream bed gradation. 4.9.7 CHECK LIST OF SITE INVESTIGATION A form or checklist that can be used by the field investigator/designer in identifying and cataloging field information is shown on (Form 4-1). A checklist for Inspection of existing bridges is shown in (Form 4-2).

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Figure 4-1: Sketch of Bridge Site

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Form 4-1

FIELD VISIT INVESTIGATION FORM

Date: .................

PROJECT:........................................................

Inv. by .................................................. Site Situated @ STA: .................. WATERWAY: Name: .............................................................................. Direction of flow: ....................................

High Water Mark:... ...................... Level: +...............Side Slopes: ..................................degrees: ............

Diversions/ Flow concentration / Flood Hazards year, level: ............................................................................................. % Grade of Stream: ......... Channel, Base: (m) Height of Banks:...... (m) Manning's Value n=..................

Crossing angle (estimated): degrees Meandering: (show figure below) Bottom/Base material............................................................ Material on channel side: ......................... n=.......... Up or Downstream Restriction (debris/sedimentation/scour/soil mtrl.): ............................................................................ .............................................................................................................................................................................................. STRUCTURES : Bridges/ Buildings upstream and downstream: ............................................. @ M up/down:.......

Type: ..........................................................................................Piers: Type: ............................................................ Abutment Types: ........................................Width: ...............(m) Size of Spans: ...................................................

Clear Height: (m) @............; ............m@..............; .............m@ .............; Total water width at HWL:............(m); (Overflow? Year? Level: +...) ............................................................................................................................................. MISC. Land Uses upstream and downstream: ..............................................................................................................

Vegetation (Location, Type, Name): ................................................................................................................................... Wildlife (Paths, Traces, Type, Name): ............................................................................................................................... Soil Conditions: .......................................................................................................... at Roadway STA: .....................

Sample no: ............. @ STA: .............; Sample no: ............ @ STN: ................; Sample no: ............ @ STA: ................; Photos no:............@STN:............... Shows: ................... Photos no:..........@STA:............... Shows: .........................

Photos no:............@STN:............... Shows: ..................... Photos no:............@STN:............... Shows: ......................... REMARKS: ........................................................................................................................................................................ ............................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................. ............................................................................................................................................................................................. (please, make simple plan sketch incl. water shores/Rd alignment and continue the text on back side of this page, if needed)

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Form 4-2

BRIDGE INSPECTION FORM

Page 1(3)

Bridge Number: . Name . Crossing At STA. kilometer. on the.. toroad Instruction from the Engineer to the Inspector.. View of bridge looking from above:

Notes from the Inspector to the Engineer: Inspected by ...Date No of pages in report.. Report accepted by. Date CONSTRUCTION DETAILS (from the Inventory) No Span..Running surface Deck. (Including sketches, notes, etc)

Pier(s)... Abutments...

Problem CONCRETE OR MASONRY PARAPETS POSSIBLE PROBLEM No yes

How Bad? Not very bad Bad

How Much? A lot Not much Some Note or sketch reference

Notes:

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Cracking? Spalling Corrosion of reinforcement? Poor Concrete? Movement or bending of parapet? Deterioration of the bricks or stonework?

MAIN CONCRETE BEAMS Cracking Spalling Corrosion of reinforcement Poor concrete?

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Page 2(3) SUPERSTRUCTURE SPAN NO. POSSIBLE PROBLEM

Problem No Yes

How Bad? Not very bad Bad

How Much? Note or sketch reference Very serious Not Much Some A lot

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STEEL GIRDERS & BRACING Deterioration of paint / galvanizing? Bends in webs, flanges, stiffeners Loose bolts or rivets Water coming through the deck SUPER STRUCTURE Impact damage to beams, girders, trusses or bracing? STEEL TRUSSES Deterioration of paint or galvanizing Corrosion? Bends in truss members? Bent or damaged joints? Bent or damaged bracings Loose bolts or rivets? Cracking of steel members TIMBER BEAMS AND TRUSSES Decay Insect attack? Splitting of timber? Separation of laminations on glue laminated beams? Loose or corroded nails spikes or fixing wires? BEARING S ABUTMENT NAME Debris or vegetation around bearings? Bad drainage of bearing shelf? Not enough room for the bridge span to move? Bearing not seated properly Damaged bedding mortar? Damage or loose earthquake restraints RUBBER BEARINGS Splitting, tearing or cracking of rubber Damaged or loose bolts or pins at fixed bearings?

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Page 3(3) Problem BEARINGS No Yes How Bad? Not very bad Bad How Much? Note or sketch reference Very serious Not Much Some A lot Handbook page (2)

POSSIBLE PROBLEM

METAL BEARINGS Parts not properly seated? Parts not free to move Sliding surfaces damaged? Cracks or bends in metal parts? Corrosion of metal parts MASONRY ARCH ES Change of shape of arch ? Cracking of arch barrel/ring Cracking or bulging of spandrel walls Spandrel wall separating from arch Spalling of stones or bricks Poor pointing? Water leaking through arch? Scour under arch foundations? ABUTMENTS, WINGWALLS AND RETAINING WALLS Erosion or scour near abutment? Movement of abutment or retaining wall Water leaking down through the expansion joint? Cracking of concrete? Spalling? Corrosion of reinforcement? Poor concrete? PIERS (Concrete and masonry) PIER NO.. Scour near base of pier? Movement of pier? Vegetation growing on pier? Water leaking past expansion joint? Corrosion of reinforcement? Poor concrete? Cracking ? Deterioration of masonry? Poor pointing of masonry? Additional Notes:

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REFERENCES 1. AASHTO, LRFD Bridge Construction Specifications, 2nd edition, 1998. Washington: American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials. 2. TRRL, 1992. A design manual for small bridges. Overseas Road Note 9. Crowthorne: Transport and Road Research Laboratory. 3. TRRL Overseas Road Note No 7, Vol. 2, Bridge Inspectors Handbook", Crowtorne Berkshire UK, 1988, Transport and Road Research Laboratory. 4. TRRL Overseas Road Note No 9, A Design Manual for Small Bridges", Crowtorne Berkshire UK, 1992, Transport and Road Research Laboratory. 5. Brokonstruktion - en handbok (Bridge Design A Handbook), Publ. no 1996:63, Swedish Roads Authority (Vagverket), Borlange 1996. In Swedish. 6. Design Standard, Ethiopian Roads Authority, compiled May 1993 (1961 - 1989) 7. Design Manual for Roads and Bridges - Vol. 1: Highway Structures: Approval Procedures and General Design, 1998. The Stationary Office Ltd., London. 8. Design Manual for Roads and Bridges - Vol. 3: Highway Structures: Inspection and Maintenance, 1998. The Stationary Office Ltd., London. 9. Ethiopian Building Code Standard (EBCS), Volume 1 Basis of Design and Actions on Structures, 1995. 10. Ethiopian Building Code Standard (EBCS), Volume 2 Structural Use of Concrete, 1995. 11. Ethiopian Building Code Standard (EBCS), Volume 3 Design of Steel Structures, 1995. 12. Ethiopian Building Code Standard (EBCS), Volume 5 Utilization of Timber, 1995. 13. Ethiopian Building Code Standard (EBCS), Volume 7 Foundations, 1995. 14. Ethiopian Building Code Standard (EBCS), Volume 8 Design of Structures for Earthquake Resistance, 1995.

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