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R = 2/ 2 103 = 2200
d
UB
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= 23 104 103 = 23
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107
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t bO?+ s bM$v?+ bO=u v?(OUM?G+ bO+ u? d
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t u UA( UdJ= bMv+ u u0 t
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b fOUMG+ r( t$ v+U~M vOUMG g!U
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uv+ fOUMG+
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b?d?O? d? r? U??+ f?O?U?MG+ t$ v+U~M
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N
fOUMG
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N
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bv+ gU/ DC vJdJ=
u v(OUMG+ XO0U b fOUMG+ r( pd
bMuv+ vLz fOUMG t bM$ kH vu b+ d
b?b? X? X?d? t? u? v?(?O?UMG+ XO0U d
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uv+ d
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bO+ d dO s X v(OUMG+ dO d$ qL s
DC: Direct Current
Ud tKOt Us p vOUMG d d% vM qJ
fOUMG+ d AC UM vJdJ! Ud
fOUMG bO!u d DC Ud dU% qJ
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Us
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qL s dO d d~p XN UAUbO+ U
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UM+ vJdJ= Ud
AC
v? td{ Us p t d X] td{
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U? vU uv+ U VOd rE u r t YU
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r?(? p tKO t uKG uD tO b vL$ vKO
s buv+ c vu dO(+ d$ v U v v(OUMG+ YU vd d rOM$ d Us d Ud
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s rOM$ XEGU+ uKG uD qUI+ v(OUMG+ U+
bv+

sO vOUMG bO bMM$v+ UH fOUMG+b{ UXU 7U d

v?F?{ X?$d? X? bMd v+d sO+
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U?L VD vJe S V?D t$ tGd d v(OUMG+
X vUOGdG uM VD vJe N VD vUOGdG
vOUMG uM
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N
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n!
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s d
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u? d? vF{ X$d XK t UdJ= u

7?U? t$ bv+ dE t sOM bMM$v+ bO=u v(OUMG+ bO+
b?O?=u? v?(?OUMG+ bO+ buv+ r( vGU{ UdJ=
U? r? n?=U???+ v?F?{ U?g?d? U? U?d??J?= v= bM$
t?O(dJ= tO bMM$v+ v?M d~p v(OUMG+
U?L? U? t?$ v+U~M v= X(O v(OUMG+ bO+ s$U
uv+ dd vJdJ= Ud UrO d t U=
v?F?{ U?g?d? U? b?M?u?v?/ t??Gd? XN UdJ=
d? b?MU/ v?M? d?~? p? v?(?O?UMG+ d bMM$ XH=U?+
U?b?O?+ b?M?M?$v?+ X?$d? XN p tL u fJ
f?4U U? b?u?v?+ l?L? r? U U v(OUMG+
d? U?d? q?+U rO t$ d$ nA$ b s?O?d%
t?d?I? d? b?O?+ s? t?$ b?M$v+ bO=u v(OUMG+ bO+ u
cv+ d U/VD
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t? v?UtIK qOJA d~p U rO p tGd XN
p? U? d?O? j? p? UtIK s p d bMv+ rO
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v~( cv+ rO t$ vUd XN t uL v(OUMG+
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t?U?M q?J? o?? d?$ UH X X uU
tdI N VD tAOL rO X$d rO d U/VD
bv+ UA v(OUMG+ bO+ XN U/VD
rO t$ vUd t d dO4 uD r%d v!U~

b?u? d?u q0U v(OUMG+ bO+ u dgO cv+
u?D? b?b Us v(OUMG+ bO+ t$ u UL u
d?O? u?D? s bdpe r t Us vJe dO
r?O? d?g?O? t d bdpe r t eO rO vJe
vJe bO+ tO bdOv+ tK0UG d~p bu
r$d ruv+ d rO e$d+ t d uv+ du rO
uv+ dnOF{ uD
t?D?I? d v(OUMG+ bO+ b d$ h?A+ d
ndF v(OUMG+ bO+ v=U~ Ud q+U rO d
uD bF X U bO v!U~ ndF t UM bMM$v+
bF qJ o bM$v+ u `D b t$ vdO
X??(? r?O e$d+ U tK0UG U `D b dO uD
rOI(+ X( u Ud b U fJ
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UXA~ qJ o tUM d$ UH eO X
X?( XA~ t$ ut rOO rO t X X
X?N? U??A?~? t?OI bt( dO~ d Ud XN
bv+ UA v(OUMG+ bO+
dU
vOUMG bO XN sOOF qJ
X X u4UG UH U
b?O?+ XN sOOF d f s q?J o

d t$ ? r?O? lDI+ Ud q+U rO d v(OUMG+
l?D?I?+ U?d? X?N t$ vu0 rOv+ UA X
X+ U bU cU$ tH0 d t dU d rO
gU/ X+ U bU dU d t rO lDI+ d d
bO+ XN u+ X X uU o uv+
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u bu XU
d1
d2
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U XLt rO Ud
Ud qU rO d dO4 uD r%d qJ
t b t
d d~p d vOUMG UbO qUI d

U? d?~?p? f?J? UXN vUUd t$ rO
d~p U v(OUMG+ UbO+ rOM$ pe r t bcv+
d?~?p? f?J UAdO uD XN d bMM$v+ lG
b?M?M?$ l?D? d?~?p? b?M?u?v?/ dO uD u X
buv+ r UrO b YU UbO+
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bO d% duG qJ
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v?L?O d t?I?K? p? v??O?U?MGdJ! d

r?O? u?? v?JdJ= Ud r tIK u0t
bMu Vd+ u tL rO d v(OUMG+ dO uD
buv+ U d~ d tIK t d p t$ b
b?O?+ p? b?u?v?+ e?$d?L??+ d?O? u?D? t?IK e$d+
bv+ ut v(OUMG+
bMv+ ut v(OUMG+ UVD qL s tO
XN r dO Ud rO sO tF dO4 qJ
u?D t$ d tIK vGd UL VD t$ut
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buv+ t dO uD t$ o??K?+ r t U v(OUMG+ UbO+ rOM$ pe d~p
bO+ buv+ pe d~p t UrO tO buv+
bMM$v+ bO=u du v(OUMG+
Ud
tIK p qNU vOUMG bO qJ
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uD r$d bU dgO u Ud b b d sOMr
u bu du dO
p vLO d sOu p fOUMGdJ! d
bv+ qOJA sOu p u bOO uIK u0 t XN
UtIK v(OUMG+ UbO+ bM$ u vUd sOu s d
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b bu
u bu du

buv+ tGU{ d~p t dgO UbO+ bMU b bOO X? X? u?U? sOu p UVD sOOF d
U t uv+ v(OUMG+ bO+ b du YU qL s t$ U??UXA~ tUM q?J o uv+ UH
fJ X( L sOu u U v(OUMG+ bO+ v=U~ d~ XA~ bOM$ tIK sOu t sOu UtIK Ud XN
dOv+ d N VD XN X(
+ -
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X X u4UG U sOu p VDG sOOF qJ
dO uD t d u e$dL+ u U t(UI+ dgO
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b?O?+ b?U? d?g?O? s?O?u UtIK bF t d
du v(OUMG+ bO+ buv+ lL r U UtIK v(OUMG+
U?t?I?K bF U dO uD r$d sdUM X rOu
rOI(+ X( N sOu
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bO v!U~ d vM t d qJ
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v(OUMG+ bO+ v=U~ sdUM uv+ du v(OUMG+ bO+
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0
50
100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450
dd d Vd vOUMG bO b
vOUMGd U p tB]A vMM qJ
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UB dMG bM$v+ Uu sOU d t d t$ v+U~M
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d? d?M?G b?M?M$v/ c d d~ bMv+ X
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qL s tO buv+ b+ b t( YU U O
dv+ dJ
bOK%
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v(OUMG+ t$d+ dO geG YU d U Ud b U
v?U U d+ s b bu dO uD r$d geG UUN

rEM+ t( v(OUMG+ UuJ=u+ tL t$ XGU bu t+
uD r$d u U Ud b t d f bu
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b?O?+U? s?O?u? t??(? t?B???A?+ v?M?M+ v(OUMG+ bO+
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fOUMG dU%
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t$ b u d~ UbMM$dB+ U+ bMv+ U$ bOH+
dO uv+ v(OUMG+ XO0U YU U Ud u
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rdv+
@?? DC v??O?U?M?G? d??J?! @??4 ?
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t?$ X qB+ vAJ t d s bMM$v+ UH d p
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Xd t bMM$v+ XGU d UfOUMG+dJ=
bMuv+ t! bM$ q0 lD b?u?v?+ sOU U t d Uu YU bMv+ X
uv+ @ tU$ t b+ ut bM$v+ Uu eO gJ
bOM oOI
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Ud dO(+ qJ o d$ q0 U uv+
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v(OUMG+ bO+ rO d v(OUMG+ bO+ p q d? p? j?u? t?$ vUX$UM$ uv+ d dU
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qJ bO+ s bM$v+ U v(OUMG+ bO+ u d dv+ U dU t U v+ uu+ t fOUMG+dJ=
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t? u? b? vF qJ dOOG dO uD bv+ c d bu t$ X(O u b fOUMG+dJ= ju
t??O?? b? U?d? q?+U rO q XOF{ t?$v?+U~M ??+ ? b?M?$ u? U vKO Ud d v= bM$
vK+ t rO VOd sb bMM$v+ rO d tFG dO b??O? + ?? u??v? + U??u??$ U??B? U?? b??M? $v? + e??+d?? u?u?+
XN bdnOF{ UU tOI dO uD t$ uv+ b u? d? t? d? u?v?+ u? vKO v(OUMG+dJ=
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X?N bMM$ bO XNdOOG UXOL$ b$ d t$ vu0 u??v? + l??D? b??+ t??? O? ? b??M?$ U? U?X?$U??M?$
U? XOL$ d XN d U+ d?$ bu dOOG eO tFG dO X?=U? t d bv+ X d fOUMG+dJ=
d$ bu? dOOG dO XN u u r U? d?M?G ju UB U X=U s dv+d
U? u? d?d? qJA+ t$ v+U~M X b tU~
b??+ X?=U? t? u?v?+ b?+ UB
d$ UH
fOUMGdJ!
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Ud qU rO d vOUMG bOd qJ
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d$ bO
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n$ t dO uD t$ rOM$ U u X d
I U?d? q?+U? rO Ud XN B b?e?d X
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vJdJ! uu UA bO!u qJ
U p d qJ o U ud4
v(OUMG+ d rO X$d Us v(OUMG+ bO+ q
U? l?L& XN p UdJ= X$d YU Us
t?%d dO4 bO!u b? s uv+ U d p
q0 d+ X=vKO+ rO d t d U bMuv+ vUI!
tdI sOU d t rO X$d U t$ uv+ bUA+ rOM$
tdI U d t rO X$d U XN p d+X= vKO+
X?N? d?O?OG U t$ rdOv+ tO bM$v+ X$d n=U?+ XN
VKD+ s bM$v+ dOOG vUI= t$d+ dO XN rO X$d
X U0 eO dO uD XN dOOG u+
X%dU!
vUI!
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rO X%d
sOU d t rO X%d
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p t$ uv+ YU v(OUMG+ UbO+ qUI+ d bM$ u
t bM$ X$d sOU d t d~ XL U d t XL
UA bO=u uv+ dO XH $ t d~ U
t$ X vJdJ= Uuu+ U$ U bMdG s bM$v+
`?O?{u? U qBH+ ut vJdJ= UsOU+
rOu
b tHN
sOu
tdI
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X n$ d qJ o uv+ UH X X
b?e?d? X? n$ t dO uD t$ rOM$ U u X
bU X( XA~ XN rO X$d XN t$vu0
b?u? U??A?~? dU XN vUI= t$d+ dO XN
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t?u/ p q?J? d? U? v?FM0 Us uv+
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X(O v(OUMG+dJ= bO+
bOM$ ndF uKG uD
X(O vu+ vLz UfOUMG+ sO UH
bM$v+ sOOF uU b$ Ud q+U U p d v(OUMG+ bO+ XN
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bM r vJdJ# qU b p
b Ò{u p d tHO d U vJdJ# b vK3 e
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DC=Direct Current
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off
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A
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l
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Al 0/ 625
Al 0/ 625
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=
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56
1
1
v?U?u? d? U bMUv u?B?H? vJdJ
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eK uBH Xb t5UI

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s?OM uBN? X?b U tD bMv gUL
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v?J?d??J? X?U?I? l?d? d??v?K?O? p? l?D?I? `?D?
bMUv uBH
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1/08
1
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0/625
0/312
eK uBH XUI t5UI
0/149
0/121 0/116 0/081
s5~M
s
lK
u
d
uO
(Al) rOMOu
0/018
dI
(Cu) f
uL o nKN eK uBN Xb t rb

u? U? s?O?L uv bOM f t X8
? u?L? U?? u?v? e?O? u??B?N XUI
gUL f eK t X8 eK dU v8 uBN XUI
bv
0/275
f t X5 nKH eK uBH Xb uL
54/6
rO p vJdJ XUI d dR qu
Ud dOb tDI
1 cm
8/62
8/2
6/67
3/62
3/2
1/38
1/59
s
lK
f t X5 nKH eK uBH XUI uL
XUI b
U? t? v?U?L?# b?M?L?A p U?U? b?
U UU Ub u vUgU r uLO u
n?A? v?JdJ# XUI XOU u vLN UJ
r U t XUI b hN s vbD d d
X b bOU
qO8U X t X U XUI r p
b bM u d p UF vUd b X# p
bMv gUL X U XUI
d
X
1 cm
XUI lDI `D dOQ qJ

r ndF qJ
u
d
uO
0/92 1/00
2 cm
12/76
dI
f
rOMOu
s5~M
tO UN UO8 UU vJdJ# Ud u
U? e?K? r?A? d? t?#u?# s? d X t#u# p U u
U?r? u?v? d?g?O? X?U? s bU vKNKN U
bMMv dOuK UdJ# u U rO bMqOJA
U? U?u?J?#u? u?? l?U? e?K? r?A? U?O?# t uUL
d?O? t? UU XUI t rOMO rOuv U buv
v~8 d~ qu t t eK fM
bI vJdJ XUI d U lDI `D dOQ
v~8 rO uu UdJ# bF t vJdJ# Ud
UdJ# bF rOuv rO d rON{ U sdUM
bu vJdJ# Ud dgO bI U rOM dgO
bM u
q dvU d UH t f tFDD p
U?H? t v8 tFDD dd vJdJ# Ud dOb
f? f vd qUD dJ# dvU d
tUM bMv Xb Ud dgO U dd UH t
Xb XOKUD bU dd bdv U t t v8 tFDD UMN
qJ uv nB XUI dd
UA U u V8d XUI dOOG qJ

U lDI `D t X8 XUI dOOG qJ
XUI u U U u bD d uL s o bv g?e lDI `D bDd uL s o bv gUL
bUv ge
uv dr vJdJ# XUI bMv bO
R
XUI
rO XUI
rO u
rO lDI `D
rO u t XUI dOOG uL qJ
U lDI `D V5d XUI dOOG uL qJ
t uUL U vJdJ XUI vK@ tD

U XUI rOM U L rO p u d rOH D
r? X?U?I? r?O?M r rO u d fJd uv

uv
X?U?I? r?OM dd ?? r?O u d
r?O?I??8 X8 u U rO p XUI f rd dd
qJ
u?B bU v?JdJ XUI d U u dOQ

v# uv dX Ud u U u ge U t bOM
d?g?O? b?F? d?b?MK f tFDD p t d X8O sOM
u vU{ UdJ# v# u dJ#
lD buvL q vJdJ# Ud dOb rO
rO td XUI vMOF bI U sOF u d
X dgO eO XUI bU dqu
1cm
dd vUI eK tFD s

n
1cm2
eK tFD s
2cm
1cm
rO XUI d u ge d qJ
XUI A lDI `D d tU{ U uv sOMr

e XUI d lDI `D dr U d r
XUI U u dOQ qJ
mm2
m
m
mm2
V8 d uBN XUI
V8 d uBN Xb
n?B? X?UI rOM dd rO lDI `D d

fJ X8 lDI `D U XUI rOuv tO uv
qJ
l?D?I? `?D? U? d u? t? v?8? r?O U?

d??H?
1cm
m
)
= 56(
.mm2
u??B? N? X?b? 4mm2

X r bM rO vJdJ# XUI X
1cm
1cm
2cm
n
L
112
R=
=
=0/ 5
.A 56 4
R =0/ 5
rO XUI d lDI `D ge d qJ
vL vJdJ# XUI p sU d U
u? d?d? l?D?I? `D dd rO u d
2
U?O u 1/ 5mm l?D?I? `?D? U? v?L?OMOu# rO d bM qJ d buN dOOG vKD XOF{ t X8 vJdJ# XUI
m
bU Al = 35( .mm
2 ) t vu3 X
R=
.A
10=
35 1/ 5
L = 10 35 1/ 5
L = 525m
t lD vJdJ XUI d d d
U X U3 U U tL b tH XUI u
d?O?O?G? e?K? tOK XUI bI dgO U dr UU
U?H? nKN eK d d d XUI dOOG bMv
t d ndF vd{ eK d d bU sdUM X
t p t XUI dOOG bMUv vd Vd{
g?UL U? bMuv vd Vd{ dvU
XUI ts vMF bU = 0/004 d U d bMv
U ge r [ dvU t p t r8
ge d dd vL8 vJdJ# XUI d bUv gU
X?U?I gU u3 X v?d Vd{ bU
e?K? u? u? b?u vHM v?d? Vd{
bMUv NTC u PTC
PTC = Positive Temperature Coefficient
2cm
1cm
2
1cm
2cm
n
rO XUI d lDI `D u ge d qJ
X?b? u?B?N? X?U?I? n?d?F? s? g?O

b v~8 U fM t UdU s t rOH uBN
rO fM u lDI `D U XUI vK tD sdUM
bMv UA d Uud U
R =
L
A
R=
L
.A
tD s
V8 d rO XUI R
d V8d rO u L
ld dvKO V8 d rO lDI `D A
NTC Negative Temperature Coefficient
1
= 0/004 0
C
XUI
R t = R0(1+ t) =100(1+0/004 250)

R t = 200
b p vJdJ UXUI
U??# l??M? p? t? v?J?dJ# U p t bOM d
b? b? gO vUd X sJL vU rd q3
v?J?dJ# U XUI t bv UH s vU u U
Ud b bU U vKO lM vd U# U r vKO
sJL U s uLF U d r uv lM U# d r U
rOM tU{ b t vUI t X s UNM sdUM X8O
bM r Ud U
d t
n X vd Vd{
XUI
rO XUI
d t
vHM vd Vd{
lM
tcG
U Ud
U XUI
vHM X vd Vd{ U U5 uL qJ
b UXUI qJ
vJdJ# U t XUI d tU{ U uv U s

v?J?dJ# U XUI vd U U j UrO U
UNM f dOOG uvL b rOEM vDd V8d
UrO s XUI v# X j UrO XUI dOOG
U bU rO duKO sbM b bU t X r bD
u tU{ b t r b3 bM XUI
rdO~ U t v bU qJA s l d sdUM
t?U?{ b t uN# XUI bI d rOu vU t t
rOb bL dOOG Ub Ub ts b rOM
vJdJ# b d3UM UXUI rOM u Ub#u U
U?H?? u uEM s t vUX d t bM8 vJu
bdOv dD
sOM d ge d r8 p XUI sdUM

b bu
R t = R0 m R0 t
d?O?O?G bI R0 t t? d?H?3 XUI R0 t?

V8 d R0 R0 t tD u X XUI
vd Vd{ U?e# X 0C V8 d U ge t
R0 qD b d tD d u bu 1 V8d
0
C
X rOu rdO~ uU

R t = R0(1m t)
t? d?H?3 v?L?O? v?J?d??J?# XUI U?

t? t? r?O? U? d? X? r d?v??U
u?v? r? b?M? v?J?d??J?# X?U?I? bd d?v??U
rO XUI
lM
tcG
Ud
dDv
U R
d XUI
b t XUI e qJ
UU d
qJ
dO8#ld UUDD XU VKD s V#U dU

t? U?U?D?D t?us vUtuL X UM UUDD U
581km h Xd U b tU s O U
bO d UH Ut UUDD s bMv Xd
dO8#ld UUDD X#U s X b UH v8OUMG
vUL tK3U q U dvU bM uLF Xd U
qJ bMMvL bO q U
vd U vMOF U U nKN eK U d

v? t? b??v? U?H? U? v?d~ bb r sOU
U vUNU ut d Ud u dd eK XUI bI
d t qb UeK t X jd s bUv gU dH3 b
t? u?d jI vUU d X#U t qb b? bMu UU
bv UH eO h#UU uO X#U s tJK uvL eK
e?K? d?3UM vLO U??d?I? t? X? b hNA uMU
sOU Ud t UpOd UUO# vd sOML
buv UU d
UU d dU@
qJ
v?8?O?U?M?G bO b UU d qD d U d
tUM bMv u v8OUMG bO uD dO dD
U?U? d? b?d? vd U t v8OUMG bO uC
bMvL u v8OUMG bO uD tuO d~ u
UUd tFDD p Us tFDD p qJ
bMuv UUU d rOH U t vO3U o X UM
t? u?U?L bMM Ud U t fOUMG bO uD
X t t~ UM v8OUMG dD rOMOv
g
b U X u oU p [ v8 Xb Vd{ U eK
bDt XUI rOM dd t lDI `D d XUI r hNA dBM p
uv
bOM ndF vd Vd{
bO Ò{u dOQ vd Vd{ rO u U
uv UH v t b Ud dM d
vHM U X X f vd Vd{
uv td dE vUdU t b XUI tU d
bMv dOOG t XUI u d v8 rO p d

sdL
Cu
= 56
m
. mm2
Cu tU X uKD bU
Cu
=0/0178
. mm2
m
UM XL8D UN s U rOMv rO8I U8 XL8D UN t l u t v8 rO p

v?JdJ# XUI U rOMv UH U vUUN qU q b rO u3 t rcv r
rOMv dEd3 gO dU t u gU U U uv r tO# X#U t X8 rO s
r?O?Ov 1/ 5mm2 l?DI `?D? t? v8 rO d??vU d?D?D t? tu
X bDt OrO s vJdJ# XUI
m
Cu = 56
0/18
. mm2
X?U?I X r X?UI? d??vKO [ d?? p? u? t? q?J?O? d rO p dDD
= 1/18 = 0/ 85
bOM bO uBN Xb uBN
bU ge bU bDt U rOM tU{ b3 vLO XUI ts d
1
= 0/004 o
dvU t dH3 rO tO# U
C
t =100o C
sL{ u s d t d X 50 dvU t dH3 vDd u p XUI
1
R = 50/ 75
uv bDt XUI bd 75o C t d U
= 0/0002 o
C
rA qB
r uU
U$ Ub
v! UE2 udM qB s UU

b%uM u!d nK0! UqJ bM ndF r u2U4
bM tOu r u2U4 qJ t d uNH! nK0! qzU%! dq U
bM tU! d~ XOL uuKF! d t X!UI! U Ud b dUI! p d
+
U
vJdJ b qJ
r uU nK" UqJ

X?u?2 u?v?! e?O?2 d?~? u?G t r u2U4
U U U? X? U%! X!UI! tD s
R=
U
I
Y?U? U?? r?O??H? g?O? U?q?B? t?u?U?L

U X!UI! uv! t% b! vJdJ Ud bU
tD X!UI! Ud U sO bMv! XH U0! Ud u
r? u?L?O u U? s?O??%02 tD s u
X!UI! b r u2U4 tD s qO sOL t d nA
X?!U?I?! d? t? b?O? t??O2 s t r b2UN2 U2 r eO2
b?U? g?e? l??M?! U bI! u t t~2 XU b!
U?d b U gU sOMr uv! U Ud b
b?! p? t? X?U? r? d?~? U? t bMv! r
d?~ nA rOI%! X%2 U U Ud b DC
X!UI! bI! u t U~2 XU lM! U d t u s
r U VOd sOL t uv! r Ud b bU ge b!
t? s?O? s?d?UM bUv! ge Ud b X!UI! d
t u tD Ud b X!UI! U XOL
DC b?! p? t?G? u?t? r?O?!U2v! r? u?U
u?JF! X%2 X!UI! U rOI%! X%2 U U Udb
X U%! U U t U = I. R U Ud I d rO%I
Ud VOd sb X!UI! R d{ Udb I U
b?O?2uv! bO2b X!UI! U Ud XOL t XOL
b Xt v2Ut u XOL
q?U?4 r? u?2U??4 q?J? t? U d q?J?
X?A?~?2 U? UX! bd qJ s X UH
U
t
X
qJ t r u2U4 v{U tD
I=
bv! UA2 b U XOL tD d~ r bO2Uu
R
bv! Xt vt uN! bI! I r V%d X!UI! R X V%d U U
X d! V%d Ud b

X?!UI! U! Ud q?J b! d U
b?u? X?!U?I?! b?O?K? b?t?% uG U bU d!
Xu
v u/
U
I
U
R
I R
X
I= U
R
qJ
R=U
I
U = IR
u/ r uU qJ t qJ
tU! r u2U4 UH U b! Ud b b
rOMv!
U 100
I= =
R 20
Ud tU
I = 5A
U??! U?d? u d! b?! U?d? b u

vKJA! X!UI! d sdUM X dpu d! X!UI!
uv/ X!UI! bv/ ut
X!UI! U! Ud qJ b! d U
X?!U?I?! b?OK bt% uG U bU d! vL
Xu bu
X
b?! t? v?2U?d b bI! X u!

X!UI! U UXOL 7 U u tU! bMv! u
tU! uv! vt Ud b r u2U4 UH U
X s X% Ut uv! u! s t vu d
X vOL uN! rO hO0A UuN! UuKF! t
d4 t UF! d uLF! rOM bO rOuv! t
r? U? b?I! t bM% vUXOL UuKF! dOv!
b2dOv! d4 t UF! X d uLF!
X U dd U qJ b! d U
b?! U?d? b u UL r d?d? v?!UI! d t
X b4t
X
qJ
Xt r u2U4 UH U b! Ud b b
rv! t UF! bU X uN!I qJ
Ud b t v4
U 100
I =10A
I= =
R 10
d UH I = U
R
b d! X!UI! u Ud b u
b?u? X!UI! sdUM X dgO d! U! Ud
Xu
I=
I=
10
5
I = 2A
XUI tU
bt v2Ud r X!UI! t v! d U
X? b?M lM! U q?J? t? tu U bM u d! t?D UH U r u2U4 tKOt X!UI!
X
d tU! uv! R = U
I
X!UI! tU! U b! VUM! X!UI! U02 d

d UH r u2U4 uv! vt U
d! Ud b qJ b! d U
X b4t b! X!UI! bM u X!UI!
U 60
R = 20 b! X!UI!
R= =
I
3
d
qJ
U = I. R =1 100
U =100V
d qJ b! U??! dU tUM U
U?? b?M? U b! d! [ U?d? v?ud d
X tU gU eO! t t lM!
qJ
r
d [
d! b! Ud b rOu0 U! d U
qJ dO d4 b! bU v!UI! t u
R=
qJ
d
X
U 60
=
6
I
R =10
U = I. R =0/ 5 100
U = 50V
vud X U lM! U
U X
100 50= 50V
X
d
qJ
U tU
t? D? U??H? ? U?? r? u?2U?4 U?d? U??
d tU! uv! U = I. R
X dU vK X!UI! ge d d vud XKt lM! U gU
g
bOM UO U% t r u2U4
Ud b bM tcG r X!UI! t U X dU p t bOM r b!
b Xt b!
bOM UO uv! dd R b tH vJdJ Ud U t vuG
b2U0 XU vJdJ Ud t bU bU b4t b! U u dd b! X!UI! d
X b4t b! t Ut U db X d! r X!UI! p Ud b
U = 200V
d bu dOOG t Ud u 14 b! X!UI! bU XU U tUM
b2U0 v4U uGt Ud U b! bU dOOG t u 14 b! X!UI! d
bu vJdJ Ud d t r t~2 XU U tUM b! p X!UI! ddd
U d U b bu U Ud dOOG t rt~2 XU X!UI! rOM nB2 U d X
b bu qGU Ud dOOG t rOM dd X!UI!

sdL
X!UI! s v2Ud t X b X dd U vL X!UI! p d t

I =0/ 6A
bMv! u
X b4t vL X!UI! p d! [ dd v2Ud u d U
U = 6V
Ud bI! uv! t X dd U X!UI! r dd ! p
I =0/ 8 A
bOM U% u
X U lM! d r qOJA b! d!d! p U lM! p ! p
lM! U t d bOM sOOF b! X!UI! bI! bu UA2 d! [ bI! d!d! rOM UO
bu UA2 bI! t d!d! rO d4 v U lM! v
R =16 I = 2 / 25A
U = 4V bMv! U d!vKO! U dd v2Ud vL X!UI! U t
t v2Ud d X X bM qL% b2uv! vL [ X!UI! p t U db
d X bu Ud s qL% X!UI! s U c~ d! b
rN qB
vJdJ u U
U$ Ub
v! UE2 udM qB s UU
b Ò{u u U uNH!
bM ndF vJdJ u U Ub
d U2 vJdJ u d2 Z Ub
b Ò{u u UHK uNH!
bM ndF U U!b2
bM tU! UX!UI! b bO u d bI!
bM tU! U!b2 d d2 u t ud! qzU%!
U! b b U$ U bI! X U u rOM
t? X s X dE2 uL bU t vLN! tJ2
bU bOH!dO U bOH! X sJ2 b! p b U$ U
b2dOv! b2 u UM! d U U$ Xd X U d
v?4d? U qGU U!d sOMr vJdJ uu! d
U?r?O? b? U?? U!d d~ d X bOH! U
t?K?O?t d b2bOH!dO U vUt2u/ UX!UI! j
d u t v!U~M uv/ U$ bOH! qL O U!d s
bMuv! b nK u uv! dB! bOH!dO U
p? u?u! b2Ud d t bv! UA2 qJ
t? v?u?G X? v?L UO% u vJdJ XU
dB! U u bU v4d U0 tKOt U!d bO u d
u
u UB nUF
t?c?G lM! b tH gO UqB tuUL
sO!Q bMM dB! d vJdJ d2 vJdJ b! p
UH U U$ d lM! d2 U bMMdB! bMv!
d?B?! d?2 b?M?M?d?B?! U U$ U~M bMv!
U t b2uv! v U UdU t X XK sOL t bMv!
bU$ U bI! d u U bU U b2 UO2 b!
Xd UO t d2 t bMMdB! tKOt
nK0! UU d~ Ut v~% d2 s UH
U%! U p U$ d d2 sOF! bI! 7UO U
vCF sdUM bMMv! dB! vUH! UU! d2
U? U? r?O2b t s d bMMv! U sdU dbM UU
ndF vJdJ u XOL bU bv! U$ U vd t
bOM eO2 hp U0 V V%d uLF!

vJO2UJ! u
X UF! U0 V d uv!
u UF
U VOd f P = U.I v?JdJ u tD
Xu2 uv! eO2 d~ UqJ t r u2U4 j
P = U.I
U = RI
U
I=
R
vd U" vJdJ XU d u eO qJ

P = RI.I
U
P = U.
R
P = RI2
vJdJ UB b
U2
P=
R
t X U bI! X vJdJ U b
tO%dJ s u p vUtU d X p qO%2U
s u u YU X qO%2U d bv! U$
vJdJ X!UI! bI! qJ b! U
bOM tU! vdB! u s? X? b? U$ U r?O?u?v?! u? t?O%dJ
U?A2 W = q.U t?D? o?d uv! V UD!
s u V%d u U q V%d d2 W tD s
d
p t b dUt X X V%d qO%2U U
X
R
b! tDI2 p tO%dJ s u p u U X dd d!
qJ
uv! b d tD VOd f I = qt tO2U p
R=
U 9
=
I 3
R = 3
Xu2
W = I. t.U
P = U.I = 9 3
P = 27W
vJdJ u b
u Ud b bI! qJ b! U
u? U rd ndF ? 4 vJdJ u
bOM tU! X!UI! vdB!
j? t? t?u? U? f? U?! b? b U$ U eO!
X rOu btH
r
X
qJ
I=
U 27
=
R 27
P = RI2 = 27 12
I =1A
P=
P=
I. t/ .U
t/
P = U.I
uv! eO2 uG sb vJdJ u b sdUM

UF! v2Ud b X qO%2U U d d ndF
p b! bdB! u bM u b! d!
bMv! gU/ W U u b X
P = 27W
q?J? v?4d u vdB! u Ud b U

t?U! P = RI2 t?D? u?v! u UHK
bOM tU!
X!UI! R V%d u UHK P tD s d
u?! l?U?M?! v?K? X?!U?I! j UrO vJdJ
Ud b I r V%d UOrO X!UI! Uuu!dJ
vd u XUI
X
o?d? b?n?K u gU X d! V%d u
vL
X!UI! gU Ud b d r X dcUJ!
qJ
j UrO
Udb u Ud b dBrB
U 100
I =10A
I= =
U?? U?L? U f v~% bMMdB! u t u
R 10
bMMdB! v gU u uv! dr
P = RI2 =10 102
P =1000W
sdUM bu02 U$ dE2 u! U X%O2 v!U2 u
X%O2 vUM! U gU
b! vL X!UI! vdB! u lM! U U
U02 U j UrO XUI gUB
bOM tU! qJ
v?J?d??J? X?!U?I?! u?v?! rO VUM! fM lDI! `D
I2 . R u UHK uG s gU j UrO
vJdJ UU~ vCF bUv! gU bI! sdr t
U
d
r
X?!U?I! tKOt b U U!d v4d U0 u bM2U!
d?E?2 b???n?K? u? uv/ X bOH! u
Xd
qJ
bOM tU! ! bOH! u qJ U
U = R.I = 2 8
r
U
P = RI2 = 2 82
U =16V
P =128W
d
u UHK
qJ
P = RI2
P =10 22
P = 40W
U?? b??M? U??A? 2 b??! p?? b?d?B?! u?

X dE2 bU v X b! U! b bU$
XKt tJK uv/ bOH! U U$ dG vdB! u tL t
U? U?? l??M! j UrO vJdJ X!UI! u
vJdJ b! d t d bU b bu u
bd q4b t bnK u bI!
vL X!UI! u UHK qJ U
bOM tU!
U
r
d
qJ
P = RI2
nK" UtUUB bOu XUI bM qJ
X?!UI! d qL% qU4 U! Ud b U

X b4t U! u U r
I=
P
4
=
= 2A
R
1
vuLF t u eO
t? ? 7?%~M fM U!O p v uLF! !
?! t? v??4 X? b? qOJA d4 tAO U
V bMv! u q t v2Ud u UL U
s dB! qGU U!d uv! I2. R u dB!
bOH @2 t uv! ! U!O t X b t u
u? d? d?g?O? t? td b2UUv! u2 u bv!
bMrO%I d VOd s t X dgO bUv! t u2
UUN2 U!d YU t U vdB! u vJdJ U!
?! bMMbO u Ut2UU bMMv! UH uv! u2
v!U2 U V%d I2. R v?U!d u bI! eO2
d?g?O? U??! v?d?B! u eO! t d bMMv! X !
u bu dU bM2UUv! u t u2 bI! bU
t?? ! bM vdB! u eO! ? qJ
bOMv! bUA! b2uv! tcG X U U v~L t
P = 40W
v?U I2. R t? r?O?Uv! U?U??! t? tu U

d uG t l4u! dgO ! X bOH! u
v! b t j UrO bOH!dO
I = 2A
U& d! X!UI! u Ud t vuG

uv! DG t bMOv! t!bG X!UI! bM
P =10 22
UXUI U u
vMOF! b Ud b d X!UI! p t rO2v!
7u DG t X!UI! 7sO U vd U dU
bMv! U I2. R u d s b rOu tu!
X!UI! d sdUM rO2v! V%d bnK u t
d bM UA2 t X U! u U u db p
X 7sO 7u q4 I2. R tKOt b U
d d?d U! u U X!UI! p t XUMF! t s
dgO P = I2. R vdB! u t dO d4 b!
X!UI! p U! u d Xu bu bU
X!UI! tKO t t v2Ud b db rOu0 rO2b
rOM UH d tD rO2uv! rOM bO X qL% qU4
I=
P
R
!U uv/ tu2 UX!UI! b4 b2 uLF!

U?b?2 X? h?O?0A qU4 U vJeO b2
u2 t t% jI t2 X!UI! d b UH vJeO
b?Mv! d eO2 nK0! Ut2UU bO u tJK X UH!
XdN bU sdUM bU u hO0A X sJ2 f
d dM nK0! Ut2UU bO u UX!UI! UB0A!
dOOG U! u2 uv! U rOEM XOGU s p? d? U?!?O? X?!U?I?! Ud b U??

U tL v!U2 U t vuG qJ U!
bOM tU! bU X
r?A t W V d?UI! v! U?

bOM tU! X!UI! Ud b uv!

Ud b X eO! t U gU uG
uv! b4t ! ju bc u
P = U.I
200= 220 I
R=
U 220
=
I 0/ 9
U 180
I= =
R 244
I=
200
220
R = 244
I =0/ 73A
P = RI = 244 0/ 73
2
I =0/ 9A
bM v$dB u qJ
W !
R=
U 220
=
I 0/ 45
R = 488 / 8
W !
P = U.I
60= 220 I
I =0/ 27A
R=
uudJ U Ub bOH u
100= 220 I
I =0/ 45A
P =130W
Ud X t X U gU d f
bUv! qOKI d! [ eO! t VOd t u
uv! dr U vUM ! vUM
P = U.I
U 220
=
I 0/ 27
R = 814 / 8
vJO2UJ! uGt t bOH! u eO! Uuu!dJ
W ! P = U.I 40= 220 I
I2. R U??O?r?O bnK u bI! t uv! tz
u?? U?d b I U??O?rO X!UI! R v?~?%
I =0/18A
2
b?O?H?! u? b?U dgO I . R b?4 d? t? U?M?F! sb X
U 220
R= =
I 0/18
t X s d vF Uuu!dJ sdUM bUv! gU
R = 1222 / 2
d~ UHK I2. R dO t t bU r bnK u bI!
UB0A! uLF!
u Uuu!dJ
bG t U!b2 U0 V V%d bOH! u Uuu!dJ
d?g?O? u U ! XU U U t?O
UHK uu!dJ vJdJ u od s uv! tu2
fJd X dr X!UI! dgO Ud b
V?K?D?! s?d?9 d? U? b?M?M?v?! tU! vt vK
u t P2 bOH! u X%2 U!b2 uv! ds U?d? b? v??! d? U?? ge uG f
gU/ U v2U2u d U t X P1 uu!dJ b U gU dd sOMr uv! ! uv! dgO
bMv! UH U bUv! gU eO2 vUM uv! r u Ud
vdB! d2 U s d rOMv! UH XU uKO U?0? V u?u?!d??J? b?O?H! u U?

X (0/1kW 1=)0/1kWh dd U! u! ! vK UHK u X bG U!b2
X u?u?!d?J s U t vuG bOM tU!
X b4t Ud b bU
v$dB d XLO tU
P
P 1 736
X? v?U? q? v?d?B! d2 XLO4 tU! d
= 2 P1 = 2 =
P1
0/ 85
t??U??! vJdJ tKO d vdB! d2 bI! b
P1 = 866W b4
Xt q vdB! d2 VOd s t rOM lL r U f
d{ kWh d? X?L?O4 q vdB! d2 U bv!
P = P1 P2 = 866 736
u tU! vdB! d2 UN U rOMv!
vK UHK
P =130W
peO vdB! d XLO4 tU! u2 U
P
866
P1 = U.I I = 1 =
I = 3 / 9A
bb UM
U 220
vd d tU
vJdJ d dOb
vd d2 bb2u peO t t2uUL

V?%?d? v?4d? d?? s?d? b?M2U! U!d qU
[ U!d d U p bO u d bMMv! tU! d U
d?? U? Q b??O? u?? d?? f?? X?? U??O? 2 v??J?d??J? d?2
rOu sdUM u bu UO2 u! [ Q d
Q =0/ 24W qJ t tD s W = 4 /18Q X
Xu2 uv! eO2
Ut2UU UU~d UM! vdB! d2 dOb2

dA! d uv! U$ d uM U2t vU~ tKOt
U?$ vJdJ d2 tKOt t U bI! Ud
U$ U Xd t rO2v! bM Xd u vGK! bU X
tU! d sdUM b2dOv! b2 V%d b
d d{ u dB! u! U! bU b U$ U q
b?U? s? X?U? p? b! v ?! p? d ? !
u?v?! X?U 100 1=100 ?! v?d?B! d2
U t qO sOL t X vJu b XU
W = P. t = RI2t
Q =0/ 24RI2t
g
bOM ndF Ub
X bM XU uKO p
bOM UO kW hp V% d u bMv! dB! u uu! p
[hp [kW
U bU dr bU t Ut ! u rOM bO u dgO u2 U d s d rOu0 d
d dgO
v!uNH! t b nK I2R

sdL
U!O X!UI! X vdB! u bMv! U X U U v!

bOM U%
322 / 6
b4t d qG u U vL X!UI! p d t uv! t U rLeU!
X
V
[AX b4t qL% qU4 Ud X vLuKO X!UI! U! u
! u Ud b rOMv! qG X U t v v ! p
bOM U% X U s
[A W
r bM q UrO X!UI! bMv! dB! u v v4d u p
bUv! gU bG bM u u bU gU bG U d X
88 [
u X d dB! d2 tO2U tIO4 p b! vJdJ uu! p
X U0 V bM bOH! b4 bU uu! s U!b2 t vuG X b4t vU
P1 = 500W P2 =0/ 54hp
qOId s u d X d UtU U s tIO4 b! vJdJ qOId p
b2Uv! dB! t vJdJ d2 bI! t U s p vUtU d bU

bI! bMv! u tIO4 b! t d! b t v2Ud r X!UI! t v4d u p
bOM tU! d UuKO V%d u b U U!d
[kcal
dv2U t t t dO XU b! vJdJ sd p
d2 bI! t bI! s d d d bU sd s u t vuG b2Uv!
d2 bI! X b dG d2 bI! t dO d dd d X d dB! vJdJ
X u b4t dv2U t p t dO vdB!
kWh [kWh [kWh
r qB
vL UXUI d UB
U) Ub
v UE< udM qB s UU
bM ndF UXUI d UB
bM ndF d XUI bM UF XUI
bM UH U= Ud tU d r u<U
b Ò{u d b U= lu v~<u~
bM UO XUI d UB dU
b Ò{u vJdJ= qO:<U u v:<
bM tU d XUI bM UF XUI
dO Ut d b nNdO UU= u<U
b Ò{u d b u
d U< d b UB_A sO<u
bM tU d b u Ud
b Ò{u tD d U d Ub q vdB u tU u<
Xd Xd U~M X q d~ s UN< t s p

vL UXUI d UB
qJ X U:J Us tL U?M UO? u?B? X?U?I? v?JeO XOL U ?
uv U U UH U UXUI s bb
XUXUI d UB U s vJ UB rt
dOv d vd u qB s t
bF UD t bb bOU d dU: UD U d
t?UA bM<uv Us uv qOJA uOuuJ= p s
s? d u U:U< u bMU pu e U
Us UB u U dU: U U qL gUM
b?? v?M?F X d rd XA u t d~p t
buv t d u t Us UD' qJ
X v v rd XA lU U UO UMF t v:OK~< U d
t?L?K? t? b?M?v? g?U/ R d? U? X?U?I

dUI U XUI bM gU/ d X b td Resistor
b?MMv h_A n U U?fb< U U UH vL

t??:? rt d ut q?J? U?XUI U d
c?U?< u?d? f?b?< R t?B?_?A? X?? U? b?
b<bd
X? d? X?=U? d?~? t?<u?/ e?O?< d?O?$

Us bM<U dO$ UtIK uv qOJA U UtIK
vdO< tUM b< UB d~p t d u t UD
t?L? t? U?:?J? u?t? u? d?O$t v=u XN
qJ uv qIM UtIK
R5
R1
R2
R3
R4
R6
R7
tcG lM
bb d R7 U R1 UXUI B A UI sO n<
C
tcG lM
R1
R2
R3
R6
R5
R4
dO$ UtIK u d gU/ qJ
uv U< sOL eO< UXUI 7: d d

d?~pt u rd XA XUI bM d t VOd sb
p? b?M? qOJA Ud u d v t b<u qB
qXUI d b UXUI 7d d VOd
d~p U UXUI UB uv X d vUI b
U?( X?UI d d u t b< dOQ b
X UD Us U dO$ Ut< UB bM<UL
U b U d b< vUH d~ p U b 7dd XUI bM dU duB b U/ qJ
qJ b<dOv/ dE< vUN<
bv UA< b d
bb d R6 U R1 UXUI D C UI sO
d UXUI qJ
R1
R2
R3
R3
R4
dU
R3
R2
R2
R1
I
R1
R4
dU
d UB UXUI vUtU qJ
d XUI bM dU b U/ qJ
UR 1
UR 2
d b Ud
UR 3
R 1 = 10
R 2 = 20
R 3 = 5
E = 90V
dU
R 4 = 10
UD Xd bM<UL Ud b
d b p
d b Ud vMF X U:J b UI< tL
X dd tDI< UL b U Ud U d b tDI<
b p nK_ UI< qJ oUD d sdUM
bMv UA< Ud p tL rO d vUdd d
A1
UR 4
A2
R1
1A
1A
1A
E = U R1 + U R2 + U R 3 + U R4
1A
R2
1A
90 = 20+
+ 40+
+ 10+
+ 20
A3 1A
A4
UXUI d UB U b U< dOb qJ
1A
R3
1A
dU
b p dX= ju b dOb< UU=

vUI d bMU< U: UXUI d t bOLN uv d
X de eO< d U= X bU dgO bI t
U??= X? d?r? X?U?I bI t vUI fJd
bI U UXUI d U= X X dr eO< d
U=R.I r u<U o X dd U:
rOI: X:< t d b lM U= tO
XUI vMF uv rO:I b UXUI bI
U??= d??L? X?U?I? d?AO U= dAO
X dL
d b UI tL Ud b
u UJ qJ
d b U<
U9 u vB_A U= XUI p d t d
q?J? o?U?D? b?M?v X XUI d U=
b?< u?v dX= pL t XUI d U= bI
X dd XUI d U= U lM U= l Xd
dX<
UR
UR= E
d b XUI
U_< vUI p uv d XUI bM Ut
d XUI bM XUI uL U XUI bI t d
dOv d d XUI bM Ut t vUI bU dd
u?v bOU< XUI bM UF XUI U q XUI
s?e~U R T X?U?I tUM bMv gU/ R T U
d bu_< dOOG b Ud u b UXUI
e? b? t? X?U?I bM U p d d b
7?t~< XU d c= uv r b Ud b d
b? t?d?? d?O?< t? b?U? ? v?K b Ud b?
vF' b n<
b qJ
R
E
R
E
dU
XUI d U< dOb qJ
tL lM U= bU U UXUI bF tUM

UU= X dX= U d t ut uv rO:I U
l??M? U?= rOM lL rU rdO~ b< UXUI d
bOMv bUA XOF s qJ bv Xt
RT = R 1 + R 2 + R 3 + . . . + R n
UXUI bF d tU{ U d b sdUM e

bv UA< s uv r Ud b
lM U= u XU
R
R
R
R
d X tU ge b q XUI U UF XUI t

E
u?v? t? v??U?I? v?MF UF XUI tU
XUI n U d b qJ
b? t? v?dt d UXUI tuL se~U
d? b? X?UI n t? vu U? X?<U
rOMv qL d u t bb< dOOG b Ud
bv Xt d tD UF XUI bMU U: rU R 3 R2 R1 X?U?I? t U ? q?J? b
d
rdOv dE<
R T = n. R
U?:?J? b? UI< U9 Ud b? d? b
X
1
U1 = I R1
r uU' dUQ
d? b? U??= U?d t bb tu uMU
d?O?O?G? t?<u?~? U bI bO<b t s d U X? t?<u~
bdO~ pL r u<U bU X bt bMv
Ud U= sO d j t buv Ut r u<U
X dd XUI
E = IR , I =
R1
R2
U2 = I R2
_
R3
U3 = I R3
XUI t U d b qJ
E
E
, R=
R
I
X dd UU= X lL U lM U= u b
X u s t tD
r? u?<U? d?U? u< U U bMd U Us
E = U1 + U2 + U 3
ruv UM d Ub
r r u<U t tu U
X?t q?J? b UF XUI U
10
5
b E = I. R , U = IR , U = IR , U = IR
T
1
1
2
2
3
3
R
R
rOv d tD j dUI
E
1
R4
R3
IR T = IR1 + IR2 + IR 3
qJ
q
R T = R1 + R2 + R 3 + R 4
X?U?I? t?D t U: sOd UUd c U

rOv UF
I(R T ) = I(R1 + R2 + R 3 )
R T = R1 + R2 + R 3
R T =10+ 5 + 3 + 7 = 25
p UF XUI bd tD U t tu U

Xt b bM qOJA UXUI lL d b
? q?J? U?b? U?F? X?U?I U??
n d? u? t?D? vK X=U ? q?J? bv
X dgO b b UF XUIb Xt
bv UA< XUI
X r e U ruKO UMF t
X r UMF t U~ X
Xu< uv r u<U UH U

I=
E
25V
=
=0/ 25A
R T 100
b<Uv vU U:J b UtL q Ud s

dvKO Ud qJ b U
X bt tcG lM U= bMv u b
rv Xt (R T ) UF XUI b q
q
X de UF XUI qJ b
2
R1
R2
R3
n<
n= R T = 2 + 8 + 5 =15 n= qJ UF XUI
R T = R1 + R2 + R 3 + R 4
= 5k + 2k + 10k + 3k
R1
R2
R3
= 20k
I = 10 mA
5K
R T = 8 + 3 + 2 =13 qJ UF XUI

8
R1
R4
R1
2K
R2
R2
R3
3K
10
10K
R T = 8 +10=18
qJ UF XUI
qJ
qJ
r r u<U UH U
E = I. R T
U: Ud b
qJ b U
E =10mA 20k
bOM
E =10 103 20 103
R1 = 40
= 200V
R2 = 60
E =25V
(E)t?c?G lM U= q?J b U?

b Xt UXUI d U= X
1 K
R1
I = 1 mA
1/5 K
R2
5 K
R3
qJ
UH U (R T ) q XUI bI b q
rv Xt d UF XUI tD
R T = R1 + R2
= 40 + 60
qJ
=100
uv XUI d u r u<U pL t q
Xu<
bMv X d d t U=
U1 = IR1 = (1 103 1 103 ) =1V
E 12V
=
=0/ 3V
40
n
U=
U2 = IR2 = (1 103 1/ 5 103 ) =1/ 5V
bv Xb r u<U d Ud
U 0/ 3
I= =
=0/015A =15mA
R 20
Ud t dvKO U u Ud b
X= [ d d U= X dL d d [
X? dr X= v?M?F? d UO< u U= t X
b? u?? t X:O< b U vUM sdUM
bM:O< s U t bv dE< t f
U 3 = IR 3 = (1 103 5 103 ) = 5V
rOMv U: tcG lM U= bI uM

E = U1 + U2 + U 3
E =1+1/ 5 + 5
E = 7 / 5V
U?XUI d UU= X uL tO

X dd tcG lM U= U
d XUI sO U< rOI d [ X= t?UA bF U

UB v= U= lM t d ut qJ oUD
r?O?I??: X:< t q U= d b p t rO<v
X?U?I? bI td vMF uv rO:I b UXUI sO t?L? t? s? t? tu U b<uv/ s U r
X?U?I? b?I? td dpu d U= X bU dr bO d XK bM: r=U eO< UB r=U U
1
2
3
40
t??U?? d? X? d?e d U= X bU dU
qJ b d b p UXUI U= X
rdOv dE<
U1 = IR1
I
U2 = IR2
I
I
R1
E = 12V
R2
qJ
qJ
E
XUI Ud U X dd R1 d U=
U1 = IR1
U X dd b q Ud
E
I=
R +R
q
UH r u<U bO<uv u U d q d
R1
rOv d tD tD
U1 =
E
R1
R1 + R2
Xu< tD u t uv U1 uM

bOM
R=
d XUI
R=
U
I
r u<U
6V
= 20
0/ 3
u?t? l?M U= f b<d~p tUA U u

vMF uv rO:I U U:
duOU Uuz
U1 = E
R1
R1 + R2
U?H?? X?U? U?X?U?I? U= rO:I d ?

U rOM tON rO:<uv eO< vU UU= tO< rd q U= t X:< R XUI d U= tD
1
tKOt t uv UH dOG UXUI dgO qL
bMv h_A d b
U? q?b? d?OG UU= uv dOG UXUI s X dd R d U= bI tUA t sOMr
2
UXUI U tKL t Xt lM U= db
U
q?J d? U?< u?v? d??uO:<U Uuz dOG
R2
U2 = E
bv UA< dOG XUI p vJdJ= U/
R1 + R2
UMQ XUd
UMQ XUd
U= rO:I t uv uKF j bUA

rOI: X:< U dUI U UXUI
beG< dOG d
dOG XUI vJdJ< U/ qJ
`?D? b?<u?v t X d dO?G?? U? b<eG= d

Ud t X:< XUI bI bM Xd XUI vU
p XU d p dOG XUI d d b dOOG XU
Uuz u t dOG
XUI u UH b b<eG= d
Uuz XUI bI b<eG=d Xd U dOv d b
b? X?UI dOOG U bMv dOOG b XUI tO<
bMv dOOG eO< b Ud b
v Ut b Ud b dM d Uuz
Uuz UB qJ uv t: d u t b
bv UA< b
1
v<
2
RP
3
6V
A
UXUI 7 d dUQ
t uv tO< btd d uMU t v=UD t tu U
7U tMOd uv vL UXUI d UB
U??= r?O?:?I? b? U?d? gU dE< u UF XUI
d UH
t?? d?r? U= h_A U= p rOu_ d
U= X XUI UH U t X vKL rOU
U?= ?? r?O? d? U?H?? u? r?OM tON
lM U= s sOQ d X UO< u X= X=
qJ rOMv d vL uKO XUI U v=
rO<uv vLuKO XUI U= X f
p? d? U? t???= r?O?U?/ U?H?? U? u?E?M d
d? U??= X? ruKO X?U?I? d? t? b?MMdB
s?O?Q d u?L?F? q?O?= s?O?L? t? b?M?v dOOG UXUI
t uv UH dOG UXUI UO< u UU=
rOu Ò{u U u< U t
b Uuz UB qJ
4K
b? X?UI t t?D?I?< b?<e?G= d dOOG U

bUv ge Ud b XUI gU U bUv gU
b? XUI t?D?I?< u?v dgO vUM
t??O??< u? bI db Ud b? qb
10V
6K
6V
U< rOI qJ
d XU dOG U? e?O?< V?KD s fJ X db eO< vUM

l??M? U??= d?r U= XU d duO:<U
b XUI t t?DI< b<eG= d Xd U X
UA< b t duO:<U UB qJ b<dv Ut vUM Ud b
gU U bUv gU Ud ge
bv
uv tU
XUd
q?? J? ? b?? U??d?? b?? U?? ?

b Xt d UX=U
d A tDI< b<eG= d
d C tDI< b<eG= d
beG<d
UO u U<
A
1K
XUd
b duOU UB qJ
Rp = 5K
C
R1
B
d??O? G? ? X??U?I? d? t? l??M? U??= d? q? U?

XU d UO< u U= b<eG= d rOEM duO:<U
rOMv XU b<eG= d
u?v? t??:? u? u? t? b? d?uO:<U
X bMMdBt b U= bMMdM
qJ
E =12V
R T = R1 + R P =1k + 5k = 6k
I=
I=
2
1
V
bMMQdB
q
X<U
12V
= 2mA
6 103
R T = R1 + R CB =1k + 1k = 2k
RCB =1K
X<U
12V
= 6mA
2 103
X=U b XUI t uv h_A u U

XUI X=U X mA Ud b 6k dd
b? t??O??< X bO 2k t? t??U? gU b
dOG U< X)U qJ
d? U? s?d?U?M bv mA t? b?U?v? ge Ud
d??M Ud b? b? d? u?t Uuz p 7d
t tDI< b<eG= d dOOG U qJ o
uv
bv UA< dgO U= dX=
d? p? XU d dO?G?? XUI d t d d
b<eG= d uv bMMdB UO< u U= U VUM
XUI u UH b b<eG=
Xd VUM XN duO:<U u t dOG
X?U?I? b?I? b<eG=d Xd U dOv d b
U U??= XU d qJ U?
d t U= d U bMv dOOG XU Ud t X:<
bOv d b duO:<U t X= U?U?= UM Ud vJ b<eG= d uv XU

tK U Xt d rO:uM (h) UH d fb<

rOMv qL sOM E U A tDI< sO
Rp
E =24V
V
R1
U1
50
qJ
R1
U1 = E
R1 + R P
U1(R1 + R P ) = ER1
q
U1R1 + U1R P = ER1
U1R P = ER1 U1R1
UM d t
UH u v qJ
h AE = h AB h EB
h AB = 50cm
d t U A tDI< UH
h EB = 20cm d t U E tDI< UH
h AE = 50cm 20cm
h AE = 30cm
h DB = 30cm 0
R1(E U1 )
U1
R P = 50
(24 6) 50 18
=
=150
6
6
dOG UXUI dUQ

AE
UH
X bt d t U D tDI< UH
h DB = h DB h BB
RP =
eO< d~ Ub<dO UbMd u b b

U~ uK t vUu= pL t ueuK duB vUM
e? e?O? U?u?= s? u?v? U? r? X? b? tOF
d??uO:<U Uuz u t t bM:O< dOG
UXUI
b<td d b
h DB = 30cm
d uLF UH sOOF tD d t d
vJdJ< U< u v
? b<dOv dE< tU U b?M:u<v/ UM bdO~ dE< qJ d b
t<u
U X dd h AD u tDI< d t X:< uv `D UH
`D UH rOuv bOM d Xt b t=u=
h AD = h A h D
eO< h D UM d t U A tDI< `D UH vMF h A t U? s d r Xt E t?DI< U A t?DI<
uM X d t U D tDI< `D UH u sOLt UH t U rOMO E A tDI< sO U rO<uv
r UO{u s t tu U d t U E tDI< UH d t B U A tDI<
p? t? u? d? r?O?M? r d~p rO<u_
h A = h AB = 50cm
A tDI< U UH
rdO~ dE< h UH X d sdUM rOv u
D tDI< U UH
h D = h DB = 30cm
u t u h_A U sO UH rOuv t vUI<
h AD = 50cm 30cm
tDI< U= bU X= U= (CtDI<
d?d? uv gU/ U AB U? t B t?D?I< t X:<
tO< U AC U BC U X
C t X:< A U=
U AC = 4V
U BC = +5V
C t X:< B U=
B t X:< A U=
U AB = U A U B
+5
h AD = 20cm
sOL eO< Ub XA UH sOOF u

b U? U `D UH bMuv v v Ut
UH b n U `D UH sO UH vMF X d
X d b tU n U b tDI< sdU
U?A?< v?u?t? b U U UH ? q?J
X b
b U
+4
+3
+2
+1
C
1
2
`D
3
4
dQ b qJ
U< u v qJ
v:< UH XOL t bvd sOM b tH V=UD

U= XOL bOM UM p t X:< bU vMF X
U AB = 4V (+5V)
uv tH v bMMv UM p t X:< uLF eO<
U AB = 9V
X hU< tH s X bI A tDI< U=
U X dd A t X:< B tDI< U= sOMr
d?E?M uMv A t?D?I?< U= bI v b<uM l
U BA = U B U A
tH v U bI s U t X:< u tH t X
U BA = +5V (4V)
X?U X ?U? tKL XUI d U= uv
U BA = +9V
X dE< u d~ d t X:< XUI d p U= d
tO<
U AB = U BA
d? X? v?? U?O lM U= u tH d t s U
U
X u dE<u lM d~ d t X:< lM d p U=
U BA = U AB
U? t?=u?= q? U?H? t? t<u UL vK X=U sdUM
X?O?L? bMMv sO `D U d t t X:< b XA
U?X?U?I? U: U q?J? b U?
Xt E UM t X:< D C B A UI< U= t?D?I?< d? b<uv t UM p t X:< r U=
bMMv UO u U_< b
U AB dUI b Xt UU= pL t b
b Xt eO< U AD U AC X??:< q?J? o?UD A t?D?I?< U= d ?
U?M UL t X:< B t?DI< U= X= 4dd C U?Mt
bMu b U UH dE< b tDI< sdU
U AB = U A U B = 2015 = +5V
R
C A UI< qO:<U qJ b U
b Xt (B) dA UB tDI< t X:< D
B
R
U3
D
+
U2
10
R3
U1
B
+
15
R2
20V
R1
D
R
E
E = 30V
qJ
UM tDI t X nKc UI U< qJ
U X dd UF XUI q
R T =10+ 5 +15 = 30
r u<U UH U q Ud b
I=
E
30
=
=1A
R T 30
U1 = IR1 = (1)(15) =15V R1
U= X
U2 = IR2 = (1)(5) = 5V R2 U= X
U 3 = IR 3 = (1)(10) =10V R 3 U= X
r?? ? q?? ?J? ? U?? ?d?? ? X?? ?N? ? t?? ? t?? u?? U??
X? X??? U1 u? U1 = U B U A = U BA =15V
tDI< u d~ d X U B > U A t rdOv tO<
U1 U B dUI d U bUv U B =0 f XUM B
U 15 =0 U A X? rOu rO d U tD
XUMF sb U A b vHM U A = 15V d~ Ut
UM tDI< qO:<U X= b< t A tDI< qO:<U t
X dr B vMF
U AB = U A U B = 15 0= 15V
U CB = U C U B = +5 0= +5V
U D = U 3 + U2 =10+ 5 =15V
U DB = U D U B = +15 0= +15V
U= U X dd E t? X:< A tDI< U= q
vMF E tDI< U= UNM A tDI<
U AE = U A U E
U AE = +20V 0= +20V
d~p U b uu UXUI t s t tu U

d qO:<U f X dd eO< U Ud b<dd
U: ut lM U= XH uv X dd rU eO< U
d??d?? X??U??I? d? d? U??= u?v? r?O?:?I? U? s?O?
b bu U R = 20V
= 5V
4
t? X?:< B CD t?D?I?< q?O?:?<U? uv uM
Xt d u t XUM tDI< t E tDI<
U BE = U B U E =15 0=15V
U CE = U C U E =100=10V
U DE = U D U E = 5 0= +5V
d j uv eO< d~ UI< qO:<U

Xt
U AD = U A U D = +20 5 = +15V
U AC = U A U C = 2010= +10V
E (U1 + U2 + U 3 ) =0
E = U1 + U2 + U 3
U3
+
tDI< t B tDI< UM tDI< dOOG U U

q?J C t?D?I?< t X:< D B A U?I< U=
X b
U2
R3
R2
D
+
R1
U1
U3
U2
10
R3
R2
U1
15
R1
qJ
E = 30V
I
q?J? b? nNdO UU= u<U U?

bOM vd
d?d? t??:? t?I?K? d b q Ud q?
E
U X
I=
R
T
qJ
U AC = U1 U2 = 15 5 = 20V
U BC = U2 = 5V
U DC = U 3 =10V
U X dd UF XUI
R T = R1 + R2 + R 3 + R 4
R T = 20+10+ 5 +15
R T = 50
I = 100
= 2A
50
10
20
+
I
R1
R2
+
R3
E = 100V
R4
15
qJ
r u<U UH U R1 d U= X
U R1 = (2)(20) = 40V
(KVL)
nNdOQ UU< uU'
q U= UU= X e UU= sO tD
d b U= rO:I uM rb dc d b
rOMv UO d~ t<ut
X?U?I? b?M?MdB bF qU d b d
b<b d rU tIK p u t t X tcG lM p
X d lL tIK d nNdOQ UU< uU'
X? dH dd tcG lM U= UXUI d UU=
3
E U =0 vMF
uL dd b t b UL U= t: b d
(E = U) X tIK b uu UU= X
Xu< uv qJ t tu U vMF
E U =0
K.V. L = Kirchhoff's Voltage Law
bMu tIK p t rOd d tDI< UL t qU gd p rOM d u) XN b tDI< p d

XUU= d lL UMF t U f d lL vMF
U??B? _? A? U? t?c?G? l??M? p? t? v?<u? U??

s?O?L? U? e?O< R4 R 3 R2 d? U?U??=
uv tU
lM s d X bt bM bO=u b<uv 300V 10mA
q?B 30k 2W X?U?I p t q?J? oUD
U R = (2)(10) = 20V
bv vUH t rOM
U R = (2)(5) =10V
2
300V / 10mA
U R4 = (2)(15) = 30V
R = 30K / 2W
t?? b??u??v? U??s? n?N?d?O? U?U??= u?<U?

vMF X U = E
E = U R1 + U R2 + U R 3 + U R4
100= 40+ 20+10+ 30
qJ
100=100
P t = E.I
P t = 300 10 10
P t = 3W
E U R1 U R 2 U R 3 U R 4 =0
bM bO=u b<uv lM t v<u
E
I=
R
I=
q
100 40 2010 30=0
100100=0
300V
=10mA
30K
d b v)dB u
3
P R = U R .I = 300 10 10
UXUI ju t v<u U d b p q u
pd b dB Uu uL uv dB b
XUI b dB u
P R = 3W
bv Xt UXUI
uM X:O< gO XUI U u u
uv uv d XUI bMv dB d?d? q u bU d XUI n q?U b d
U X
d tcG lM UL U 15k 2W XUI d
P t = P1 + P2 + L + P n
[ X?U?I? d? v?dB u ? q?J? r?OM
UXUI d tO< X dr U u t uv e Uu UXUI pp u tU d
bv/ gO tK: p?L? (P = RI2 = V2 = VI) u? j? v?J? b?U?
R
R = 15K
/ 2W
R = 15K
/ 2W
300V / 10mA
rdO~
q u tU jI d b p Ud Ò{u
e?O?< d? u? t u j tU d bI bU dE<
Xt uv
P T = U T .I T = R T .I T2 =
U T2
RT
qJ
P 3 = U 3I
I=
P 3 =100 10 103 =1W
R3
E
300V
=
=10mA ,
R1 + R2 15k +15k
vdB u
U R1 = U R2 =
P t = P1 + P2 + P 3 =1+1+1= 3W
300
=150V
2
P R1 = U R1.I
uL dd lM ju b bO=u u tO

X b e b dB Uu
P R1 =150 10 103 =1/ 5W

P R2 = U R2 .I
3
P R =150 10 10 =1/ 5W
d? u t 30k 2W X?UI U
d vdB u rOMv q 300V 10mA tcG lM t u?L?? d?d? l??M? j?u? b? bO=u u vd
vMF XUXUI b dB Uu
bOM U: tcG lM ju b bO=u u XUI
Pt = PR + PR
rOMv qb d qJ t t=Q: u b
2
P t = 1/ 5 +1/ 5 = 3W
R1 =30K
E = 300V/10mA
R2 =30K
XUI t UXUI bA< d UMOL V: d

U?B? t?c?G? l??M? U?L? t? d? u? t? 10k 2W
u t uv p XUI d vdB u rOv
u? eO< Us q?J? X dr UO: U
u bu dd e Uu uL U lM
100V
qJ
2W
10K
q
R t = R1 + R2 = 30+ 30= 60k
100V
E 300V
I=
=
= 5mA
R t 60k
U R1 = U R2 =
300
=150V
2
2W
qJ
5mA = 750mW XUI d vdB u
P t = P R1 + P R2 = 750+ 750
=1500mW =1/ 5W
100V
10K
2W
P R1 = P R2 = U R1 .I = U R2 .I
=150V
10K
300V / 10mA
lM ju bbO=u u
P t = E.I
P t = 300 10 103 = 3W
q u
P1 = U1I
P1 =100 10 103 =1W
R1
vdB u
R2
vdB u
P2 = U2I
P2 =100 10 103 =1W
b??I? U?? e?? U??X? U??I? d?? U??? = X? ?

d b UBcA
rOI: X:< b UXUI d??d?? U??:?J? b? U?I?< U?9 U?d? b? ?
R
R
R
X U T
U1 = E 1 , U2 = E 2 , U n = E n
RT
RT
RT
X dd b e Uu lL U q u
P t = P1 + P2 + L + P n
RT
I T = I1 = I2 = L = I n
b e UXUI lL UF q XUI

U X dd uv q U
b XUI sde UF q XUI bI

R T = R1 + R2 + L + R n
X de eO<
X? t? b e UU= X lL q U=
U?d lD YU tDI< p b b U lD
bv
E = U1 + U2 + L + U n
uv b q
g
uv qOJA t<u~ vUI d b p

bO Ò{u d b UO uB
uv rO:I v:< t t UXUI bI sO d b q U=
bO d b duO:<U Uuz UH v~<u~
bO Ò{u qO:<U u v:<
bO d d b dU bOM ndF nNdO UU= u<U
bOM ndF U u vdB u
dB bMMdB bM U p t v<u b<uv X bO=u t U b=u p t v<u U
bO<e U bv vUH t u s bU dr U dgO bMMv

sdL
10K
5K
R2
R1
E = 40V
R3
b?I q?J b
X bt b Ud q XUI
2mA 20k u
5K
qJ
40K
R1
E
R2
b?I q?J b
X bt E R2
V 6k u
30V
A
5mA
qJ
15V
25V
R3
R2
R1
R4
10K
40V
5K
+E_
b?I q?J b
X bt E
V u
qJ
10
100
R1
R2
R3
R4
A
220
0/2A
qJ
45V
q??J? b?? U?F? X?U?I? ?

X bt
555 u
24V
q?? ? J? ? ? b?? ?
q? U?d b? t??U?? X?:uKD
b?t? R2 R1 U?X?U?I? b?I?
X
3 7 mA u
V
R3
R2
5K
30V
R1
E = 45V
qJ
5K
A
10K
8K
U?= q?J? b?

b?t? s?O? t? X?:< B A t?D?I<
bOM tU eO< U U= X
(50 + 35 + 85 V u
B
7K
E = 150V
BA
A
5mA
qJ
U u t vu b Xt R t q vdB u qJ Ub
Xu bMu UXUI U bU [ W n= qJ UXUI
2 12 W n= u
5 [ W u
I
R1 = R2 =1
R2
R1
I=
1
A
2
n<
R1
R2
R3
2/5V
R5
R1 = R2 = R3 = R4 = R5 = 1
R4
qJ
rU qB
u ut UXUI UB
U Ub
v UEA udM qBC s UU
bM ndF UXUI u UB
bM ndF u b UF XUI
bM tU u XUI bM UF XUI
b d u b Ud lu
b Ò{u nNdO UUd uAU7
bM tU b d u b u
d UA u Ub sOAu7 UBA

bM tU u b UUd
bM tU vOd b UF XUI
bM tU vOd b UU UUd
u ut UXUI UB
Ur U U U bMMdB bM bMu d
t? u u)t U bM UB U? lM p t
bMv UB U lM d
t?L? d? p? t? X u) sb u UB
t? U? t?L? d?~? d lM VD7 p t UbMMdB
qJuv q) lM d~ VD7
u ut dU t U UB qJ
u b Ud
u b U)
U?d? u?? d? d?O p gO u b

u? UB U?b?M?M?d?B tL d U
bMuv tU u UdO pd u u UH u) v X tcG lM U dd UJ
U?L? t? b?OMv bUA u dO UN q?J q?J? b?AU?H?? U?b?M?M?d?B? U?d? U XUI
X b r qJ U vMC
X b UAA u{u s n
R1
lM
I2
R2
R2 = 10
I1
R1 = 20
I3
R3
g
+
qJ
20V
u?L? U q Ud b
? q?J Ub
t? v?u?) X? dd u UtU UUd b
bUv dd lM d d~ UtU U tU d d U

tU d Ud b r uAU7 j UH U s
Xt d u)t uv q Ud b
E
ntU Ud b
In =
R
n
b
d
n)
I
I2
I1
I3
I t = I1 + I2 +LI n
b q Ud b
b UtU UXUI u U u)

d U c?v UtU d~ U U Ud b
tU d
XUI t tU d bU UH tUd UXUI bI
bv u dgO Ud b dr
b tU d u Ud bI tO/
tU XUI bI U fJ XA u
I
I1
I2
X b UAA d j XU s
I =
E
R
I =
E
R
u b XUI
U b/ Ud UdO1 qJ
u? b? UF q XUIU?F? XUI

d?O? d?7 u? U?X?U?I U t d t X vUI
geC U u b bbA dOOG b q Ud b
rOv tD t b? u?v? d?U Ud UdO bF b UtU

X?U?MF sb Ud b? geC bUv geC q Ud
E
1
1
1
= E(
+
+
)
Ud q?J? X? tCU gU UF XUI t
Rt
R1 R 2 R 3
X b hA UtU Ud q
1
1
1
1
=
+
+
R 3 R 2 R1 X?U?I? t U ? q?J? b
R t R1 R 2 R 3
rdOv dEA
U U
qJ u XUI sO UF XUI tD I
uv tU sOM
12V
U3
V1
R1
I3
1
R AB
1
1
1
=
+
R t R1 R 2
1 R2 + R1
=
R1R2
Rt
R3
12V
U2
V2
R2
I2
R2
U1
RR
Rt = 1 2
R1 + R2
I1
12V
V3
R3
R1
12V
VS
VS
- +
A
R1
Rt = R1 || ** R2
R2
12V
12V
dU
qJ
d?d? U?tU d U U lM U u b

bv Xt UtU UUd uL q Ud X
R2
qJ
bv UAA vMF s j
U r U b u UXUI t vu) II
E = U1 = U2 = U 3
bv Xt sOM UF XUI bMU
I = I1 + I2 + I 3
1
1 1
1
XuA uv r uAU7 o
= + +L+
R1
Rt
n
1
1 64748
= (1+1+L+1)
Rt R
1
1
n
= n=
Rt R
R
Rt =
R
n
XU vJ R b u UXUI bF n
I=
E
E
E
E
, I1 =
, I2 =
, I3 =
R
R
R
Rt
1
2
3
rOv d7 tD UUd U dUI

E
E
E
E
=
+
+
R t R1 R 2 R 3
U sOCd E U dUI c dOuUC U
vU XN U s v X UF U?MF t equivalent tLK nH eq bMv UAA R eq U? u b UF XUI uLF
X b gU/ R t U eOA u b UF XUI
X R2 u R1 vMF R1 R2 bAdv Ut u tLK d Ut UB d u j X
E=I
R1R 2
R1 + R 2
Xt qJ Ub UF XUI U

b
rOu rOM se~U tD E bI d U

X
24
R1
R1R 2
R1 + R 2
I1 =
R1
I
I1 = I
12
R2
6
R3
R1
12
R2
n)
qJ
U X dd n b UF XUI
R/ 1R 2
R/ 1 (R1 + R 2 )
I1 = I
R2
R1 + R 2
Rt =
R1R 2
6 12 72
=
=
= 4
R1 + R 2 6 +12 18
U X dd UF XUI b sOMr

X?At u UtU q Ud tO/
uv rOI UtU UXUI fJ
bv Xt d VOdt eOA I2

I2 =
E
R2
RR
I 1 2
R1 + R 2
R1R/ 2
I2 =
=I
R/ 2 (R1 + R 2 )
R2
r d u) R2 c U
I2 = I
1
1
1
1
1 1 1
=
+
+
=
+ +
R t R1 R 2 R 3 24 12 6
1 1+ 2 + 4 7
24
=
=
, Rt =
= 3 / 43
Rt
24
24
7
u?AU7 dOUt q?J b t tu U III

rOv tOA s t tU d d r
tD
E = I1R1
E = I2 R2
tD
tD
E = IR t
R1
R1 + R 2
qJ b tU d Ud b
U
b Xt
I1
R2
I1
R1
I = 5A
I2
I1
R1
10
R2
15
U X dd uC b UF XUI
Rt =
qJ
I1 = I
I1 =
R2
R1 + R 2
5 15
15 +10
qJ
R1 tU Ud tD
R1R 2
R1 + R 2
rv Xt I1 Ud tD
E
I1 =
R
1
rOv d7 tD tD

I in
U bAb d t vUUd qJ
gULA I out U bAb U U d t vUUd
X b
Iout1
Iin
I1 =
75
= 3A
25
R1 tU Ud
R2 tU Ud
I2 = I I1 = 5 3 = 2A
Iin3
U
Iout2
Iin
I2 = I
R1
10
=5
= 2A
R1 + R2
25
d p b/u U b/u UUd qJ
q?J? d? nNdO Ud uAU7 t tu? U

XuA uv d tD
I in + I in + I in = I out + I out
2
tU d Ud b qJ b U
b Xt q Ud b
I
E
qJ
15V
lL d ndF uv eOA tAus b tH uAU7

I =0 vMF X dH) dd d p UUd d
I in + I in + I in I out I out =0
2
X bAuv d t t vUUd tD s
fJ bAb tCd dEA vHM d b U UUd
X U) eOA XU s
I in I in2 I in 3 + I out1 + I out2 =0
1
nNdO Ud vK tD
I3
I2
R2
5K
I1 =
E
15V
=
= 3mA
R1 5 10+3
I2 =
E
15V
=
=10mA
R 2 1/ 5 103
I3 =
E
15V
=
= 5 mA
R 3 3 103
R3
1/5K
3K
I = I1 + I2 + I 3
I =18 mA
I = 3 +10+ 5
I in = I out
I1
R1
U
I =0
nNdOI Ud u/UJ
qJ b U
d tDIA bF sOOF
tU bF sOOF
bOM sOOF B A Ud Ud tD
q
B A d
UB q u U UUFAA tJ d
U?FA/tDI/ U? d? tDI/ b? tU gO
bMu tU d tDIA sO tK)UC
UUd uL nNdO Ud uAU7 U d
b? U? U?U?d? u?L U d tDIA d t b
X dd tDIA
Kirchhoffs Current law
X tcG lUM U dL vOd U u d UXUI tuL qU tJ
U? d?d? b?M?v? b?O?u lM t vAu U bOK XU

bMv dB R1 XUI t X vAu
d?d?t? b?U?v? g?e?C q Ud bOK s U
uv 13 uv tU UF XUI d uv
I1
I3
I2
R1
R2
qJ
B
U X dd lM Ud sdUM d t? B A d? s?O? t?K?)U?C vMF tUt

X b qOJA R2 dO R1 dO lM dO vMF dO
I t = I1 + I2 + I 3
A d I =0 I1 I2 I 3 =0
I t =100+100+100= 3 100= 300mA
B d I =0 I2 + I 3 I1 =0
P t = I t .U = 300 103 12 = 3 / 6W
U X dd XUI d vCdB u
3
=1/ 2W
u b vdB u
=1/ 2W
X?U?I? p? v?CdB u U u U s gO
u bAu t lM U u XUI bM d bb UM
UXUI b dB Uu lLU lM ju b bOu
d X dd
b d ?7 t u tU j UH U
Xt u Ub u bI uv X
bAU j s
P1 = U.I1 =12V 100 10
P2 = U.I2 =12V 100 10
P 3 = U.I 3 =12V 100 10
=1/ 2W
P t = P1 + P2 + P 3 =1/ 2 +1/ 2 +1/ 2 = 3 / 6W
u?L?? U? l??M ju b bOu u t??O/

X dd u UtU vCdB Uu
2
? q?J? tUA U tcG d U?
2
U
P = U.I , P = RI , P =
R
qIM U t lM vAu t bAb t uut t
uv XU qJ tJ q vCdB u U
I
bU R1 = R2 = R 3 t vu) X b7t n
0/5A
0/5A
0/5A
0/5A
X U K bOK n
+
120V
X t K bOK
I1
100mA
R1
12V
R2
R3
qJ
qJ
P1 = U.I1 =120 0/ 5 = 60(W)

P1 = P2 = P 3 = P 4 = 60(W)
P t = 4 60W = 240(W)
I t = 4 0/ 5 = 2A
P t = U.I t = 120 2 = 240(W)
P R1 = U.I1
P R1 =12V 100
q
n)
3
10 =1/2(W) R1 vCdB u
P t = E.I
3
P t =12V 100 10
=1/ 2(W)
q u

1K
u d vOId Ub
Rx
Rt
1/5K
E = 4/5 V
Ry
0/5K
t? uv tH b t u d b
qJ bU t u u d UXUI vOd
bOMv bUA vL u d b vMC UL
R1
n)
500
R2
500
qJ UF b qJ
bv Xt d tD q Ud
I=
E = 4/5 V
E
4 / 5V
=
= 3 mA
R t 1/ 5k
R2 R1 q Ud b
n qJ
uv R x u?? Ud s U bMv u (R x )
d U d U XC
U Rx = I. R x
U Rx = 3mA 1k =
3V
u? g?? d? U?? nNdO U uAU7 o

U X dd U AB vMF (R y )
u d jKQ b qJ
d b t ud sOAu7 u d Ub

U?XUI q?J ? bMMv XO? F u
u? t? R 4 R 3 U??X?U?I? d? u?t? R2 R1
bAb t u
U X dd R x d XL7 UF XUI
U AB = E U Rx
R x = R1 + R 2
U AB = U Ry = 4 / 5V 3V =1/ 5V
R x = 500+ 500= 1000 = 1k
U X dd (R y ) u XL7 UF XUI

R2 R1 U?X?U?I u bF q Ud
uv tU d Ud uv rOI A tDIA
d tU

IR =
U AB 1/ 5V
=
=1/ 5 mA
R3
1k
IR =
U AB 1/ 5V
=
=1/ 5 mA
R4
1k
R4
1k
= 3A
R 3 + R4
1k + 1k
Ry =
1000
= 500 = 0/ 5 k
2
r? U (R 3 R 4 ) R y (R1 + R2 ) R x X?U?I?
U X dd R t vMF UF bM d
Rt = Rx + Ry
R t =1+0/ 5 =1/ 5 k

IR = I
R y = R 3 R4
=1/ 5mA
d r uv b tH qd d t vUb

X b n UqJ
R2
IR = I
R3
R1
R4
R3
R 3 + R4
= 3A
1k
1k + 1k
d?B? e? U?u uL q u b d

bv Xt b b
R6
R5
PT = PR + PR + PR + PR
R7
P R1 = R1I2 =0/ 5 k
]}
tU d Ud q Ud UF XUI U
b Xt qJ b
P R 3 = R 3 I23 =1k
R2
vCdB u
R 3 vCdB u
(1/ 5mA)2 = 2 / 25mw
R4
I1
I2
R2
R1
vCdB u
(3mA)2 = 4 / 5mw
P R2 = P R1 = 4 / 5mw
R t = R1 + (R2 + R 3 ) (R 4 R 5 ) + R 6 + R 7
E=9V
R1
qJ
=1/ 5mA
vCdB u
P R 4 = P R 3 = 2 / 25mw
P T = 4 / 5mw+4 / 5mw +2 / 25mw+2 / 25mw
6
I3
R3
I4
R4
=13 / 5mw
q u
b? b?O?M? h?A ? q?J? b U?

bAu r U UXUI b d r U UXUI
R3
R2
qJ
R1
R4
q
R 3,4 = R 4 R 3 =
R5
3 6
= 2
3 +6
R6
R 3,4 + R 2 = 2 + 4 = 6
R t = R1 R2,3,4 =
I=
6
= 3
2
qJ
q XUI
E 9V
=
= 3A
Rt 3
q Ud b
bv Xt R1 d lM U d rOI I1 Ud b
I1 =
E 9V
=
=1/ 5 A
R1 6
rOI I 4 I 3 t R2 u f I2 Ud b
u R 4 U R2,3 d r U R 3 R2 q
s? t?)? bAd r U R 6 R 5 (R2,3,4 ) R1
XuA uv d u)t Ò{u
R t = R1 + [ (R2 + R 3 ) R 4] + R 5 + R 6
d? U?X?U?I q?J? b? U?
bOuM pOKL sULA u)t u

U X dd I2 Ud sdUM uv
bv Xt R1 bI u
U R = R1I1
I2 = I2,3,4 =
I = I1 =1A
U R =15
E
R2,3,4
9V
= 1/ 5A
6
1A =15V
R 3 sO I2 Ud d rOI I 3 Ud b
rOMv tU R 4
U R = U R = U R = E U R = 4015 = 25V U
R4
I 3 = I2
X???At? q Ud b? b?AU? r U R 3 R2 u
R4 + R 3
vMF uv rOI sO U
1/ 5A 6
1
2,3
I2 =
I3 =
I 1A
=
=0/ 5A
2 2
U R = I2 R2
2
U R =0/ 5A 50 = 25V
2
=1A
(6 + 3)
o?d?H qL U uv I 3 I2 Ud b? s U
Xt I 4 Ud b
I 4 = I2 I 3
I =1/ 5A 1A =0/ 5A
4
q?J? b? R2 u? q? u? U??
bOM U qJ b R R d U XC U
1
2
6
bOM U
4
R
2
12
R1
I1
R3
E = 20 V
2
R1= 15
I2
R2 = 50
E = 40 V
I3
R3 = 50
R4
qJ
qJ
rOMv U UF XUI b q

R t = R1 + (R2 R 3 ) + R 4
6 12 12
R2 R 3 =
=
= 4
6 +12
3
R t = 4 + 4 + 2
R t =10
q? u? q? U?? s R t X?t? U

bv Xt d tD
2
(E)
Pt =
Rt
q Ud b? U?F XUI tU U q

rv Xt
R2 R 3 =
50
= 25
2
R t = R1 + R 2,3
R t =15 + 25 = 40
I=
E
40V
=
R t 40
I =1A
2
Pt =
(20)
= 40(W)
10
U?d? b? d?{ q?)U R1 d? U?? X?C
u b UBQA q?J? b? b? R2 v?Cd?B? u? t??U?? d?

lM U dd u b tU d d U
o?U?D? r?O?M?v? qb d b t d U ?
qJ
X
E = U1 = U2L= U n
tU XUI bI U tU d u Ud
fJ XA
R1
R2,3
U
R
I T = I1 + I2 + L + I n
R4
2
qJ
X?C d? b? U?U rOI UH U uM

rv Xt R 3 R2 d U
uv tU d tD b q XUI

RT =
E = 20 V
I = RU
X?t? U?t?U? U?Ud uL q Ud
bv
I=
1
1
1
1
+
+...+
Rn
R1 R2
UR
2,3
UR
2,3
=E
=
R 2,3
Rt
=E
R 2,3
R1 + R 2,3 + R 4
20V 4
= 8V
4+ 4+2
UXUI sdr r UF q XUI bI

U R = U R f?? X?? u?? R 3 U?? R 2 u??
X dr eOA b
u bu
X b UXUI u uL dd q u
uv sOM u tD UH U R2 u bI
3
P T = P1 + P2 + L + P n
d?U? U?d? v?A?I?A t?U? p? b U lD7

bUv gU b q Ud U bA UtU
PR =
2
(U R )
2
R2
P R2 =
(8V)2 64V
=
6
6
PR =
32
(W)
3
g
bAbMv u UXUI d
bOM ndF u b UF XUI
bO Ò{u UF XUI tU U UXU
uv rOI UtU sO tAu~ q Ud u b
bdOv pL nNdO uAU7 b u b
bMv dO vMOAu7 t vOd b
bAuv t tJ t u) t t v7d UbMM dB

sdL
A
1A
dU U qJ
X b7t q Ud (E)
1/ 5A 5V u
10
E
5
qJ
5K
10K
3K
6K
4K
15K
8K
7K
12K
6K
q?J? b? U?F? X?U?I? ?

X b7t
15 k u
qJ
30K
15K
10K
6K
B
30K
Rt
10K
A
20K
4K
qJ
sO R t b? UF XUI

qJ b B A tDIA
B A t?DIA sO d Xb7t
Ud u q) v U lM
X b7t q
10mA 10k u
4A
A
b? R x X?U?I? b?I?

X b7t qJ
12 u
Rx
12V
8
4
A
2A
qJ
1
? qJ
U 54 U 53 U13 U12 UqOAU
b Xt U15 U23 U 43
u
R
10V
R
4
U12 = U13 = U 53 =10V
U 54 =0, U 4,3 =10V
U15 = U23 =0
qJ
It
2K
1K
10K
4K
? q??J?? b?? ?
X b7t
37mA u
10mA
It
qJ
30mA
A
10K
20K
5K
4K
V
20V
qJ
1K
b qJ b
dObA UU~ U u U XUI
bM UAA qJ b bI
10k u
2/5K
100V
10K
20K
2/5K
? q?J? b q u
X b7t
1/ 4W u
qJ
R3
R4
R1
R2
R2
d ? q?J b
r t vLO tKOt d U lD7
q)U dOOG t R 4 u rOM q)
uv
qJ
R4
R2
100V
R1
R3
t ? q?J? b?
bv UAA dH) b dX u)
U?X?L?7 U R 4 =0 u
bU vblD7 DE U CD AB
qJ
Rt
Rt
b?I ? q?J?
X b7t
R4 u
qJ
R
R
R
Rt
R
R
q?J? U?F? XUI

X b7t
83 R u
qJ
b bMU s bMAuv v v bM d uOC p U b

uv U b bM u UH v v7d u p d u lD7 d Ud t s
d s
u
r qB
UqO UB
U Ub
v UE udM qBH s UU
b Ò{u UqO u d UB
b UB d~p t jKO u d u t UqO
b Ò{u jKO u d ut UqO dU
bM UO d vK XUI
bM hOA jKO u d UB nKO UI t
b Ò{u qUI UB
bM tUI r U XU d u dE UdU
dpu j X VD. uLF de j

UdU UB
d UB q?J? bdOv dE vHM VD. b?M??? U?d?U? v?J?dJ d sOQ lUM vJ
bOMv bUA UqO u b?M?M?v? qb vJdJ d t vUOLO d UdU
d? t? bM d pA UqO UdU tuL
bv U t qOu u.
U? t? d~p U t u?L?F qO dU
d
dU b UH r U vJOMJ dE s U bdv
r? t? u? U? d? u? t? t? u?v qOJA qO bM U
b?M? q?O?J?A? b UqO d~ U t bb q<
u j u< t qO p b ULbM UdU
q?J? b?U?v? d?p?u? d?~? d?e? v?J t X
u
UqO u d UB qJ
qO p b UL qJ
u? u? t? UqO dU vUd d U d

U? qU. dO U qU. u pA UqO
U?qO X VD. bU UqO d u dbuv t vu< uv hOA UL
U d t buv bOu
U?B? d?~?b?J t U vHM VD. d~bJ t U?qJ bM U qU. uLF d UqO t
vJdJ UL u< t u qO bM UqJ
bOMv bUA d qO tuL p
X b UA dU
H,
X U
U q?J b t X Ò{u t
U VUM vUd XOHd
U bU dd r U bU UqO d
vMF bUv geH UqO bF
E t = E1 = E2 = E 3
I t = I1 + I2 + I 3
vJO bMM1 b
vHM UH,
d dU tuL p qJ
r U qO bM dgO UU X t d
t qO d X VD. bU UqO d d d bMMv d
u< dU p q U bU UB d~ qO vHM VD.
dd b d UqO pp U uL U Ò< UB
vMF X
E
E
E
It
I1
E1
I2
E2
I3
E3
Et
Et
E t = E1 + E2 + E 3
u qO bM b dU UL qJ
X d u< t b d qO n q U tD
E t = E1 + E2 +L+E n
t bOM q< u qJ UqO U
b X t U U db U?d d UqO d UB X d t
X UJ b u
bOMOv qO bM d UB qJ
qJ
2V
2V
2V
2V
UqO d UB qJ
2V
b?M geH vUd dU U bMuO d

X t d q?J UqO U
r t u d u t dU bM qOJA UqO
bO UB d~p t Ud XOHd
db
qJ bMMv q<
_
90V
qJ
-dU+
- +
dU
45V
-dU+
45V
- +
dU
45V
d? U?d? U? ? q?J? b U??

X b.t bMM dB
45V
24V
6V
E3
E4
E5
12V
90V
45V
12V
120
6V
45V
E1
E2
qJ
45V
45V
q
UdU vO1d UB qJ
E t = E1 + E2 + E 3 + E 4 + E 5
E t = 6V +12V + 6V + 24V +12V = 60V

u U d ut d~p U uv eO UdU
Et
60V
UdU rd U q U rOuO t vu< X
I=
=
=0/ 5A
120
120
bU UU U U buv UdU U rbMv d
UdU rd U Ud XOHd
U d Ud U qJ b U
rOuO t vu<
dU d bU U UdU U d rbMv u
X b.t
bM U p U d U X pd q Ud XOHd geH
I
I
I
I
dr U U UdU bU dr UdU dU U dU
R
E
E
E
b?O?u? t? s? d? ? b?M?M?v qL bMMdB bMU
bMMv XHU eO Ud bb UJL Ud
L
qJ
dU UqO vK XUI
p?L? t? b?? rdOv dE dU bu? p
b?I? d? d?O?b? dU d U dX
UL = Et = E
I L = I + I + I = 3I
t?? t?? v?Ud U q??J b d ? rbMv XUI p d t dU f rOMv XU

U X dd bv bMMdB rOMv XU rdOv b dU d U d~ U
b dOb U t ruv tu UU tUI
Rt = r + RL
dr tKd b dOb U tKd
I = RE = r +ER
b dOb U XHv UE t vu< X
t
L
d?O?b? U?? ? s bU dd tKd d
U L = E U r = E I. r
dU bu q UL
bU t rOMv dOF tu s b
vK XUI d U XH U r dU U E
X bMM dB U U d U XH U L bI XH Ud u U t bU t u vUI
t??HU? g?U? d?U? U?? X?UI d dU U
t? t? U?? t? b?v?d? s?O?M? b? t??H j
d? U?? X?H b? t? t?A?O?L? b?v bMMdB b?M?u? d?U? b?u? v?K? X?UI XUI s X
X dr dU U vK XUI t X vUI bMU dB dE dU d vK XUI
XUI U dU p qJ X b d dU U
qJ b U
gUL r d U dU vK XUI bv UA vK
t?? v??. b?v? U? t? t? U?? r b??I? n?
uv d bMM dB U tAOL t bMv
X b.t bU R L = 300
I
+
E
9V
RL
UL
RL
bMM1 dB
dU
20mA
dU vK XUI qJ
qJ
d U rO geH r t R L d
U? XH bU dpu dU vK XUI td
uv b.t b Ud b
U U? X?Hd? b?U? u?v? X? d?p?u d
tO uv U vK XUI dU b nOF{
R L = 300 n q
bv gU dU bOu Ud b
U
r uU. UH U UF XUI
tbI t tuUL dU d U gU XK
E
9V
= 450
Rt = =
I 20mA
XUI d dU U bI t X s b d
Rt = r + RL
bv bMM dB t U tOI bMv XH vK
t? d?U? v?K? X?U?I u dU Ud gU u
r = R t R L = 450 300=150
b?Uv gU Ud b? uv tHU{ b q XUI
U L = IR L = 20mA 300 = 6V
UqO qUI! UB U t X j?I dU U R L =
300
U
bMv X vK XUI d X bv
r t qJ oUD qO bM U t vuG
XU s bMuv qUI! UB t b0u UB
R L = 3450
t?? ? v?? ?U?? ?q? ? O? ? d?? ? b?? ?U?? ?v? ? g?? ?U?? ? q?? ? U?? ?? ? U X dd q XUI vK XUI b uKF U
R t = r + R L = 150 + 3450 =
3600
b?? t?? ? ?@? ? t??O? I? U?? n??U??X? u??G t?? U??A? U??V? D? Y
q? U? tD bMMv qL bMM dB bM0U X d?d? c?v? b? XU s t v0Ud b
E
o? u? n?U?X UU sO UH U X dd b s
I=
U X
Rt
vMF
2V
2V
2V
E1
2V
E3
E2
E4
R
I
+
I=
2V
= 2 / 5mA
U L = I. R L = 2 / 5mA 3450 =
+
E5
9V
3600
8 / 625V
U? t dgO U R L b? t U{ U XU s
v?K? X?U?I d dr U [V b?v
[V bMv X
2V
XUI t X@0 bMMdB XUI d tO

uv vK XUI bU e vKO bu vK
d dE0dG
UqO qUI! UB qJ
E t = E1 E2 + E 3 + E 4 E 5
E t = 2 2 + 2 + 2 2 = 2V
v?K XUI U tUA ?U? dU bM t vuG

d b ddU0 U U UqO d u tD
u U d q?J oUD bMM dB U sOF
X UG eO0 bv Xt d j VOd t b q Ud b rbM
u?G t? b?0 U?H?? U? t vUqO u?LF
d?0 d? b?M?v?L?0 U?B d?~?p? t? q?U?I?? u
t?OKX dr U U UqO dU U U UqO vJdJ
U? d?n?O?F?{ d?U? b?MU U qUY UdU db0uv
nE
vJdJ d0 bMU U qUY dO UdU d uv I = nr + R
b0uv qb d t dnOF{ dU
r
R
r
I=
E
r
+R
n
d u t vK X!UI! U UdU UB qJ
u!
g
bOM ndF qO
bOM ndF dU
bd U pA d qO bM
bOM vd vHM X UVD. t U d qO bM UB
bMv dOOG tu~ q Ud b u UB
bMv UB tu~ UqO UO u U sOQ U geH d
b dOQ t XO qO vK XUI
t vMF UqO qUI UB

sdL
rOMv UH u< t t v [ dU bM q.b X U sOQ d

d u
u< t t d~ tUA dU bM dd t dU p vUd eO geH d
rOM tHU{ b t bU
u u
2V
2V
2V
2V
R=1
A
A
qJ
1/5V
b
q?J b
X t q Ud b
qO d Ud
b
A [A u
1/5V
1/5V
R = 15
qJ
U qJ b
X b.t q Ud
mA [V u
6V
r = 1
R = 5
24V
r = 3
qJ
b? q?J b
X b.t b Ud
A u
reO qB
UM Ud
U Ub
v UE udM qBH s UU
bM ndF UM Ud
b d UM Ud u
bM UO vuMO UM Ud bOu u
bM ndF u tM
bM tU U b Ò{u vuMO u UM fUdH
b d u tM rLeU
bM U b Ò{u u tM dR bI
bM U b d u tM ju bI
bM UO vuMO u UH
buM bM vuMO UM u qJ t U Ud vU UF
dU p ju b bOu U bOv t uUL

s t uv rOI Ud u YU t X rOI U
Ud sdUM X U XN p tAOL Ud VOd
vMF X vN UM Ud X vN p rOI
nUO d~ XN f XN p b UdJ
d?U? p UVD. rOu d buv U q. XN
vN vUd rO dOOG rz u t sOF U p
X rOu UM vUd tO
u U XN p jIH t vUd u .
U?d? uM U dvL dOOG U u XN bI

t? v?U?d? Us rd X< DC U?d? U rOI
U?d? u?M? U? bMv dOOG U u XN bI
rOv d. vd u AC Ud U UM
UM Ud ndF
d?OOG U v XN t X vUd UM Ud

X db U dH< U t X eO tM bMv
UM Ud u v?H?M? d??b? U? d?H?< d?H?< U? X? db
qJ U Ud dOOG v~u~ UA d
bMv dOOG dH< U vHM db
Alternative currnet
tb u
vuMO u
vFd u
tK u
UM Ud Uu qJ tuL bM qJ
UM U U Ud u qJ tE t tE bOu OrO

bv UA
OrO tKO t vOUMG u. uD tKd
t??O?? X u u. uD U OrO uvL lD.
Xd XN OrO tUM X dH< tKd s U
tKOt u. uD lD. tKd bd XU UtdI
t??Ht??H b? b?O?u U tO bUv geH OrO
u? r?LeU bI t t u?LO f uv U
t U OrO t U tKd bv
gU eO b bOu U tO bUv gU u. uD lD.
bv dH< bI t U d t bUv
uv u bOu U XN bF t tE s
U? b?Uv geH U bI t U t?Kd
tKd bv u rLeU tDI t fJ XN
g?U? b? b?O?u U bI t U? d? t U
qU p OrO Us U bv dH< t U bUv
dOOG b bOu U OrO d d t U X
dB Ud UXU s tL bMv v vNUA
dH< Vd u t bI U bMU vdOOG r bMM
uv dH< dU fJ XN rLeU dH< rLeU
u qJ tuL bM qJ rOMv UH u
Ud u qJ Uu qJ u vJ bOMv bUA
U?M?? U?d? u? q?J? tLO d X vuMO UM
X uJF VD. U d~ tLO tMd. vuMO
t X UM Ud u sduLF vuMO Ud
V?K? r?O?M?v dJH UM Ud U v. VOd s
XU dE u vuMO u UL
UM Ud bOJu
U? U?I bOu UM Ud b tUM U
U?d bOu d X b eH eO XOL
d t
ud d UH AC U ud p uv UM
u?v? U?H?? v??O?U?M?G vJeOH u< VOd AC
d. d~p vJe Us p VD. d t VOdsb
UL VD. u. uD vOUMG uKH uL bMU t
t?U?M? u?v? u?M VD. t U Us
OrO ju u. uD bM vOrO u. uD dO
U?d? d?O U dL ut qL s Ud uv lD.
bv ut UM Ud bu
UM
Xd v~u~ U ud p UL qJ
N
0
N
90
30 90
N
180
90 0
90 180
N
270
180 90
+
180 270
N
360
270 180
+
270 360

360 270
b bOJu UJ U Ud tEJ t tEJ vMM UM Ud bOJu qJ

buv u OrO Xd d UtIK sOD. X q< r e @M tIK t UXUI d qJ d1c
UM Ud UBOA
I V
u? U AC U?M?? Ud Ub vd vd

d? U?d? U?? Ub s r Ud vuMO
u p qJ bM vuMO u qJ t VUM
X vuMO U U Ud d~UO t bv UA vuMO
T UM U
v?uMO u UM U qJ U
b X t
Ud i U UJ
vuMO u p UM qJ
(t)
U
vuMO u qJ
tOU
0
12
U? U?d? U? U XN bI bOMOv t uUL

pO bI t uv d dH< vMF bMv dOOG U
t f uv dH< U U bv X rLeU U
qJ
t uUL uv dH< U bv vHM rLeU U pO
U U rOMv hOA qU qJO p q
rv Xt U u c?v? d?H?< v?uMO u t vU~M bOMv bUA
vuMO u
dU U t bMv u u t
tOU
T=4
U?M? p tuL bMv UM vHM X dUI sO
d?O?b? d t q?J U?
n qJ bMu qJO p vHM X
bOM bO UM U
U
I V
X rLe1U
t
(t)
0
sec
qJO
qJO
u qJO
vHM rLe1U
nJ
qJ
UM U
q
bMv dOOG t U U vuMO u bb t uUL
qU qJO p U bAv u t vU b ndF t UM
UdH< vJ uv UM U
XHd b qJO tUA dH< U qJO d U bMuv ud U UM U b ut
p??O? s??O? u?v? U?M? U?
qJ bMv gUL T
rLeU
XHd b vu X
rLeU pO sO uv UM U u
XHd b vu vHM
bv UA dOb t qJ
t
0
dgO fU1d
v
tOU p
rLe1U U rLe1U
fU1d gUL qJ
t
v<U dUI dU t tu U fUdH bI
0 0
vMF X cps U ed d dN d fUdH
bMv v tOU p qU qJO d dN d

T
T
X? cps e?d U?u?A? v?C?F? d? f?UdH
dH, U dH, rLOMO U rLOMO
U~ d fUdH U uv UM U U Ud fUdH
qJ
u qJ gUL U~ uJuKO U fUdH dOb
fUdH sO tD b tH VUD t tu U XHd b
fU1d
Xu d u< t uv UM U
uLO tOU p t vUqJO bF ndF t UM
1
f=
ed
bMv UA f d U bMu fU1d uv
T
U??D< U cps t?O?U? d qJO f?U?dH b
1
tOU
T=
f
bU dgO tOU UqJO bF td bMUv Hz ed
t? u? d?U? f?U?d?H b?.d j s t tu U
UA vuMO u qJ X dgO fUdH
UM U d
bMv bO gU UM U b UL qJO UN u qJO n u t bv
UM U d ed p fUdH bU tOU p u p fUdH ed n? u fUdH vMF bMMv v tOU
b bu nB fUdH u tOU
X ed UN u
v
qJ t tu U U
X dgO u b fUdH n
bOM U fUdH UM U dUI
v
t
0
tOU p
dr1 fU1d nJ
1s
nJ
X tOU d qJO UMF t cycle per second ULK nHO cps
u u
vd XHU Vd U U t U dOOG v.
dOF t u bu u u p qU qJO p uv
t
0
bMv v qU qJO p u p t vHU d~
UA Xd t u u qJ bMu u u
1s
X?d U t VOd sb v~ fUdH dOOG u

fJ X fUdH dOOG U rOI X u UA
qJ
tD bMv gUL b d U u u
X d u< t q?JO u? q?JO n? u q
X dgO u fUdH f bd v tOU
v c
=
v?M?F? v??O?U?M?G?d??J? u U u Xd C =
Vd e?d? V d fUdH f t?OU d d 3 108
X d
u u
UJ
XUY
f = 3Hz
T = 13
f = 5Hz
0/ 33
tOU nJ u
T = 1 =0/ 2 tOU u
5
d?p?u? U?b UM U d XFM<

Ub sbMMv UHde Ub fUdH d
buv tu d u< t
(1ms) =103 s
tOU
vKO
p
T tOU dJO p (1 s) =10 s
9
tOUuU p (1ns) =10 s
(1kHz) =103 Hz
eduKO
p
vuMO u p u u gUL qJ
f ed U~ p (1MHz) =106 Hz
9
t? Hz f?U?d?H U? b?< p? u u U?
edU~O p (1GHz) =10 Hz
u< Xd X b.t uv gO vubMK tKO t tOUvKO vuMO u p UM U d U
u dH 340m sec
X b.t fUdH bU
q
1
1
f= =
=100Hz
q
2
T 10 103 (s)
V = 3 / 4 10 d /tOU
X? e?d v?u?M?O? u? p fUdH U?
f =100Hz
X b.t UM U
V 3 / 4 102
=
= 3 / 4 (m)
=
1
1
100
f
q
=16 / 67(ms)
T= =
f 60Hz
U X uLO A U A d t t
f??U??d??H U?? v?u? u? p? u? u? U???
X b.t edU~O
t bI bU R dd AA t vu< bMv gUL
u bu 57 / 3o U U p dd
c = 3 108 m s
bMv UA U u v U b t t
f = 3 109 Hz
t Xd d sdUM bMuv t Xd
c 3 108
=
=
=0/1m =10(cm)
f 3 109
Xu uv t Xd d d tD bU XU
t
x
V=
t
t Xd
x t X
t?D? tO U?M?O tD s
bMUv U d Vd b uLO UXHU
U? v?MF qU p b uLO t
s? X? U? 2 U? t? d??d? ? u?d? p?
U X dd t Xd tD u<
b? d??? p? t? v?HU bI U Xd

p? Xd bMuv v. ? bMMv bMv v U
t?OKI tKO s vMF X XUd duKO qOu
tD bU XU Xd d v duKO XU d
x
V = u?< t? U? b? b v XHU Xd
t
2 (Rad)
bU
v
U t b v XHU x Xd V t X
= =
t
T(sec)
u?d?O? b?U? rOI j u< t XHU s d U
Xd D< Xd UO d bU qJ d dO
p
f T = 1f rOv vHd
bMv UA U~ U bMMv UH t
2
=
= 2 f
? qJ t? X?d? tU d
T
s? r?dOv dE X R U?F t d t
vuMO u Ud UJ rLe1U dUI X?d? d? j?O A t?D?I A d??? q?J
U v X XU uL DC rOI U tM
U?F? b? t? t d jO vHU Ud bMv
X dOOG U U XN tM tE d AC UM
X b uLO U p u uLO X R
d. tE u bU t vu{u sO AC U
t?K?<U?H X? r?LeU tM U U pO bI dO
qJ tDI sdU sdX U U vIH u dH< sO
q?J tDI sdsOU sdvHM U dH< sO tK<UH U u
AC UM U qJ uv bOU pO u
pO bI X vHM pO X pO qU b UA
X pO tDI sdU tK<UH U AC U pO U
vuMO u X u qJ vHM
pO tDI sdsOU
uJuKO UH U X pO U pO 12 dd pO bI
A
U t XY b v XUY t Xd gUL qJ
XHd b pO U pO pO dUI uv
+V
U?M? t X vNb bMuv tM U t?EJ dUI
tE dUI vHM UM X tE dUI X
pO bI
u bu vHM
pO U pO
U??A? i v p??u?? d?? U?? t? E? ? d?U?I?
p? t?E?? b?I s t t X sJL vUbMv
V
b? ?O? u VK rOU t UO Ud U U
qJ
U vF. b bMO U. tE U pO U pO dUI
t d~ bI VK U U t bMM UO Ud U
tEJ dUI
Effective d?R bI Average j?u?

bI
U
U
U qJ b UA u qJ o
bMMv UH U? t? t? b? u? U? dUI U d Ud U
U V tM
3
2
(i ,v)
i 3 , v3
i 2 , v2
i1 , v1
t4
t1
t2
t5
t6
t3
i1 , v1
i 2 , v2
i 3 , v3
tEJ dUI gUL qJ
U?E?? U?? s u qJ uv bOu U UI OrO vuMO UJ U Ud vU tJUF

X b rOd qJ nKO U?. U OrO p d d bOu t tuUL
U rz Us vOUMG bO qJ qOD
90 0
120 0
c
60 0
b
30 0
150 0
180 0 210 0
180 0
00
210 0
30 0
60 0
90 0
120 0
150 0
330 0
300 0
240 0
270 0
UJ vuMO u gUL qJ
240 0
270 0
300 0
330 0
360 0
d t
t [ dd U d U V d t u
b U u tM rLeU U OA vMF d UF
f X UI U t v OA vOrO d U X dd
tM t vIH u U a dd tM b
U =156sin(0/ 754 57 / 3o )
t t tu U f u bu vIH u U b dd U
U =156sin 43 / 2o
vUK b UH U
Xu uv a b UI U tM = 30o gd
sin 43 / 2o 0/ 685
U =156 0/ 685 107
sin =
X
a
Am
rLeU U tM A m U tE U tM a

vuMO u Average ju bI X dd tE d b UI U sdUM X U max
vMF t uMO u tM db U
dUI sO~UO UM Ud U U p ju bI
a = A m sin
X UM p u tE
q?<U bU vOL d sO~UO tU d vK ut
U = U max sin U
d rOI UI bF d nKO UI dUI lL
= t
t rO .
p? U db q.b sO~UO tU d
f
U = U max sin t
lL jO U db U U q.b lL q<U bU U vMF uv U u< sOL t eO Ud tUF
b t sO sO~UO tU d U d rOI d
i = I max sin t
d qL d u< t
U
i = I max sin
bF b t sO~UO = 10+18 +17 = 45 = 15 f?U?d?H t bOuM vUM U tUF U
3
3
bU X U rLeU ed
p? j?u?? b?I? oO. tU d U sOL d
f X 2 f U dd t Xd q
UtuL bF d lL r U tE d u dUI bU u
= 2 f = 2 3 /14 60
U vuMO u p qJ d rOI b td
= 376 / 8 Rad sec 377 Rad sec
rOI XL. t? qJO rO d t bv UA UM
U max =156V
b? U?? q?J?O? r?O? d? j?u bI X b
U = U max sin t
X
U =156sin 377t
U[ V ]
U3
U2
U4
U1
U5
U11
t6 t7 t8 t 9
t1 t2 t3
t4 t5
t 10 t11
t12
U7
U10
t [S ]
U?L? U?? U? tE bI U?

b X t tOU t =0/002 UU
q
U =156sin 377t
t =0/002sec
U8
U9
U =156sin 377 0/002
qJ
U =156sin0/ 754
X doO. b tU s?O?~?U?O? b?I bU dgO UI bF b. d t?J

X qJO rO tE dUI sO~UO Uav+ = U1 + U2 + U3 +6 U4 + U5 + U6
vHM qJO rO tE dUI sO~UO Uav =
U
(U7 ) + (U8 ) + (U9 ) + (U10) + (U11) + (U12 )

6
Uave =0
vuMO u p UqJO rO p d ju bI

qJOrO d d XU X b UA qJ
X dd qJO rO UL ju bI XU U
t
U[ V ]
nJ
U
Uave =
Um
=0/ 318 Up
UJ
Up
X qJO rO ju bI

Uave
Up
U
t [S ]
Uave
j??u??? b?I?
vHM qJOrO
Up
U
Uave =
2Um
=0/ 637 Up
qJ
Up
b?I? X? hOA ? q?J? t? uUL

X?t? q?J?O?rO lL t qU qJO p ju
uv dH< U bI t bv
+
+ Uave
=0
Uave = Uave
qJ
b UA u u< t vUu qJ Ud

u qJ ju bI tU d X d t
d? qL uv j s tU d VOd sOL t eO Ud p d ju bI rOuO rOU t qJ
U U
vMF q?U?I? b? t??u j rOuv rOM
rOM UH U
b bOu UM bF UU vJOdJ vJdJ YU ju bI dU tMO tU v~u~ U
1
0/ 707
2
I ave =0
d?d vuMO u p dR? U

qJ X rLeU bI
qJO p vuMO u dR bI

0/707 V P
Iave =
Ip
=0/ 318 Ip
Ip
pO bI [ qU1 vuMO u p Rms dR

bI qJ
X u
dR = U rms = U eff = U e =
U
I
dR = I rms = I eff = I e =
Iave =
1
U p 0 / 707U P
2
1
I p 0/ 707I P
2
2Im
=0/ 637 Ip
Ip
X t pO U pO X dR bI U
b
/ f d rOI d b q
sdUM rOMv d{
1
1
U p = U pp = 20= 10V
2
2
X
u< t vK udH UtU
U
Ue =
UP
U
= P
2 1/ 41
tu pO U pO U Vd Ue udH tUM bMuv

u bu U PP = 2 / 828V rms U dd bI u
d? X U?? p?O? U? p?O bI U?
X X bM dN
q
Ue =
UP
2
vuMO u Rms dR

bI
U?? b?I? U? X dd UM U d dR? bI
b?I? U?L sOF bMM dB p t DC U? rOI
U?d? b?I? d?~? U?? t? b?M?v? b?Ou d U U
p? s?O?F? b? p? v?d? d? t? v?L?O?I??
bI bU dE u AC Ud vd d dd bMMdB
bMuv AC Ud Effective dR
U e =10U P 0/ 707 = 7 /07
U p = 2U e
qJ
Ud bI UL
a XLY^
R
UM Ud b (a
VDC
rOIY Ud b (b
qJ
X UFd
sO~UO c UMF t Root mean Square ULK nHO Rms
u? qJ A u? q?J sO sdUM X b UtU

X b u t t U U U t p
U P = U e . 2 = 220 1/ 41= 311

U PP = 2U P = 2 311= 622
X
X
V
A
u?? ! U?? , t?? U?? , ???
vuMO
v?J?d??J? XOL p v0U XOFYu tO@dJ

bMuv phase U b p t X@0
t
0
90
XOFYu t X t bI vuMO u p U
qJ bMv hXA b t X@0 vuMO u p
U?A?0 v?u?M?O? u p qU qJO p
Xd b O tDI0 b UA0 u qJ X b
90 U U 2 B u! qJ A u! qJ sO qJ
X?N? u? q?J? t?M? rLeU tDI0 t t?DI0
u U,
bv dHG t tM bI t tDI0 X X
uv rLeU vHM XN U bI t tDI0
U tM db U pO u u qJ s
A v?u?M?O? u? q?J? U pO bF B v?u?M?O u bv dHG t tM bI U U t t
B vuMO u qJ t XH uv c X b ut XL t b u qJ t X@0 vuMO u qJ vY
bv u t U u U tU X U
U? f U dOQ t A v?u?MO u qJ t X@0
U gO U bI t B t X@0 A u qJ U
b??0 t? B v??u?M?O? u? q?J? q??J?

270
360
180
tM d bO XHO XL t U 2 t 0
90
2
A vuMO u qJ tM d B vuMO u qJ
2
t? X@0 B v?u?M?O? u? q?J c X bO rLeU t
U bI U 2 U t b0 t A vuMO u qJ
vuMO u! q!U1 qJO p qJ
B vuMO u qJ t X@0 A vuMO u qJ U
vuMO u qJ sO U bI t U dOQ t b?0 t? B v??u??M?O? u? q?J? q??J?
bMuv eO0 U, X XL t b U qJ t X@0 U U t
o
Phase sine wave
bM@ U r
B
A
B
0
bM9 U,r r U B A u! qJ qJ
A
X?!U?I?! p? U?d? U@ vMM!

vL
vuMO u! qJ t X9 B vuMO u! qJ qJ

X duK U, bI
X? d?B?M vL XUI b U t uUL

u?? q??J? s?O? U? ?? ? q??J?
vJdJ Ud u dd XUI XHUX u jI t
X t vuMO
U? v?0U? t?K?GU U d qO sOL t bv UA0
A
u?? U?d? b? U?L? U?? u? sO v0UJ
B
qJ sO qJ bM0U hU vL b p b0
u? U? ?? t?0uO Ud u qJ U u
bM@ U r d~ vU t U b0 0 4
t
+
45
t dd B A u! qJ sO U, qJ
X
90
180
270
360
90
180
270
360
d? U bM0uv d B A u? qJ
t? u?d? d?~ U t ud u qJ p U Ud
bU Ud
b?MU tUA ?U U dE0 u qJ tUM
r? t? X??@0 u XOF{ UO d U r Ur tLK
uv UH
X@0 t bv UA0 B A u qJ
B A u? d?~? v?U? t U b0b0 U r t
qJ
g
bOM ndF d rOUH p d

vuMO u p ju dR bI UM U fUdH UM U XU U
X X pO U pO bI t vFd
t?b u p qU qJO
bOM r
U pO U pO ju dR bI X X p U dd vuMO u p pO U bI
b X t
v duK t v t X v t U t vuMO u t r U
bO UA X duK t vu t X
X? X dR bI ed f?U?dH t dN d tE U bI
bOM bO t \ \ \ \ \ dH< Ut
X U bM U dd 90o UH t
r UB vL XUI p t AC X U lM
bOM tU XUI rms Ud bI n
bU tOU d U =100 d X b.t d Ud fUdH
bOM sOOF Ud U sO UH bI
u bOu d XUI s dR U UF U X UO u dc U bI t
X b.t d AC u fUdH
tOU p qJO n
tOU 101 qJO p
tOU p qJO
tOU qJO
bOM tU d UfUdH d T ud
Hz ed n
MHz ed U~
GHz edU~O
bOM tU fUdH T ud U rms dUI qJ
U
60mV
t
3(s)
qJ

sdL
tE bI bOuM vU tUF X A bI rLeU vUM Ud

bOM hOA bU t 326o 242o 136o 67o 18o U dd t t vF.u
rLeU bI X X [ U dd 17o vUM Ud td
dO tE bI
X b.t
X [ u
b?I? X? X 190 U? d?d t [ v?U?M?? t?d?? d?O? tE bI
b X t rLeU
X [ u
b?I? t vu< b X t U 2 v?u?M?O? U?M U tE bI
bU X U rLeU
dH< u
U?? b?I? t? t X v Xd vOUMG bO q vOrO
u bu rLeU bI dd [ tE
45o UdI u
U tUF bMv u vL XUI p i = 100sin t tUF t vUd
bOuM
v =1000sin t u
X b.t dR bI fUdH bOM U T2 qJ vMM U bI
X ed Vu
UJ
220 2
T = 0/02 (s)
qJ
qJ P-P tM fUdH UM U dR dUI tU X uKD

96 V 200KHz 5 106 se 33 / 9 V u
UJ
6
48 10
V
5 106 sec
t
qJ
Vave V PP V max I t d?U?I? X? v?u?MO lM u qJ q?J? b

b Xt R XUI P u Iave I PP I max
UJ
I
120V
50 Hz
qJ
30
rUN qB
nK sOu
U Ub
v UE udM qB: s UU
d U u bM> ndF sOu
b d UM Ud qGU vOUMG bO
bM> ndF UI"u
b Ò{u UI"u vJdJ" t>d dO XN bI
bM> ndF eM" uUT
bM> tU b Ò{u du qu UI"u Vd{
bM> tU t>d b{ dO b Ò{u t>d b{ dO fU>b tD
bM> ndF UI"u b
b d vFT b sOu
bM> tU b Ò{u du qu UI"u XUI
bM> tU ndF vU XU
bM> qOK% te& t>d b{ dO Ud b U" UvMM
bM> UO fU>b vOUMG t dOQ
bM> tU UF dUI b Ò{u UsOu u d UB
b Ò{u u> Vd{ qUI UI"
bM> tU b Ò{u du qu nK b dO d
bF VK b eK: t t> vUsOu
bMuv choke u? DG bM bU
v?U??N u bMU b vU UH u?
LF Uu
vTd? U?B? v?U?N u ubMK u
uv UH vJOdJ" UB ubMK u
sOu ndF
u bUO t U u t rO bI d
vUI" d d t bv u t OrO U sOu
U?H?? r?O? b?N~ bUO XN UtOJ U t
eK: vu t U sOu bF qJ uv
bOM>v bUA
U d vOUMG bO bv u bI rLe>U

U? b?U?v? g?e?: u? rLe>U bI t dHG UU t eO
bI rLe>U bO X U U Ud t> vFTu
b? d?HG Ud u U b tUM bUv vTU u
bUv gU> dHG t eO bO
I
rLe;U& bO&
dH bO&
dH bO&
rOI"& Ud tKO t b U v"OUMG& bO& qJ
Ud p t qJ oUD U p d d
b?O? b? t??O?? U?d? b?I? r?O?M> qG UM
b t:U{ U bMM>v dOOG tuO U d vOUMG
nK.& Ut" U UsOu u1 qJ
U fJd uv duT eO qGU bO Ud vb
b bu dr> eO bO Ud b r> U?d? p? q?U?? v"OUMG& bO&
UM& rOI"&
X?N? dOOG qJO rO d UM Ud t> U
bO XN sdUM uv uJF eO bO XN bv U?d? t ? q?J? o?U?D? U p d d
uv hsA Ud XN tKO t tE( d vOUMG t? d?H?G v?U?NU u t Ud b? r?O?M?> q?G rOI
+
b8u&
ac
180 0
270 0
360 0
t
00
90 0
UM& Ud qU v"OUMG& bO& qJ
r? U U tKO t? u?T uD lDT b?O b r> U

sdUM uv UI" U vJdJ" t>d dO p
d> g>d: U d V U Ud gU> U ge:
VUM t>d dO uv d vOUMG bO
X?O? ?GU?? s? d?v? U?I?" U? b?O? d?O?O?G? U?
u? Ud d t> bOU t tu bMuv vUI8u
bu XU eO b U vOUMG bO bU XU U
qJ uv/ UI" U t>d dO c" u
bv UA Ud dOOG U t>d dO UI"
v"OUMG& bO& t1
vUI8 U8 t1
ub;O
b1
v"OUMG& bO&
emf d" U
b UI8
Ud
vUI8u
U? p u UM Ud ud rO v U
v sO Zb t f uv U vOUMG bO
uv U n"Us XN bO eO bF qJO rO
v sO Zbt
X? b? U?? U? v??O?UMG bO t> vU
d? U d t U e>d vOUMG uT uD
uv lDT U tKO t d U bO bMUv
dv bO"u U emf vJdJ" t>d
dO p
v"OUMG& bO&
UI8 emf dOG&dO
bM;v/
U v"OUMG& bO&
bM;v& UI8 emf lDF
+
U&
emf bO8u gU/ qJ
X VUM Ud fU>d: U b UI" t>d dO bI

gU> U ge: b UI" t>d dO fU>d: ge: U
bUv gU> b UI" t>d dO fU>d:
dO bI t> X d~ qu eO Ud bI
Ud b? t? d vMF bM>v sO?F b UI" t>d
td duT b U bO bU dgO U u
ut f uv dnOF{ b U bO bU dr> Ud
UI"u b UI" t>d dO bI t> XH uv vK>
q?J v~ U u Ud fU>d: tM t
bv UA vu t b d> qu
self-induction
UI8u vJdJ8 t;d& dO1 bI&

t? U? p? b? U?I?" v?J?dJ" t>d?? d?O
d?O d bMUL u Ud b? dOOG tKO
bI t> vKu tKL X XN bI t>d
b dOOG eO bM>v sO?F b UI" t>d dO
X??u?? u??v? t??> u?? t?? X?? v???O?U?M?G? b??O?
v??OUMG U dOOG t?D s emf bI = T
t vOUMG bO b bv UA U dOOG T
sdUM v~ fU>d: dOOG U Ud dOOG Xd
Electro motive force uudJ" dO U
r; tM& U f1U;d U Ud
U tM& sOU f1U;d U Ud
50V
50V
vUI8emf
vUI8emf
I
+
bMM; U uF Uemf bM1uv& U f1U;d UUd

X r; U"1 UtM& t; s rvK
bM1uv& bMU U UtM& d sOU f1U;d UUd

bMM; U uF Uemf
vUI8 emf bI& d Ud f1U;d tM& dOQ qJ
X b u t Ud XN dOOG
eM8 u1UF
vuUT e?M8 U? t vU* peO: p U
v?U?I?" t>d dO XN d~UO t> tz UOUN t
rOUMv eM8 u1UF U t uM> U u U p
p? u?? U?d dOOG d eM" u?UT U d
d t> uv vUI"u t>d dO U YU U
vU~M d~ U t bM>v XH"Us Ud dOOG XN U
X vN vUI" t>d dO bUv gU> Ud t>
ge: Ud t> vU~M bM>v XH"Us Ud gU> U t>
U t> X u vUI"u t>d dO XN U bUv
UI8u t;d& dO1 XN

vUI" t>d dO XN U t t> u uB
bU
s? b?U? b u t U?d? X?N? b?U tAOL
dHG U Ud ge: t> rOv XO X uB
d?O? v??O?U?M?G? b?O? g?e?: V?? rLe>U bI U

UL b UI" t>d dO d uv vUI" t>d
g?e?: b?v? ge: Ud b? b?U? Ud XN
g?e?: u?v? V?? d?gO t>d dO Ud
U t Ud ge: u tu t eO t>d dO
b dBM t> vU U uv dJ UM s
X?N? v?MF b:v/ vTUH s?O?M t> rOv U b?uv
U? n"Us d t> X u tAOL vUI" t>d dO
X Heinrich F.E. Lenz vU* peO: s U
rOI"& U
b?u duT b? qOJA t>db?{ dO bU dgO U" sO tD qJ bM>v XH"Us Ud ge:

U?d? U YU t> U" U b UI" t>d dO U
s t> Cemf = N t Xu uv t> u tu
U?A? t? U?: ?? U? b? U??" u?v?
X OrO bF NtD
bv
U UI"u d U vJeO: qJ dOQ qJ
d?O? XN p b U" b r> U U U
bv UA b u?v? r?> U U n"Us XN b UI" t>d
b? U" U n"Us vUI" t>d dO qL t> U
UNM U bO& uD
Cemf U? b?M?U?v? v?U?I" t>d b{ dO X
bMM;v& lDF tDI1 p
qJ sOu U
Cemf =
t??D? b?I? b?M?v? g?U?/

bMM>v tU
b U8
gO UbO& uD
bMM;v& lDF tDI1 p
vUI8 U8
0
UI8u d d dgO t;d& b{ dO1 bU qJ sOu U d

dv& U
OrO p U U p t;d& b{ dO1 qJ
XH8U.& b U8 U tAOL vUI8 t;d& dO1 qJ

bM;v&
UI8u Vd{ U f1U;b1

U p ju b lDT uT uD bF Ud
u?v? sOOF U qJ ju t> vd{ U b
t? b? U t>d? b?{ d?O? b?I rOM> d{
vMF bv X
Ud dOOG
U Cemf = L
U dOOG
qJ t bI t> L vMF Y u Vd{
U? f?U??>b? U? U?I?"u? V?d{ v~ U
p b UI" t>d b{ dO t> rOH T
bMuv
U p b UI" t>d dO duT UO OrO
p?u?> U?O?? r?O?I??? U p fU>b d X
U???? UtIK bF t t OrO p fU>b
bUv e
vUI8u d U qJ dOQ
d? t?> U?d? f?U?>d?: t?M qU s gO
vUI"u d t> vu qU rd> vd bdR vUI"u
d?T tF"UD u t> X U vJeO: qJ cv dOQ
dOv
b?O? t?F?"U?D? d? r?O?I??? U?U? u?M?>U?
p?L?> b? U?? v?U?I?" t>d b?{ d?O? v??O?U?MG
bU OrO sOu uG t U p d uM> rO:dv
t>d b{ dO X dgO u t> s qO" t
p gO bO j d u UOU uv UI" dgO

dO bM>v U vUI" t>d b?{ dO U tDI
t>d?b?{ d?O? d?> p?L?> r? t UtIK t>d? b{
?O?rO p UtIK bF t d uv qOJA duT
Counter electro motive force
U?? ?I? ? 8u?? ? V?? d?? { d?? R?? & q?? &u?? p vJeO: UXOGuB vJ XIOI fU>b
f1U;b1 u d t> dOQ U d VK U X OrO U U
X U fU>b sdUM bMM>v ndF Ud
u Ud b? d?O?OG d qUI U d XOGU
b d rOI Ud fU>b t> X vNb c"
dU vU~M X Ud b dOOG U n"Us t> d UNM
U?O?F lT fU>b bU dOG Ud b t> uv
t Ud b dOOG d t t> s gM d X
fU>b vK> ut f uv bO"u t>d b{
dO bI
d?O?O?G? t?O?U? d? p t t> bv UA OrO d
dv UI" t>d dO X" bM Ud
nU> bMLA
U t> X dU fU>b b
d? X? U? p fU>b bI dU X b t:d
X" p t>d b{ dO tOU d p Ud dOOG
fU>b U"U X ve U b dU u bM> U
(103 H) dU vKO u dpu> Ub Vd
d?O? b?I t> U bdv U> t (106 H)d?UdJO
X? d?U ndF vze U b U t>d b{
t?? ? D? ? ? s?? ? X t d tD uv t>d dO bI
n?K p fU>b U UI"u Vd{ du qu

rOM>v rOI t t
t fM n"
vJeO: qu
nK uG rOv t> uUL t" fM n8
t? r?O? t?> U X b X OrO p
X? s?J?2 U?t s U t?" u?v? b?OO
u? U? U?t??? b?M?U? v??O?U?M?G?dO U vOUMG u
?O?rO ju b U vOUMG uT uD vOUMG
d?c?u?H? X?O?K?U?T v?M?F bMv u u vt
u? u??L? F? u?? s?? X?? U? U? u?H?V?d?{
bMUv v"OUMG&d
b?M?M>v hsA u d? U t uHVd{
b?O? n?F?{ b?M?M?> s?O?O?F? t??? v??O?UMG uH Vd{
Vd{ t X u uH Vd{ X t vOUMG
u?v UO = r . 0u?Gt? bOM ( 0)u? uH
u?? ? d?? ? r
= 4
H
m
107
b vOUMGdO u d de vOUMGd:
X p
t?> tuUL d UdU vJeO q&u
n?K? f?U??>b? d X b UA q?J
bdu
OrO bF
OrO u l
OrO u
t lDI `D
`D
AlDI&
bFN N
U Cemf = L
i
t
U t>d b{ dO t> bv UA vHM X

X n"Us U: b U" U b
tOU p Ud b d sOu p U&
t?>d b?{ d?O bd dvKO t? dvKO
U?I?"u? V?d?{ b?I? b?M?> b?O?"u? X?" p? U
b X t sOu fU>b
U Cemf = L
i
i i
= L 2 1
t2 t1
t
1V = L
1
(0/10/ 5)A
1sec
L=
= 2 / 5H
nK p rN& Ud&U qJ
0/ 4
X d> nA> vUI" XOGU U: qJU U dL t> X vUJd peO: U dU
X U dOOG Ud b dOOG UL uv kHK v U" U" t> t i
bv/ dHG t v ut Ud eO bOK> lDT U bd u d? uG t du q?u? t? tu U fU>b

XH"Us ld dOOG s U b bO"u t>d b{ dO d
uv tu
bv dHG t Zb t Ud c" bM>v
1
.A. N2
L=
b? X? t? Ud sOU tD dOOG s v
l
t?KO t t> bv u t Ud s t bO U b
U? d? U? u?v? U?O vU XU U t vO? L> t??? u?H? Vd{ d?U? V?? d? f?U?>b L
tH vU b t vU XU ndF Vd bMv gU/ l ldd Vd t lDI `D A d d dU Vd
X d Vd vOrO u
U rLe>U bI bG [ t nK p Ud t> uv
bI t vHK b p vU XU bI bd u rLOMO
t? d tD v~ L f?U>b R XUI sOu fU>b bI qJ t tu U U&
X bT t
bv X
L
R
N = 5
A = 0/2m2
U vU XU bvd b tH tD t> tuUL

f?J? X??? XUI U rOI?? X?? fU>b
b?U? dpu> XUI U de fU>b td sdUM
L fU>b d fJd b bu dvu vU XU
( ) vU XU bU r Vd R XUI dU Vd
b bu X t tOU Vd
nK p Ud U bA>v u vU XU uLF
U? g?e: bG bI bd u rLOMO U rLe>U bI t

t? t?u? U? n?K?s vU UXU Ud b? gU>
U?d? e? uFG sUM X% q?J? UvMM
rOM>v vd
q?> bG [ b? t? vUd v?U XU
t? U?d? vU XU cv OrO vUN Ud
r??M UN u vU UXU bv bG [
bI t UdI rM vU XU t> ut uM sOL t eO
Ud ge: b n" vMM bv u d>b
bv UA vU XU d dUI
qJ
q
L=
.A. N2 4
=
l
107 0/ 2 52
= 62 / 8 H
10 102
v1U& XU
t? Ud b? r?O?I? Ud v??U?I b p
u?t? Ud bOK> 7 U vMF bM>v dOOG tE( u
t? rLe>U U??F?: b?O?K> lDT U rLe>U t dHG vUNU
u? t?:U?{ b? t? vMOu d t> vuG bv dHG
7 U sdUM bM> dOOG uG s t buv/ d~ Ud
d?O? U b?U? g?e?: v? u? t? v?F? U?d? b?O?K>
b?M>v XH"Us Ud v ge: U b U t>db{
r?L?e?>U bI t Ud U bA>v u vU b tO
bU de UO t lDI dDT l t> X UG v"U ud: s
q?J? vMM t tu UL b Ud lD! U

t? U?d? v?U? X?U? ? X? u?NA ?
t bMv bO gU rLeU bI b9 [ b
b?9 [ t? v?U? X?U? b?v? b?9 [
Ud gU rM UN u vU UXU bv
t UdI rM vU XU bMv bO t uM sOL t
bv dH9
bU v:U rLe%U Ud b
t% bM%v uI rLe%U bI dr% t Ud vU XU

X dH UL L
e vMM
% 36/8
%13/54
%4/98
3
%0/68
4
b bOK 7R f qJ b U
UR bv u rLeU bI t Ud b
t vU
bOM
vHK b Ud b e uF vMM qJ
R
t mH f?U?b U vMOu d U? U
bMv dOOG tu~ vU XU dO d! mH sOu U
q
=
10V
10mH
L 20 103
=
= 10(ms)
2
R
qJ
vU XU b X t bI uN tD t tu U
uv dd
X d RLb p Ud db U
X b! t vU XU UU uF9 Ud bI
vU XU UU Ud bI
I1 = 10
5 =
L 10 103 (H)
=
= 5(ms)
2( )
R
5 5ms = 25(ms)
bI s bv rLe%U bI t Ud vU XU u

X UL L
63 / 2
= 6 / 32(A)
100
10 6 / 32 = 3 / 68(A)
Ud bULO!U
vU XU Ud geN
63 / 2
= 2 / 32(A)
100
vU XU UU Ud bI
I2 = 6 / 32 + 2 / 32 = 8 / 64(A)
Ud rLe%U b
3 / 68
uF vMM n'
% 86/4
% 95
% 98 /1
% 99/3
% 63/2
UN u vU XU UU Ud bI sd9
b X t
1
UM& Ud sOu
bI bU dr> fU>d: t d dgO vUI" XUI bU

u bu dr> vUI" XUI
Xd t> X ()t Xd UL 2 f v:d
U?O? tOU d U Vd bv gU/ Ud dOOG
U" X: bM> dOOG dgO Xd U Ud bTd uv
t tu
U sdUM b bu dU eO nK d vUI"
Xu d tD uv r uUT
U U~M jI: Ud U t> DC Ub d

vv Ud AC Ub bM>v dOOG b b t
cv b U> d vLz d fU>b c" bM>v dOOG
fU>b b lDT tE( U b b t tE( vMF
dOQ b dJKL d
AC b sOu d c" bMO b uLF UsOu
U
X ud eO vL XOGU vUI" XOGU d
X L = 2 f L = L
IL
U b XUI bI eO j UrO lM t
b d Ud t> bMU pu> bT t UXUI s d
UsOu UB v?H?K? d jI: uv bU eOU fU>b d qUI
r?u??? V?K? V?UM fU>b t vUX d
d> dEdG vL d X:d dE b
u? s?O?M? r?bM u U d u t UsOu
UMO q> fU>b d~ p d UbO d 7:d dE b
vUI8 X&UI&
bv X t u d Ub UF XUI tO AC DC U?d? q?U?I? vL XUI t> rOv
v"u vv UB UUsOu d UB n8
UNM b d U vNUA qLF"fJ vU U" t
U?f?U??>b pp uL dd q> fU>b UsOu t?>d b?{ d?O? t? U?d? bI bU fU>b qU
bv X t d tD t> X b uu U b?M?>v? X?H?"Us Ud u U t> v~ b U
u?v? UO X" Vd Cemf t>d b?{ dO u
L t = L1 + L2 +L+L n
X t Ud dT r U t uv/
q?> f?U??>b UfU>b u U uG
t? r? V d uv b d t>d b?{ dO dOQ c"
U X dd sOu n d gU/ X L U bMuv vUI8 X&UI& d s X
L t = nL
bMv
j?u? b b U t>d b?{ dO bI
UsOu u UB UsOu u& UB
bv X t d tD q> fU>b u?v? s?O?O?F? b? u?? Ud fU>d: L b?I
b?U? q?u? s?O?L t t bU eO vUI" XUI sdUM
1
1
1
1
vMF
=
+
+L+
Lt
L1
L2
Ln
d q> fU>b UsOu u U uG

U X dd sOu
Lt =
L
n
X L = 2 f L
r V d vUI" XUI X L u: tD
L e?d? V?d Ud fU>d: f [ d?d XU b
U? dOv dT u?d: dU Vd t> X fU>b
d?g?O? f?U??>b? U fU>d: t d b U tD t tu
2
L t =15 + 6 +10= 31(mH)
u UB
u d UB UqJ
b b dT d~ p U tKGU: U t> sOu t d
bv UA vOUMG U 7
1
1
1
1
1 1 1
=
+
+
=
+ +
L t L1 L2 L 3 15 6 10
L1
L2
1 2 + 5 + 3 10
=
= (mH)
Lt
30
30
L3
UsOu d UB qJ
30
Lt =
= 3(mH)
10
L1
L2
L3
e?d b? f?U>d: d U? U?&

X? t? X"U d UF vUI" XUI u t:d dE
UsOu u& UB qJ
b
U?F? v?U?I?" X?U?I? t??U?? d? s?OMr
d X"U
fU>b tU tUA uv eO u d Ub
L t = 31(mH)
UF vUI" XUI tU j d> qL UsOu UF
X L t = 2 f L t = 2 3 /14 1000 31 103 ( )
X d uG t u d b
X L t =194 / 68
u X"U
d b
X L t = X L1 + X L2 +L+X L n
L t = 3mH
X L t = 2 f L t = 2 3 /14 1000 3 103
u b
X L t =18 / 84
1
1
1
1
=
+
+L+
X L t X L1 X L2
X Ln
qUI& UI8 U?s?O?u u U d UB p d d?;c

Xt d tD uv q> vUI" XUI
bdO dT d~ p vJe u OrO Ud
d~ OrO UtIK vJ ju b bO"u uT uD t>
X L = 2 fL = W. L t
b UI" U" uv UI" U" OrO bM> lDT
bMM>dB U b u t uG OrO U??f?U??>b? U? s?O?u? t? U??&
u?T uD bO"u U t> bM>v bO"u vUd u tu t u uG t U p d uG t U p dUvKO
OrO bM>v lDT vOrO UtIK bb b X t X"U d q> fU>b bb t
u?v tH qUI& UI8 q?L s t uv UI" U"
q
t tu?
U bcv d d~p d UI OrO vMF
d UB
b? u? ?O?r?O sO vJdJ" U tuO t> s
L t = L1 + L2 + L 3
bU r U vOUMG bO ju U UtIK v"
UIY tuO sOu sO t vu9 u bu p

u bu dH9 dd Ze Vd{ bU tb u vKUI
bMv gU/ k d U t Ze Vd{ Ud
V?d?{ tUM bMu XH U q U Ze bU p dd
bMuv XR U h!U Ze bU p dr k Ze
u?D? t??% b?Jv UH vU b d%b Ze
b?M?% l?D?: d?~ sOu UtIK U9 sOu p u:
bv UA nKg UXYU Ze t qJ
X qUI U s
t? s?Ou q?U?I?? U?I?Y vU vUIY UY bI
vu! uD bF d~p t XR U 7Nd d! l{
t v~R bMMv d!d sOu sO U t
U?O Z?e Vd{ U? t? v??d?{ ju u! uD U
d~ sOu ju sOu p u! uD tL v! uv
u?D? v??LR! Ud p dd Ze V?d?{ u lD!
dr Ze Vd{ u lD! d~ sOu ju b bOYu u!
r%
UsOu sO Ze t gU/ qJ
j?u? b U dOQ td b?{ d?O bU fUb

u Ud b UY sO Ud fUb
td b{
dO XN d~ U tbMv U UN
t bMv XHYUg Ud dOOG U tAOL t X UM
U?H?L? ?O?r?O b UIY UY U b UY t rOv
qJ UvMM bd~ p nYUg XN U bMRO
dO b UY Ud UvMM sO U
U?d? t?M? t vU bv UA vu t td b{
t?M? X? d?H?9 d?O?O?G? tJM qOY t X rLeU
cv dH9 Ud t vU X dH9 td b{ dO
td b{ dO f X bI sdgO dOOG
dOF t bUv rLOMO U rLeU Ud dOOG XN t tR
UY eOU dOOG Ud t d~
uv/ U td b{ dO cY X dH9 b
U?Y U Ud d?OOG t dH9
vd{ sOu sO qUI UIY eO UA d

d U bM Uv qUI UIY Vd{ t uv UH
OrO fUb t qUI UIY Vd{ bMv gU/M
tU d tD X tR U sO Ze Vd{
uv
M = k L1L2
L1
dU VR d qUI UIY Vd{ M tD s

X Ze Vd{ k dU VRd UsOu fUb L2
bUv b b t
U?d sOu U' Ud vMM

UM
U??Y s?O? UN vL X UI U b p
Ud vMF X dH9 dd u Ud U X UI d
q U b d U bUv UN r X UI p d UY U
uv bO"u b U" XN ? t?>d b?{ d?O? d??>b? c" X rLe>U b

+
Ud
t;d& b{ dO1
270 0
90 0
360 0
180 0
+
+
b U8
Ud
270 0
90 0
360 0
180 0
b U8
t;d& b{ U8
Ud
270 0
90 0
360 0
180 0
t;d& b{ dO1 b U8 Ud UvMM& gU/ qJ
X U tOU Vd W b dO d
nK b dO d1
OrO p Ud t t vOUMG bO

dU vUI"u Vd{ U OrO p U&
U?d? t?> U??" l??M? o?d t> X vJdJ" d
OrO s lDT U~M cv d U dd vLOI Ud v??O?U?M?G? b?O d s uv sOQ bM>v bO"u
uv d bT t v~ Ud c L fU>b t uv dO
1
vMF
W = LI2
2
1
3 3600
W = 3 (60)2 =
= 5400j = 5 / 4kj
2
2
t X&UI& t b d1
W = RI2t uv& qb d
+
1
W = LI2
2
d?U? V?d L d?? V?d I u?: t?D
u t nK t b d1
uv& dO v"OUMG& bO&
W=
1 2
LI
2
qJ
g
bOM> ndF vUI"u Vd{ vUI"u

cv OrO d vd t Ud dOOG
XO eM" uUT
bOM> tUI d~ p U OrO d AC DC Ud d
XO Cemf emf sO d:
bb> UI"u UI" Vd{ bI d dR qu
t vMF qUI UI"
XO qUI UI" DC Ud d
bO Ò{u UOrO t d
t vMF nK b dO d
bO Ò{u UM Ud vUI" XUI d
bOM> UO UOrO 7 u U d qO"
d XO sOu p Ud U" sO U: tD

sdL
u t U ld d [ lDI `D dvU u t vOrO

dd UI" u Vd{ rOus d UOU X dU vKO bM UdI vUI"u Vd{
X
u bM bU OrO bF u
mH u
u u t d~ U d u t U p dU vKO UI"u Vd{ U sOu
uv bT t X"U d q> vUI"u Vd{ rOM>v qG r t
dU vKO u
d bI t X d u Ud 20mH vOrO vUI" u Vd{
uv dO OrO
W u
d u t U p dU vKO \ \ UI"u UVd{ U sOu UN
b X t X"U d q> UI"u Vd{ bbM u u t d~ U
dU vKO u
XUI bM>v u ed fU>d: U vUM Ud mH vUI"u Vd{ U sOu p
uv r bM sOu vUI" XUI bU dOOG ed uKO> p t fU>d: d X r bM sOu vUI"
[ [ u
d t d p tOU b Ud dUvKO vUI"u Vd{ U sOu p
U" bU dU vUI"u Vd{ d X X" vKO bM sOu vUI"u U" bUv ge:
uv X"vKO bM vUI"
u
sOu s d X X vL [ vL XUI dU vUI"u Vd{ U sOu p
bA>v u vU b t uv d bM b Ud rLe>U rOM> qG rOI X" [ U" t
u rLe>U Ud U
tOU d u
reU qB
rOI Ud U
U Ub
v UE udM qBP s UU
b d ULU bM ndF U
bM ndF U XOPd
b Ò{u pdJ
Vd{
XOPd b d dR qu XOPd b
bM tU U
bM UO DC Ub U UP
bM UO U U U v~u~
bM r U U vMM UO vU XU
bM tU vU XU bdO d
bM tU d UU UF XOPd
bM tU u UU UF XOPd
tH UU u s bM0 `D0

UU U
q?O?J?A? d?= p?dJ
U oU U sO t U
U?/ `D0 U p U d qJ buv
bv UA vJdJ
U?O?0? t?K?UP be U???0? U? UH

vHK: u pdJ
bdOv d= r t pe
v?Pd?F uv bOM u t X0 t vuB: Vd{ U
bMuv pdJ Vd{ Vd{ s dv
bMv gU/ d U
U
vJdJ
Ub t X vJdJ
tKO U
uv V t X vOU
vU d bMv U vU d
d?O? p?OUdJ
bO p vJdJ
d bI
bI bMuv t bM0 dUM UU d~ dOF t u
dO u pOUdJ
bO p u t tO0dJ
bI ddO d e: p t tu UL bMM

dOv d= UH u
sdb buv tU uUu UJ t UU
pdJ
DC
U U U U
vJdJ
d vMF u U U p t s d
q U
qO0U p t bU bM dO
X VD= uv sOQ dU p tKOt U
s d
bMU U d~ d t vHM VD= d p t dU
U UH bOK 70 q= uv q qJ
b bu: dO d O X vM
d? t? d?U? vHM VD= UdJ
bOK 70 U
buv U X qB VD= s t t tH
VD= tE( sOL bMMv U vHM U U dJ
rd
VD= s t t tH dJ
bF UL dU X
bMv dJ
uL tH s bMv c X qB
uv U U t vUE( uv X U
d?U? X?? VD= d t j UrO od UdJ
U? v?H?M? V?D?= buv dU bMMv Xd

b Ud u b UdJ
Xd bdv
bMuv
b?O? U UH UdJ
bU
U??
XN U
dv U sU vJdJ
b?U?? U??
bMv U U d t b UL
d?O??F? t bMv XH
U: b Ud bU U U
U
td bMv XH
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d~
U
sO UH t b dR U
uv dgO U d
b? t??O?? u?v? d??L X U U
dU
dd dU U
U U U
Ud bUv gUb Ud
b Ud bdH dv n=u b Ud u
U??
U? UO U X U qU bU tUA
uv/ U lM U
dAO
U vJdJ U/
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U UH&
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u uv X U d~ tH vHM U
U?d??J
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bMuv/ UdJ
bv/ Xd s UJ UH sO
d?O? p? U b?d? X??? t??H? d? t oU od
u? t??H? s?O? uv U c V t vJdJ
vJdJ
bO uv bOU vJdJ bO dO s
d?O? u?D? u? t? u?v? U? b? u?v?/
U td UA U tH sO v{dP vJdJ
b? U?? vJdJ
bO bU dgO U UH
U??H? s?O? t?U? d?O? t?O u bu du=
U??H? sO vJdJ
bO q?J? uv de
bv UA U
bA9 U U
vJdJ bO b
bU b U U
ju vJdJ bO
bU U; U
u= vJdJ bO
nK1 UXU U UH& sO vJdJ bO gU/ qJ
rdOv dE UdJ
Xd XN d b Ud XN d= o
U? d? bMUv b?U U? X? qL
U u U tH sO U dO0 p X UNM U
X qO0U d t vHM tH UdJ
dO0 U
b= UH sO dJ
U buv U X tH
U? l?=u s bu v?M U??H? U? bMv bO t
Xd X bU U bMuv b U
tuO
u?v bOU U? Ud b?U? dO0 UdJ
bOMv bUA U U U qJ
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c?v?/ b v9Ud
uv/ U U
X?? t??? I? b?O?K?; v??=

c?v? b Ud
bM;v U U
++
++
U U dU UB qJ
U? U?
U Ud t d tu tJ s t bU
U?d? U? b vMF bMMv qL d~p n
U:
t?PU?{ U? U
t td X dH U U
rLeU
bI t U U
v= bUv gU Ud b uv
s q?J? uv dH Ud bv u rLeU
bv UA vMt VKD
U U U
bU U
u U b
cv/ Ud
10V
0V
+
tOK1 U U
U U U
U Ud
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+
++
++
4V
U U U gU/ qJ
U XOd
bU U; U
cv/ Ud
10V
10V
bMv gU/ C d U t U p XOPd
X? v?J?d??J
U U ddO vUu eO u/
t? vJdJ
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dU U b9t U bU qJ
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U?? t? b?U? g?e?P X
p bt d~ tH t
U tOK1 U
p d b dO Q vJdJ
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X b=t bdO U bI rOv UB X?O? Pd? t dr U dr XO? Pd? t vU dd
q
b? b?M?v? d?O u dgO U dgO
Q = CV
b? t??Pd? U?P q?J?U? U t X U? X?O?Pd
p?d b dO U s?
u p X0 X U
Q = 40 106 50= 2000 C
U?B X?
p? q?O?0?U? t t vU UH
U U rOb U
t F U d t U
t U XOPd tD btz ndF t tu U bU b
u dO C UF
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q
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C
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X ve b UP X U d U
V C s
u
10 106 (C)
V=
=1V
10 106 (F)
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Ub buv UH dpu Ub
U XOd
d
dR
qu
bv UA Vd{ U dJu

bU U XOPd sOOF dR qu sdrN
b
UH XU0
UH sO tKUP
b
UB d
Vd{
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f
U
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pf
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d? t? X
U?L? d? U? p U??
X b=t U XOPd bMv dO s
u UF U
q
Q
V
80(C)
C=
= 4(F)
20(V)
C=
U XOd d dR qu qJ
bUv dJ
6 / 28 1018 U bI X vJdJ
U b Coulomb s
u
e?O?U? d?O?Q? U? X?O?Pd d t X d~ qu dOv d= UH u U t vU b d t U d U
fUdP
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uv dd U XOPd UH XU0 bdd

U XOPd UH XU0 bnB u fJd
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bv UA UH
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bI vMF uv r U U UI vU XOPd UH
f?J X0 UH sO tKUP U U XOPd
U XO?Pd? b?I bU dr tH sO tKUP td

b?U? dgO UH tKUP td fJd X dgO
X dr U XOPd bI
t u tH sO buv t tKUP sdr
v~0 UH sO oU U t b U
t bU
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q?L?% X?
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s?d?U?M? u?v? d?O? U? d?g?O U bMU

XO?Pd? UH sO tKUP oU 7t~ XU u
U? v?M?F? r?O?I??0? X??0? U??H? X?U?0? U U
2C
2A
A
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b?MMv bO
u vJu XO?Pd? d~ vd tv
U
s??O? U?H? b?M??0? v?H?O?F?{ U?p?d??J?
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uv h:A pdJ

UuJ
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bv UA U XOPd

d pdJ
dOQ qJ
s?O UH u oU U
p?dJ d
tP Ut pdJ
bMu pdJ U UH
b?U UJO tAO cU u buv UU
v?e? vU XO?Pd? t? s? XKt UpdJ
vCF
bM0 vu UpdJ
bMMv bO
u
b?u? v? dD b pdJ

t U
db
V0d bMUv pdJ qL%
XOKU=
bM qL%
1
dd mil q?O? d bMMv qO d X
V mil
1000
XOKU=
r pdJ
Vd{ b X M
?? X? b? U?A? UoU vCF pdJ
qL%
p? U?H sO tKUP UJO fM vU oU d
UJO
u
b?M? q?L?% b?u?v U s t U
db bU qO
dd ZM X XL U XOd
t? b?U?L? U
d u bu X
b?M?O? tb
X XL U XOd
UJO pdJ
UuJ
u u X
gO U
U XOd d pdJ dOQ qJ
u?= U? UH pdJ
sOtO bMMJv
b?u: UH qU= d~ U s uv U vJdJ
q?L?% X?O?K?U= pdJ XU

rOM dd U sOL UH sO tKUP d u
pdJ
u?A? d? bM qL?% b?u?v? t? U
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fM
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d??O? d?= t?u?? u?? b??U?? u?? v?J?d??J?
u??
u? t? X?0 u vJdJ
u? uEM s d
[ UH XU0 t vU XOPd
U
u? d??v??U [ U??H? s?O? t?K?U?P l?d?d? X?U o u? p?d??J?
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b X t bU UJO tP Ut pdJ
b?I bdOv dE d?~? U d pdJ
pdJ
Vd{ b UH U q
U X dd
X??U? t? r?O?v? s?O?M?r? X? d?d? U?J?O? d? r
= 0 r
U sdUM 0 = 8 / 85 1012 U X dd u pdJ
F
0 = 8 / 85 1012
m
X?t? U? X?OPd C b?I? b? d?U?I? t tu
rv XO? U? b?v UA t X vU b U? Vd{ r
X?u pdJ
XOU dd bM U d pdJ
F
= 0 r = 8 / 85 1012 5
m
u UH XU0 U U XOPd
rb = tuUL
2
A =0/05m
X??0? UH sO tKUP U rOI0 X0 pdJ
2
d =0/1 10 m
Xu u s t XOPd uv sdUM fJ
C=
A
d
C=
8 / 85 1012 5 0/05
=0/00221 f
0/1 102
C=
A
d
U?A tH sO tKUP d tH XU0 A

bv
dH uKO0 uv bu
X 394V cm = V 0/001 2 / 54cm = V mil
oU u9 bM vJdJ qL% XOKU= pdJ UVd{ b

pdJ qL% XOKU= pdJ qL% XOKU= pdJ Vd{
oU u9
V mil
r
V cm

uKH

[
sOPU t tA cU

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rOMOu
bO0

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tAO

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XU dOv
bM [ VOd t bF UvU
XU v
sO
v?U
XU U?N?? u?v?
t?OKB bU
vU U
U tD b X b tOKB
U5 U
U? U?vMM
? q?J? vU
XU U U
bOM5v
bUA
U U
dO d DC b?
p? v?UNM t vU tUM
U?H? q?O?" s? t? U? ld U uv
U Xdt
U? b u v
UI
tuO U dO4
t5 b6v
U? d?O?4?
u rOM5 t6U{ b
t v
UI
d
bI
t U U
oO bI
bM5v
dvu U U
C U? X?O? 6d R U? d?O?4?
t??6d d X
UI
uv
hBA
d tD pL5t v~4
=
RC
X? vU
b
bMu U? vU XU
U ge? U U% n%
U% rLe"U b4
U% rLe"U bU v<U b4
U gU" U U%
% 36/8
%13/54
%4/98
3
%0/68
4
s? t?" b?v? rLe"U bI d?r?" t? U?% vU XU

X dH4 L
bI
% 86/4
% 98 /1
% 99/3
% 63/2
b?I? s? t?" bv rLe"U g?O? t? U% vU XU

X L
U U U UvMM qJ
rLe"U U% U U U b4 b
bF bU v<U b4
bF rLe"U b4
vU
XU U U%
vU XU U U%
dHM UdI
UdI
% 95
U bdO d9 f rdOv dE qJ b U

qJ vMM UH U bOK 70
d U bdO vJOUdJ
bO
U? U t lM U
tKOt d s u bu t U d U
U bAv u b t n
bd X
lD= U U
lM t UM uv sOQ X d
d? s? f?U t U= U tKd U rOM uv b=t U d U
tOUvKO bF
100k
tD U p bdO vJdJ
d bI X
R
bv Xt d
1
W = CV2
2
C
0/01 F
100V
qJ
U d U
V U?P V?0d vU XOPd C
X V0d bdO d bI W X
V0d
U i
1/0
U?
U t F U p d bI U
X b=t b U X
95V
0/9
0/8
80V
0/7
0/6
0/5
0/4
1
W = CV2
2
0/3
0/2
0/1
1
W = 1 106 (400)2
2
W =0/ 08
1/6 2
qJ
q
= RC = 100 10 0/ 01 10 = 1m sec b vU XU
b? t? U? t?OU vKO p U vU XU p
d uv U X
[ vMF q U
b [
rOMv qL sOM u U X
U rOu:
b?I bv UA U
t uL u
v?I?P U? u?? u? v?D? r?O?Mv bO X

u vD eO U bM lD= U vMM U rOAv
b?M lD= U u U rOMv r U
uL u
[ vMF bv UA [ b U u lUI q
u U X
bI t U U bAv u tOU vKO
X
t U d U
vU XU U tOUvKO
UB??:? U?u?? u? v?u?D? r? U? d? bv
bv Xt X
bI b tH = tuUL
3
u? b?u?v? b?U? U bdO d

d bU bA t0 b t d v bM bO
u vJdJ
b? d U
bOM f* bU U p d
dgO bdO d bU/v U tOK: Ud p
u? b?u?v? U UU
U bU U p
u V vUdD vJdJ
bOM oOI
v??U??J? U??d???P g?I? U? u?

? t? t??O?? o?O?I?% v?JdJ
u UU~
bOM e
UU UB
d tU uv UF U XOPd tD U
t? t? u?v? U? UH u t t0 UU
XOPd tD bMU U0 r U UU t vu
d qB r t jK: u d od
X sOM U n d UF U
d q?J U?U d UB ? n
C
Ct =
n
d? UB b?OMv bUA UU d 70rt
U?F? X?O?Pd? u?v? d?g?O? U?H sO dR tKUP
UqJ b UF XOPd U
bOMOv qJ t tuUL bU v gU vU tuL
b Xt b
u? t? t? v?U? tuL UN b tH UNM
10 F
15 F
12 F
b?M?M?v? X?PU? v?J?d??J?
U? b?
u? X? b? t?0
b?u?v? v?J?d?J
U UI
od d~ UtH
C1
C2
C3
v?
X? v?J? U?U tL vJdJ
U b sdUM
l??L? q? U?? d??d?? t??u??L? ? d?? q??O? 0? U??? ???
Ct = ?
vMF XUU d UqO0U
qJ
Q = Q1 = Q2 = Q 3
V = V1 + V2 + V 3
10 F
10 F
10 F
C1
C2
Ct = ?
V1
C3
C4
10 F
V2
C1
V3
C2
Q
C3
C5
10 F
qJ
UU d UB qJ
b q
1
1
1
1
=
+
+
C t C1 C2 C 3
t rOv
V=
1
1 1 1 6 + 4 + 5 15
= + + =
=
C t 10 15 12
60
60
Ct =
60
= 4 F
15
b q
Ct =
C 10 F
=
n
5
C t = 2 F
V1 =
Q
Ct
Q
C1
V2 =
Q
C2
V3 =
Q
C3
qU tD tD j d= U
uv
Q Q Q
Q
=
+
+
C
C C
C
t
uv sOM tD sOPd Q c U

1
1
1
1
=
+
+
C t C1 C2 C 3
U dr XOPd t C1 U tO9

X
X tPd u t dgO U
d? X?O?Pd? U? d? b UU d U
XP
d?r? U? X?O?Pd? t?d? vMF uJF X0 U
d?O??F? t? u? b?u dgO U U
bI bU
U?B q?J U?U? u UB
U??
d?r? X?O?Pd? U UU d d b d~
u? UB b?v? U?A? u ut U bM
bMv XP dgO XOPd U UU t X0 dgO
U?F? X?O?Pd? u?v? d?U? UH dR `D UU
bUv geP t?L? t? vu q?J? b U?
X?t? U? d? d? U??
b?MU qU U UU
+
Q1
Q2
Q3
b
V
C1
C2
C3
V1
UU u UB qJ
V2
C1
C2
0/1 F
0/5 F
+
s??O? q?O?0?U???? U?U? u? U?B?

d vJdJ
U v
X lM U
dd U tL tH
vMF X VUM XOPd U U
Q = Q1 + Q2 + Q 3
V3
C3
0/25 F
V = 80V
qJ
s?O?M? t?D? d?= j? 7?0? U?

bv Xt
Q = Ct V
1
1
1
1
5 +1+ 2
8
=
+
+
=
=
C t 0/1 0/ 5 0/ 25
0/ 5
0/ 5
Ct =
0/ 5
F
8
Q1 = C1V
U X dd U0J UU U bI d b
Q2 = C2V
Q t = Q1 = Q2 = Q 3 = C t V =
Q 3 = C 3V
C t V = C1V + C2V + C 3 V
b Xt C t U rOMv c sOPd V U
Ct = C1 + C2 + C3
X?O?Pd? b?MU U0J u UU t vu

U X dd U n d q
C t = nC
0/ 5 80
= 5 C
8
U uv dd UU d U
U s
V1 =
Q1
5
=
= 50V
C1 0/1
V2 =
Q2
5
=
=10V
C2 0/ 5
V3 =
Q3
5
=
= 20V
C 3 0/ 25
V = V1 + V2 + V 3
V = 50+10+ 20= 80V
U U
q XOPd qJ b U
q
X b=t U d d
d? j? t? X? d C2 C1 b? s?
bu r U eO C4 C 3 rOMv qL s U
C1
C2
X??U??N? r?O?M?v? q?L? U? U? u? j?
+
10V
270 PF
470 PF
bM0 d C4 C 3 tuL U C2 C1 tuL
Xu uv sdUM bMMv dO d sOu=
qJ
C1,2 =
C1C2
6 12
=
= 4 F
C1 + C2 6 +12
U X dd UF XOPd q
C t = C1 + C2 = 270+ 470= 740PF
C 3,4 = C 3 + C4 =10+ 6 =16 F
V = V1 = V2 =10V
4 16 16
Ct =
=
= 3 / 2 F
4 +16 5
uv tU vt eO U d U bI

Q1 = C1V = 270 1012 10= 2 / 7 109 s
u
r?O?M U0 C 3,4 X?O?Pd b rO?0?uv t
d? U? t? t?u?L?? u?t UF XOPd f Q2 = C2V = 470 1012 10= 4 / 7 109 s

u
r Xt
UPdJO U UF XOPd U
bOM U0 bb t0 u ut t
UU sO9u= UO&uB bMlL
DC
Ub u d
X dd q U U U d b dO U
X dd e UU
uL U q U

bUv gU q XOPd
d b
X dd U d d U
U q U

X dd e UU uL U q U u b
bUv geP q XOPd
C t = nC1
C t =15 1000 F =15000 F
UU jK: UB UU jK1 UB
U? V?U?M?? u? d UB t? u?d? s?Ou=
t? t?u?L?? q? b?? v?M?F? r?O?M?v UH bU$
UF U rOMv rO0I u d e UtuL
d? s?O?u= f rv Xt e UtuL
rOMv d U U u
X b=t qJ b q XOPd U
6 F
12 F
C1
C2
10 F
6 F
C3
qJ
C4
g
bOM5 ndF U U
bv
bb tu~ vJOUdJ" bO

v~4 vK
u t t U XO6d
rdv
U5t U pdJ" d
X4O U
p pdJ" qL% XOKU uEM

bO4uM tD bO Ò{u RC b
p vU
XU
bOM5 t4UI
d~p U vU u
d b
UOMuB

sdL
bOM5 U4 C t bI
qJ Ub

[nF n" pF pF u
0/05 F 0/02 F 0/02 F 0/05 F
10 PF
47 PF
0/1 F
0/1 F 100 PF
Ct = ?
47 PF
n%
0/1 F
33 PF
0/01 F
qJ
X bt U tL uU uM qJ b
U d d U"
1000
100
, V2 =
V, V1 =
V u
V 3 = 1000
13
65
13
0/1 F 0/05 F
C1
C2
0/01 F
C3
100V
qJ
bU s
udJO UU tuL bdO U bI d qJ b
X b=t U d d U
V 3 = 50V, V2 =10V, V1 = 20V, C t =1/ 25 F u

5 F
10 F
F
2
V1
V2
V3
qJ
b=t U rbM tOUvKO b t bOK bU v

U U d qJ b
uv U
qU U u
10k
R
12V
C =0/01 F
qJ
t rbMv tOUvKO bt bOK X qU U U qJ b

uv v
U U U
X
[ u
++++
25V
1/5 F
qJ
1 k
bOM qU vU XU U p d d b qJ b t tu U

1M
100k
12V
10 F
qJ
U
U
U U bI U U bI
tO9U
X
tO9U
X
U
tO9U
U
U bI
X
[
[
[
[
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U
tO9U
U
U bI
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[
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[
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reU qB
UM Ud U
U& Ub
v UE) udM qB s UU

bM% r UM Ud U Ud U3 UvMM
bM% r U Ud U3 sO U
b d U f)U% d f)U%d d
b d UU UB u)
bM% tU u d UB UU UF XUI
q?J? b? U? q?L? V?KD dN d

U? r?O?M%v vd lM U3 gU% ge U
b)dHB d b Ud U3 c3 X U bOK% T1 U T0
v?D? u?B t lM U3 rbMv bOK% T2 U T1
tE( U3 b2 j rOv ge dHB Xu)p
q&b U3 s X U U q&b dHB T1
u U b lDI j Ud d%b U bv U
Xu)p uB t b U3 u bM% U U
I V
+4
+3
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+2
vU vUM Ud Ub

b vd rOI Ud U U qB
t? U?M?? Ud t% v& U U v~)u~ uM%
t? X?L?& s rOv d& vd u uv
rdv v)U qLF3fJ U3 Ud sO U j
U??3 lM p t U p?q?J t tu U
d?O?O?G vMM q?J? r?d?% qB dOG DC
bM%v U U t% v)Ud t X) U d U3
UA) Ud lDI j U3 b2 j X b r
u?v? U U V U u Ud bv
bM%v qL U U qBU U3 fJ XN
+1
T2
T1
U
++
T5
++
T3 T4
3
4
U Ud U! dOOG vMM qJ
dOOG DC lM U vU b qJ
X dH U (+4) d'b T0 tE( Ud

bI t U bM'v b U t d U T1 U T0
b U U Ud t' vU bv (+1/ 5) u rLe'U
b?F? t? t?E?( s? b?v dH t d'b U vb
t d U ? b?Uv gU' lM U t' T2 U T1 v?MF
vU bv dH t U bM'v lM b U
bv rLe'U bI t tO XU nU7 XN Ud t'
U?d? b? U?? U?V?D?9 X?N? dOOG U T 3 U? T2
n?U?7? X?N? U t' v.U uv r' t! t! U
U dOOG U T5 U? T 3 uv dH Ud b U
U?d? u?v? U? nU7 XN U U b?
t tKU! s X T 3 U T1 Ud XN nU7 U
dv d dH t U bv u bI rLe'U
v9 U t b vuMO u p UtO%
U?d T1 T 3 u? U d'b U
d?H? U? U?? t?' v?.U? s?O?M?r X dH
T2 T4 u bI d'b Ud uv
d U B t?H Zb t UdJ uv t!U{

u?t? q?L? s? b.uv lL A t??H? bMM'v
u? bOu nU7 Ec U?? U bM'v bO t Xu.p
b U v9 X U U U UL Ec U
u?v?/ U? v?.U?d? u? t??t?~?. X?? bI p
d?d? b? U?? U? U U T 3 U T2 s?d?U?M
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u??t? b?? U??? T5 U?? T 3 d?? u??M? '
uv vU U s u U rO gU' Xu.p
T2 U? T1 U? u? d?d? U? s? t?' bOU t tu
u?v? v?U Xu.p Ud p U U sdUM X
b?A?'v u b U dd U dE. t' vU
d?? d?? p? d? X b U tM nB. tM U(
dOOG U rOM' t!U{ b t tdI d X p tdI
t?? t?u? d?? d? d X UtdI X'd t lM U
U?? d?O?O?G bOK' q d t t' ruv tu rOU
bv UA. u Ud rLe'U d d tdI dH
bv UA. dH d X tdI tE( UL t' vu
qJ oUD vuMO UM U lM p uM'
d?O?O?G? v?uMO u t d Ud U vMM
duK t b. t U Ud t' ut bMM'v tE( dOOG bOK' 7[ U rOM'v q U t
U?? U?v?M??M? t? o?O?9 t?u U U! bI U X rOv d9 vd u qJ b Ud U
U?? t?' v?.U? U t' uv qU tO. s Ud
d?. v?H?M? X?N t X XN t uv U
E
C
b?U?v? g?U?' b? U?? t?' v?.U? b?M?'v dO
dO d. qJO d T 3 U T4 T1 U T2 UU
UM U t U UB qJ
XO!d U U U U tM bv f b
Ud t's u U X VUM U dOOG Xd
t?? b? d?? d? d v bM'v/ u U q
s bM.U X bv UA. b u Ud rOU
bM'v b Ud d9 b v UI t' X
U?? d?? b?? U?? q??U??I? U?? X??H? U??7?
b?Muv v?%U XUI U v?%U? f%U0 qLFfJ
bMv gU/ X c U U u Ud t X$% U dOOG vMM qJ
IC
+4
+3
+2
EC
+1
T3
1
2
3
4
T0 T1
0
90
T2
T7
T4
T5
T6
T8
Xt Q = CV v?MF XO?d U3 d{qBU

vU qLF!fJ d dR qu
+E U dHB v)U tKBU U bI s bv b)U v)U XUI qLF3fJ dR qu
dO U b U3 qJO p E U dHB U? v?d? t? U?s? t?% v?)U? X?O?d? f?)U%d
rdv
n?3 q?J? u? uU UXL& uv
vMF v~ f)U%d t U U b dO U b? s? r?d?O?v dE) ? q?J? b
1
U? b?I? u?v? U E U??3 b?I? t C U? v?&
f=
T
U b dO U bM%v dO u Q vJdJ3
b bU ge qJ oUD f)U%d d
A
Q U? b?I? u? d?d ? ? C E d?U?I? d?O?O?G
IC
u?v? d?O? U? n?3 X?3U U nB) tKBU
C
d? u?v? U? n?3 X3U Ud dd U U vMF
EC
E
q?J? o?U?D? f?)U?%d? d? X? b? nB) v)U XUI
v)U tKBU dd Q bI u nB)
X3U Ud nB) U U vMF uv dO U n3 +E
X b dd v)U XUI d uv U n3
U?? d?O? U?U? u? u?U? U?X?L??&
t
B
U?A?) U? t?O?K?e? U?U? u?e?) u?U? U?X?L&
bMv E
n!
F
v?~ f)U%d t v)U qLF3fJ t% b uKF f
v?)U? q?L?F?3f?J? f?)U%d ge U vMF uJF
bUv ge v)U qLF3fJ f)U%d gU% U gU% +E
v~ eO) v)U XOd b) t v)U qLF3fJ
t
dUI dOOG b u U U XOd d vMF
C
U?? U? c?v? b? d?g?O? U?d? E F
bUv gU% v)U qLF3fJ tO) bv dgO E
2F
U? v?)U? q?L?F3fJ U XOd b r% U fJd

uv
U? f?)b?? d?R? q?u? b? h?e?A? U? u?M?%
+E
rOM% heA U sO tD rO)uv v)U qLF3fJ
Xc =
1
2 FC
Vd f)U%d F r Vd v)U qLF3fJ X c

X U Vd v)U XOd C ed
D
E
F/2
U d b dO U fU7d& dOQ qJ
X rOu sOd I c dOu%U U
vU fU7 UU) U X c v)U qLF3fJ

uv UO eO) uOOUU7
X c t = X c1 + X c2 + X c 3
X UF v)U XUI X c t%

qJ b vuMO u b3u f)U%d U
X?UI tU tD tO UMO b tH tD
X vUI d Ub UF q?LF3fJ X 0/01 F U? X?Od ed
b Xt v)U
E1
E2
E3
t
I
C1
C2
C3
C =0/01 F
F =1000Hz
qJ
E
qJ
UB qJ b UU u UB
U?U? 7?? u? U? b?v? UA) u U bM
t?U ge UHB uD d bUv ge q% XOd
X
u? U? b?M? U?F? X?U?I? t??U?? d?
UtU UUd b lL q% Ud b
t% rOuv
vMF bv Xt u
q
Xc =
1
1
=
2 FC 2 3 /14 1000 0/01 106
Xc =
105
=15 / 92k
6 / 28
UF vU XUI tU u
I = I1 + I2 + I 3
XUI tU dUU d UB n!

n?NdO% u)U& q?J d U bM UF
sOMr I = E t% rO)v r u)U& o t
Xc
uL U b t b q% U3 rOM%v UH KVL
U??J UtU tL d U3 u b t% rO)v vMF X dd b b U UU3 X pp
X rOu f X
E t = E1 + E2 + E 3
E
E
E
E
vK%ut t% rO)v r u)U& UH U
=
+
+
Xc
Xc
Xc
Xc
U3 = Ud XUI E = IX c
r sOd E c U
X? U??J? U?d? d? b? t% s t tu U
1
1
1
1
f
=
+
+
t
Xct
X c1
X c2
Xc3
IX c t = IX c1 + IX c2 + IX c 3
XC1
I
I1
I2
I
XC 2
XC
UF
I3
XC 3
d7 d& u U uv UF vU fU7

p?p? u?L dd u UU UF XO&d
Xt d~p U UfU7 pp
XUXO&d
UU u UB qJ
U?U? u U d UB p d d?7c
Xt d tD uv v)U XUI
X cT =
1
1
=
2 fC T .C T
bOM oOI
U??u??u? b?) U? g?I?) u?

e? ?% t tO) d% oOI UHJ vJdJ3
bO
U& p vJdJ! uu qJ
g
bM%v dOuK DC Ud u U d
bOuM lM U3 U Ud U3 Ud sO tD
dOQ t U f)b U Ud d f)U%d
bOuM b X c tD

sdL
d
E =1000V
F =1000Hz
C= 1 F
7 U qJ b
bv v&UH t bOK%
bM%v qL uO u
qJ
15 F
10 F
5 F
F =50Hz
b?I q?J b
X b&t q% X C
530 u
10 F
qJ
C1=10 F
100V
10 Hz
C2= 5 F
qJ
q?? ? ?J? ? ? b?? ?

U bI sdU U b% UHB
X b&t U d U3
tE( p U d u
b)dd dO U
200
100
V 3 V
3
u Ud b X X3 dd 1 kHz f)U%d 20 F U p d U3 X
X b&t U
0/ 629A u
16V
100Hz
0/1A
A
1 F
d? q?J? b? ?
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XU u?v? r?% b?M%v dOOG t)u~
uv U b)Uv
uv U u
qJ
A
V e = 40V
C = 0/47 F
dd qJ b
b??v? U?A?) d?R? d??v?K?O?
X b&t lM f)U%d
F 847 Hz u
qJ
X C1
XC 1 = ?
C1 = 0/025 F
qJ
XC 2 = 400
q?J b
C2 XOd d X r bM UF
tUM uv b&t X C u dd
? ge X C u? r?% b f)U%d
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C2 = 0/05 F
ge 200 800 u
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bOM%
cP lUM
lL vUL uL vuLB uL bO v{U bL tLd d pO)dJ3 uB
dN u3uMJ g u
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dO%dO U~A)
v~Md ge UA) rd v)UUB& tLA sO pO)dJ3 vbMN uB `dA
vU~A) UN e%d d
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rd ed tUtJ Ub vU tdE) X) u% e3U u
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d
Introductory Analysis Circuits Robert Boylestad 11 Edition Printic Hall
Electricity made Simple
Electricity One-Seven Harry Mileaf 3 Edition Printic Hall
Foundamental of Comunications
How to read Electronic Circuit Diagrams
Understanding Electricity and Electronics G. Randy Slone 4 Edition McGraw-Hill
Transistor Foundamentals
Principles of Electric Circuits Thomas Floyd 8 Edition Printic Hall
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