Marine Geology 184 (2002) 121^141 www.elsevier.

com/locate/margeo

Characteristics of an active vent in the fore-arc basin of the Sunda Arc, Indonesia
M. Wiedicke a ; , H. Sahling b , G. Delisle a , E. Faber a , S. Neben a , H. Beiersdorf a , V. Marchig a , W. Weiss a , N. von Mirbach b , A. Aat c
a

Federal Institute for Geosciences and Natural Resources (BGR), Stilleweg 2, 30655 Hannover, Germany b GEOMAR, Kiel, Germany c Trisakti University, Jakarta 11440, Indonesia Received 11 April 2001; accepted 24 September 2001

Abstract RV Sonne cruise SO139 discovered active fluid venting at an anticline structure in the fore-arc basin of the Sunda Arc south of Java. Fluid venting is indicated by methane anomalies in the water column, elevated heat flow, venttypical macrofauna, authigenic carbonate precipitation at the sea floor and methane-rich pore fluids of the sediments. The vent site Snail Hill is located at an up to 90 m elevated topographic high which formed immediately atop the folded basin sequence. Gas escaping from the site is the source for methane anomalies in the water column with values up to 5000 nl/l; depth positions of maximum concentrations correspond to the peak elevation of the topographic high. Heat-flow values close to the site are elevated three to five times relative to regional background values. The main venting area at 2910^2920 m water depth is restricted to an elongated area near the summit. It is characterised by clusters of giant white bivalves (probably Vesicomyidae), black sulphidic sediment patches and authigenic carbonate slabs. In addition, we observed low seep activity over a relatively large area as suggested by the widespread distribution of burrowing bivalves (Acharax sp.) and of pogonophoran tube worms (Lamellisabella sp. and probably Oligobrachia sp.). Pore water of reduced salinity at the vent site suggests destabilisation of gas hydrates. Bottomsimulating reflectors (BSRs) rising steeply towards the vent location and potential pathways for rising fluids observed on seismic records support this interpretation; the lack of a (visible) BSR below the vent suggests a perforation of the hydrate-stability zone in the crestal part of the fold. The position of the vent site on top of a tectonic structure which is linked to oblique subduction suggests that the Snail Hill site is not a singular vent phenomenon. We speculate that venting is a common process along compressional/transpressional zones (Ujung Kulon fault zone, Mentawai fault zone) in the northwestern fore arc of the Sunda convergent margin. 2002 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.
Keywords: seep; heat ow; methane; gas hydrate; fore-arc basins; transpression; Sunda Arc

1. Introduction Within the past decades uid venting has become a widely recognised process at active margins. Tectonically controlled seepage of uids has been discovered in most accretionary complexes

* Corresponding author. Tel.: +49-511-643-2793; Fax: +49-511-643-3663. E-mail address: michael.wiedicke@bgr.de (M. Wiedicke).

0025-3227 / 02 / $ ^ see front matter 2002 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved. PII: S 0 0 2 5 - 3 2 2 7 ( 0 1 ) 0 0 2 7 8 - X

122

M. Wiedicke et al. / Marine Geology 184 (2002) 121^141

(e.g. Cascadia: Kulm et al., 1986; Nankai: LePichon et al., 1992; Barbados: Martin et al., 1996; Aleutians : Wallmann et al., 1997; Suess et al., 1998; Peru: Dia et al., 1993; Makran: von Rad et al., 2000). Critical zones of uid escape are considered to be the front of deformation, including the youngest thrust sheets of the accretionary prism. Expulsion of uids near the front of accretion is favoured by considerable reduction of the pore space of sediment sequences due to the onset of lateral tectonic compression (Minshull and White, 1989; Bekins and Dreiss, 1992) and by the rise of uids from below the accretionary complex along the decollement (Kastner et al., 1993, 1997; Henry et al., 1996). Elevated heatow values measured at or near the accretionary front (Fisher and Hounslow, 1990; Delisle et al., 1998; Kaul et al., 2000) support this conceptual understanding of the dewatering process during the subduction process. Less attention has been paid to other structural units that may signicantly contribute to uid venting at active margins, in particular to forearc basins with quickly accumulating sediment sequences that may experience compression and faulting during their complex evolution. The objective of this paper is to present an integrated multidisciplinary investigation of an active vent location in the fore-arc basin of the Sunda Arc behind the accretionary prism proper. Although far from the deformation front, this vent site owes its origin to the compressional processes inherent to the evolution of this convergent margin. The results are based on investigations carried out during the Sonne cruises SO137 (Reichert et al., 1999) and SO139 (Beiersdorf et al., 1999) in 1998/1999 within the project GINCO (Geoscientic investigations at the active convergence zone

between the Eastern Eurasian and Indo-Australian plates o Indonesia).

2. Geological setting The Sunda Arc displays a typical morphological succession of trench, accretionary prism, outer arc ridge, fore-arc basin and active volcanic chain at the islands (Karig et al., 1980; Hamilton, 1979). Along its trench the Indo-Australian Plate is being subducted beneath the Eurasian Plate (Fitch, 1972) at a rate of 60^70 mm/yr (DeMets et al., 1990; Fig. 1). Recent global positioning system measurements dene a convergence rate of 65 mm/yr o Java (Tregoning et al., 1994). The subduction of the Australian Plate is directed towards the north (Jarrard, 1986; McCarey, 1991). Thus, with increasing curvature of the convergent zone towards the northwest, the mode of subduction changes from normal to oblique (Fig. 1; Fitch, 1972; Huchon and LePichon, 1984). Obliquity of subduction favours the partitioning of movements at the leading edge of the overriding plate into a normal subduction-oriented and a trench-parallel shear component (McCarey, 1991; Diament et al., 1992; Baroux et al., 1998; McCarey et al., 2000). In geological terms, a major tectonic response to oblique subduction then would be the generation of right-lateral strike-slip faults. The dextral great Sumatra fault at the island of Sumatra has long been known to function in this way (Katili, 1970; Karig et al., 1980; Sieh and Natawidjaja, 2000). In the forearc region the Mentawai fault zone (Fig. 1) has been discovered and is interpreted in much the same way (Diament et al., 1992). The area between the two fault systems has been named the Mentawai sliver plate, which moves towards the

Fig. 1. Structural map of the Sunda Arc from the westernmost part of Java to southern Sumatra. Slip partitioning due to oblique subduction generates microplates and causes trench-parallel slices of the fore arc o Sumatra to move towards the northwest. The vicinity of the Sunda Strait acts as a relay zone and is characterised by (i) E^W-oriented extension and (ii) incipient evolution of NW^SE striking zones of transpression (Ujung Kulon fault zone) (modied after Diament et al., 1992; Malod and Kemal, 1996 and Huchon and LePichon, 1984). The enlarged section shows the bathymetry of the working area in the southern part of the fore-arc basin. Venting occurs about 10 km north of the slope to the outer arc high at a low ridge (Snail Hill). A second vent site is postulated c. 5 km further east. The positions of the reection seismic lines (Fig. 2), of the Parasound lines A^D (Fig. 3) and of the detailed map of Fig. 4 are also presented.

M. Wiedicke et al. / Marine Geology 184 (2002) 121^141

123

124

M. Wiedicke et al. / Marine Geology 184 (2002) 121^141

M. Wiedicke et al. / Marine Geology 184 (2002) 121^141

125

Fig. 2. (A) Migrated seismogram section of line SO137-01 running along the eastern end of Snail Hill, about 500 m aside of the vent location (triangle; for location of line see Figs. 1 and 4). Note light-coloured zones and seismic wipe-out features stretching from the core of the anticline upwards towards the ridge and to the sea oor further to the NE (arrows). These zones are thought to indicate faulting and the rise of charged uids. Between shotpoints (SP) 450 and 420 a crosscutting negative reector 0.7^0.9 s TWT below the sea oor is interpreted as a BSR, commonly thought to represent the base of gas-hydrate-bearing sediments. Small arrows indicate sites where uid venting is possible. (B) Line SO137-04 crosses line SO137-01 slightly SW of the vent location (marked). The abrupt topographic termination of the ridge near the crossing point is combined with a narrow folding of reectors and suggests a fault along which a diapiric rise of uids/sediment was initiated. A second potential vent location is marked near SP 1300 (small arrow). A BSR is observed in the east (SP1160^1220) rising from 5.05 s to 4.8 s TWT. Note the dierent vertical exaggeration (see horizontal scales) in A and B.

northwest relative to Sumatra and accommodates part of the trench-parallel shear stress (Malod and Kemal, 1996). The Mentawai platelet and the great Sumatra fault are thought to end south of Sumatra; the neighbouring Sunda Strait and the western part of Java act as a transition or hinge zone to the area of frontal subduction further east (Huchon and LePichon, 1984). The transition zone is characterised by the evolution of graben structures cutting the fore arc (e.g. Semangko graben) and crustal stretching on the order of 50^70 km (Huchon and LePichon, 1984; Harjono et al., 1991; Diament et al., 1992). An arc-parallel zone of deformation and faulting (Ujung Kulon fault zone; Malod and Kemal, 1996), analogous to the Mentawai fault zone, extends in the western part of the Java fore-arc area but is poorly constrained and may be a response to the beginning of oblique subduction at the western Java trench. Our survey area is located in the prolongation of the Ujung Kulon fault zone (Fig. 1) in the fore-arc basin. This basin is exceptionally well developed with a width of up to 100 km and a sedimentary ll of more than 5 km thickness (Hamilton, 1979; Reichert et al., 1999). A widespread bottom-simulating reection (BSR) indicates the occurrence of gas hydrates in both the Java and the Mentawai fore-arc basins (Neben et al., 1999). From the active accretionary prism the basin is separated by the outer arc high and therefore traps the entire sediment input from the island arc. Recent reection-seismic investigations south of Java (Reichert et al., 1999) recorded deformation of the basin ll parallel to the arc, which illustrates compression along this structural feature.

3. Methods and data acquisition Navigation of RV Sonne utilises a dierential global positioning system. The average navigational accuracy is estimated to be better than 5 m. A special data processing sequence was applied to the multichannel-seismic (MCS) reection lines of cruise SO137 with emphasis on the velocity analyses. Optimum stacking velocity was determined interactively, using velocity spectra based on the semblance method. The multiple suppression was performed by normal move-out (NMO) overcorrection, prestack fk-ltering, NMO overcorrection removal, an inside mute and NMO stretch mute. Deconvolution processes were applied to the data before and after stacking. Finally, an g-x-migration was used to perform the time migration of the seismic data. Bathymetric mapping is based on the use of the swath-mapping multibeam sonar system HYDROSWEEP (Grant and Schreiber, 1990) and the systems own software for generation of processed bathymetric maps. The rened and detailed map of the active vent area incorporates continuous depth information of several photo sledge runs (with built-in CTD) and of TV-guided grab stations (using cable lengths). Shallow high-resolution sediment echosounding data were acquired with the hull-mounted parametric PARASOUND system on board RV Sonne (Grant and Schreiber, 1990). We used a frequency of 4 kHz and recorded at analogue paper records using the DESO plotter. Water sampling was achieved using a rosette water-sampler (with gas-tight Niskin bottles) combined with a CTD. To extract dissolved gases

126

M. Wiedicke et al. / Marine Geology 184 (2002) 121^141

from the sea water samples on board the ship, the combined vacuum/ultrasonic technique, modied after Schmitt et al. (1991), was applied. The quantity and chemical composition of gases dissolved in sea water were immediately determined by gas chromatography (Shimadzu Mini 3). The isotopic composition of methane was analysed using mass spectrometry (Finnigan Mat 252) at BGR, Hannover, Germany. The heat-ow probe, built by BGR according to the so-called violin-bow concept, consists of a 4.2 m long glass bre rod with a parallel mounted (10 cm distance) thin steel tube housing seven thermistors. A 1.4-t weight atop the glass bre rod ensured penetration into the sea oor. The towed photo sledge for bottom observations is equipped with both black-and-white and colour video cameras and a CTD ; the images and data are transmitted to the ship and displayed in real time. They are used to continuously adapt the distance of the instrument to sea oor (ca. 2 m). In addition, the sledge is equipped with ashlights and two still cameras capable of shooting up to 800 colour photographs. Photos were taken at regular time intervals of 8 or 15 s. For sediment sampling a heavy (3-t) TV-controlled hydraulic grab was deployed. It sampled an area of 1.8 m2 with a penetration depth of 40^ 50 cm. This instrument also allows real-time seaoor observations during the slow drift of the ship. After arrival on deck we collected macrofaunal organisms, carbonate precipitates, and extracted 40-cm-long push cores used for pore-water analysis. In the vicinity of the vent area a gravity corer (diameter 12.5 cm) was used to recover sediment cores. Pore water was extracted from wet sediments using a low-pressure nitrogen and/or argon squeezer and ltering samples with 0.4-Wm cellulose acetate lters in a cold room at 4C. Hydrogen sulphide and ammonia were analysed using standard spectrophotometric procedures (Grassho et al., 1983). Chloride and sulphate were determined by ion chromatography, the relative standard deviation of replicate measurements is 6 1% for chloride and 6 5% for sulphate. Stable isotope analyses were conducted from

cemented bulk carbonate samples and soft sediment samples by mass spectrometry following standard procedures in the laboratories at the University of Erlangen and GEOMAR, Kiel. All values are reported in per mil relative to Peedee Belemnite (PDB). A more detailed description of methods is presented in Beiersdorf et al. (1999) and Reichert et al. (1999).

4. Results 4.1. Location During our survey of the accretionary margin south of Java and Sumatra we discovered an active vent, indicated by abundant vent-typical macrofauna, carbonate slabs and high methane concentrations in pore-water samples and in the water column. The vent site is located atop an anticline structure in the thickly sedimented fore-arc basin about 60 km south of Java in 3000 m water depth (Fig. 1). The local high with the vents was named Snail Hill, due to the noticeably high abundance of buccinid gastropods. 4.2. Multichannel seismics Two previously acquired MCS lines (Reichert et al., 1999) near the seep site provide insight into the subsurface structure of the sedimentary basin ll in the vicinity of the seep (Fig. 2). Line SO137-01 (Fig. 2A) shows a huge dome or anticline structure aecting the entire basin ll about 10 km north of the basins southern boundary (see Fig. 1). Between 4.0 and 4.5 s reection time (TWT; V400 mbsf, vp = 1600 m s31 ) above the dome-like structure the upbent sedimentary reections show a chaotic reection pattern and the reection strength of individual reectors is considerably reduced (blankening). The upbent and discontinuous reectors are interrupted by several steep faults. The area aected by faulting and upbending is V2 km wide. A BSR occurs 0.6^0.9 s TWT below sea oor (540^810 mbsf; vp = 1600 m s31 ; Fig. 2A). However, the reector

M. Wiedicke et al. / Marine Geology 184 (2002) 121^141

127

Fig. 3. Line drawings of four shallow high-resolution sediment echosounding records (Parasound) close to the Snail Hill vent site. The lines cross the anticline structure (indicated by dark grey shading) and show that compressional deformation is weaker towards the SE (line D). Note a small, particularly steep feature of low reectivity at the centre of line C, which may be caused by the rough, hard (cemented) surface of a potential second vent location about 5 km away from the Snail Hill site. For location of lines see Fig. 1.

can be detected only in the central part of the record where it crosses the inclined strata of the fold-like structure; in part of the record the close succession of more or less horizontal reections probably masks the BSR. Line SO137-04 (Fig. 2B) runs parallel to the basin axis, approximately along the crest of the

subsurface structure observed on line SO137-01. At the crosspoint to line SO137-01 (below the vent site) reectors are faulted or bent upwards. A second steeply rising and faulted zone is displayed in the centre of Fig. 2B (SP1280), about 4.8 km further to the east. A BSR is observed in the easternmost part of the record; it rises from

128

M. Wiedicke et al. / Marine Geology 184 (2002) 121^141

Fig. 4. Topography and sampling sites in the close vicinity of the vent site. Venting occurs at the southeastern end of the ridge which we called Snail Hill. Heat-ow measurements indicate a ve-fold increase towards the vent site (grey shading south of the ridge crests presents approximate position of heat-ow zonation based on ve probing stations). E^W-oriented grey pattern marks the zone of ridge uplift as dened in PS lines of Fig. 3, above the crestal zone of the anticline (Fig. 2). Positions of Figs. 5 and 6 are marked in the centre of the map.

1.0 s to 0.8 s TWT below sea oor when approaching the faulted zone further west. 4.3. Sediment echosounding (Parasound) Four high-resolution echosounder proles (Parasound, PS) show details of the uppermost 30^40 m of the subsurface structure (Fig. 3). These lines, labelled A^D, run perpendicular to the basin axis

and cover a 20-km-wide area in an E^W direction in the vicinity of the vent site (Fig. 1). A ridge traces the crest of the deformed subsurface structure at the sea oor. This ridge is partially buried, but its E^W extent can be followed over (at least) the 20 km covered by our lines (E^W axis). It terminates at or close to our easternmost Line D, where reectors are near parallel and horizontal. Towards the west, the ridge is successively

M. Wiedicke et al. / Marine Geology 184 (2002) 121^141

129

Fig. 5. Methane concentrations of sea water samples (in nl/l, blank curves; background concentration indicated by grey shading) and carbon isotope data of extracted methane (in x PDB, dotted curves): the prole composed of four water stations covers the vent site and runs along the axis of the anticline. A remarkable methane anomaly was observed at Station 80MS in water depths corresponding to the depth of the Snail Hill site (2900 m) and up to 2800 m. The N13 C values of the methane-anomaly peaks range between 359 and 363x PDB. Despite large concentration changes the isotope data show no signicant gradient. Compared to the likely methane source at the vent site (44GA), the methane in the water column is already slightly oxidised, as can be deduced from the relative enrichment of 13 C of the methane in sea-water samples. The isotope data indicate a bacterial origin of the methane. For location of prole see Fig. 4.

more uplifted (Fig. 3). As the upper sediment sequences in the basins at both anks of the ridge thin towards the ridge (Figs. 2A and 3), recent uplift along the axis of the ridge is evident. Erosional truncation (toplap) is also observed in the eastern part of the axial MCS line (right side of Fig. 2B). Diuse acoustic reections at the centre of Line C, rising steeply 20^30 m above the general seaoor level, indicate either a rough surface (hard rock outcrop) or interference with the acoustic signal by e.g. gas bubbles. This is the position where the MCS line SO137-04 displays faulting (Fig. 2B, centre).

4.4. Bathymetry Topographically, the seep is situated at the c. 1-km-wide crest of a 50^60-m-high ridge (Fig. 4). Sea-oor observation and sampling revealed that most active venting is restricted to a small area on Snail Hill, as indicated by abundant vent-typical macrofauna and authigenic carbonates. Snail Hill forms the eastern end of the ridge where it terminates abruptly, exposing a steep and slightly indented frontal slope (Fig. 6). It displays a bifurcated ridge crest, which is also shallower than the ridge crest further west (see also peak at Fig. 2B). The northern spur of the crest has a summit

130

M. Wiedicke et al. / Marine Geology 184 (2002) 121^141

Fig. 6. Distribution of vent biota and carbonates at the active vent location at Snail Hill. Outcropping authigenic carbonates and conspicuously dark (reduced) sediment patches occur at a 30^50-m-wide stripe where clusters of living bivalves were observed. This band is surrounded by a 50^150-m-wide zone characterised by tube worm colonies. Processed swath bathymetry has been rened by depth measurements resulting from various photo-sledge proles and video-guided grab deployments (tracks are indicated). The depression running parallel to the relatively steep slope with active venting suggests that the vent site is fault-controlled.

height of 2900 m water depth rising about 90 m from the basin oor in the east (Figs. 4 and 6). 4.5. Methane and uids Four vertical water-sample proles down to the sea oor, all located within 1 km distance of the active vent, revealed methane enrichments up to 150 times above the local background of 30 nl/l (Fig. 5). The methane distribution in the water column shows two or more local methane anomalies over background concentrations (30 nl/l): an increase towards the sea oor at all stations, a rst maximum around 2900^2860 m water depths and a second maximum slightly higher in the water column which is well isolated from the rst anomaly. The maximum in methane concentration ( s 5000 nl/l) coincides with the depth of

the main venting eld. Elevated methane concentrations ( 9 400 nl/l) were found at water depths between 2790 and 2930 m, indicating either signicant dispersion of the methane from the local source or (less likely) more than one source. The increase in methane concentrations near the bottom indicates signicant methane release at the sea oor. The carbon isotope signatures (N13 C) of the extracted methane from the depths of high CH4 content range from 359 to 363x PDB (Fig. 5). This is about 8^12x enriched in 13 C relative to the value dened for the likely source area (44GA). Sediments of vent grabs 43 and 44GA contained high methane concentrations of 19 500 ppb and 17 600 ppb, respectively (in wet sediment), in 20^30 cm subbottom depths. The extracted hydrocarbons did not contain signicant

M. Wiedicke et al. / Marine Geology 184 (2002) 121^141

131

3 3 Fig. 7. H2 S, SO2 concentrations in the pore water of the vent grab 44GA. Bottom water concentration is indicated 4 , and Cl with a lled circle (at 0 cm depth).

amounts of higher hydrocarbons (40 and 140 ppb, respectively). The carbon isotopic signature of the methane was N13 C = 371x PDB (44GA). The pore water extracted from the sediments of 44GA was signicantly inuenced by uid venting, as indicated by decreasing concentrations of 3 and Cl3 (Fig. 7). Hydrogen sulphide conSO2 4 centrations in the pore water had maximum concentrations exceeding 4 mM at 12 cm depth, suggesting local production (Fig. 7). While sulphate decreases readily with increasing sediment depth, ammonia concentrations increase only slightly. 3 The molar ratio SO2 4 :N with values of 53: 6 0.2 (44GA) indicate sulphate reduction coupled to

methane oxidation rather than sulphate reduction coupled to organic matter oxidation with typical molar ratios of 53: s 10 (Fig. 8). 4.6. Heat-ow measurements The heat-ow probe was deployed at ve locations in the vicinity of the vent site (Fig. 4): four sites are located south or east of Snail Hill along the ank of the ridge and at its eastern slope ; one was placed close to the vent. Heat-ow density q increases considerably towards the eastern end of the ridge (Fig. 4). The highest q values were measured near the vent (86HF:174 mW m32 , c. 150 m

132

M. Wiedicke et al. / Marine Geology 184 (2002) 121^141

M. Wiedicke et al. / Marine Geology 184 (2002) 121^141 Plate I. Vent fauna and authigenic carbonates. (A) Central part of active vent area at Snail Hill (89FS, shot 36). Clusters of giant living bivalves (cf. Vesicomyidae) surrounded by colonies of pogonophoran tube worms (Lamellisabella sp. and probably Oligobrachia sp.). Note presence of large buccinid gastropod shells, and dark grey decimetre-sized carbonate slabs. (B) Central part of active vent area (89FS, shot 45). Scattered 10^50-cm-long patches of dark sediment. Pogonophora at upper right. Abundant megafauna (holothurians, galatheid crab, sh, buccinid gastropods). (C) Marginal zone of vent area (89FS, shot 100). Area densely populated by pogonophora with scattered empty bivalve shells. At centre large specimen of holothuria. (D) Authigenic carbonate slabs with 2^3-cm-wide open channels probably caused by macrofauna. Note light-coloured thin cement lining in hole at right. The slabs consist of sediment cemented by micritic Mg-calcite; carbon isotope signature is N13 C = 341x PDB. Length of scale bar in A^C is approximately 0.5 m

133

distance) and at the foot of the eastern slope of the ridge (27HF: 72 mW m32 , c. 600 m distance; Fig. 6). Two sites (35HF and 36HF) show q values of 55 and 58 mW m32 , respectively. The site located at the edge of the ridge slope (85HF) yielded a low value of 34 mW m32 . The rise of the BSR under the hill site is evidence for a deepseated source of the ascending uids. 4.7. Vent fauna Sea-oor observations revealed that vent-typical macrofaunal species on the eastern end of the ridge vary considerably in distribution and density, probably reecting dierences in uidventing activity. The main uid-venting site (Fig. 6) was characterised by clusters of giant living bivalves, probably belonging to the family Vesicomyidae, associated with carbonate slabs and black patches of sediments (Plate I). Sampling in the central uid-venting area at stations 43/44GA recovered abundant pogonophoran tube worms, authigenic carbonates and sulphide- and methane-rich pore uids. In a wider area surrounding the main venting area, pogonophoran tube worms (Lamellisabella sp. and probably Oligobrachia sp., E. Southward, personal communication) were observed in densely populated patches (Plate IC), but mostly in less dense populations surrounded by empty bivalve shells. Only a few of the recovered tube worm specimens were alive, and many tubes were empty. White circular patches of a few centimetres in size found in this area around holes and in small depressions are considered to be lamentous bacteria. In addition to the main uidventing zone and its surrounding area characterised by abundant seep-typical macrofauna, seaoor samples recovered living specimens of the burrowing bivalve Acharax sp. (Solemyidae, 33GA) and shells of thyasirid bivalves in a much larger region. 4.8. Carbonate in sediment The surface sediments in the fore-arc basin consist of olive-coloured mud with planktonic foraminifera and siliceous tests (mainly diatoms). Occasionally we observed thin silty^sandy turbidite

134

M. Wiedicke et al. / Marine Geology 184 (2002) 121^141

3 Fig. 8. SO2 versus NH4 concentrations in the pore-water 4 samples of the vent grab 44GA. Methane oxidation coupled to sulphate reduction accounts for the steep decrease in sulphate concentration; if organic matter remineralisation was of signicance, ammonia concentrations should show a stronger increase.

layers composed of volcanic debris. Commonly, carbonate content is lower than 10%. However, the soft sediments of the two vent grabs (43/ 44GA) contained 20^50% carbonate. At these sites we also recovered irregularly shaped large carbonate slabs ( 6 50 cm diameter) that cover much of the sediment surface (Plate IA,D). Some of these blocks have 2^3-cm-wide, tubelike, open holes. The slabs consist of sediment cemented by micritic Mg-rich calcite. Their carbon isotope signatures (N13 C) range from 330 to 341x PDB, that of the disseminated carbonate in soft sediment ranges from N13 C = 337 to 339x PDB.

5. Discussion 5.1. Active venting at Snail Hill Our data collected at Snail Hill demonstrate active venting and enable us to present a plausible explanation of origin, pathways and reactions of uids as they migrate from the subsurface to the water column.

Sea-oor samples from the central venting area showed advection of uids with high methane concentration (17 600^19 500 ppb). The isotopic signature of the methane (N13 C = 371x PDB) and the lack of signicant amounts of higher hydrocarbons indicate a biogenic origin. The source of methane is probably the dissolution of gas hydrates, which is corroborated by the decreased chloride concentrations in the pore water (Martin et al., 1996; Suess et al., 1999). However, the freshening of pore water can also be caused by dehydration and transformation of clay minerals (Martin et al., 1996). Sulfate concentration decreases readily in the pore water of the uppermost sediment in the vent grab 44GA, suggesting that sulphate reduction is dominantly coupled to methane oxidation (Hoehler et al., 1994), as is also found at many other cold seep sites (e.g. Wallmann et al., 1997). Sulphate reduction by organic matter degradation can be excluded, as we did not observe an associated increase in dissolved ammonia of the pore uids (Fig. 8). Anaerobic oxidation of advected methane accounts for precipitation of authigenic carbonates and production of hydrogen sulphide (Hoehler et al., 1994). The origin of the authigenic carbonates from oxidised methane is supported by their highly negative carbon isotope signature (N13 C = 330 to 341x PDB), as is known from other actively venting localities world-wide (Kulm et al., 1986; Roberts and Aharon, 1994; von Rad et al., 1996; Bohrmann et al., 1998). The observed enrichment of carbonate in soft surface sediments results from nely disseminated authigenic carbonate precipitation fostered by anaerobic oxidation of methane; the negative N13 C = 337 to 339x PDB clearly support this interpretation (Suess and Whiticar, 1989). At vent sites at the Aleutian convergent margin, similar disseminated precipitates were observed in the upper 35 cm of the sediments (Wallmann et al., 1997). Disseminated precipitation might reect the initial phase of the process responsible for the precipitation of massive carbonates at the sea oor. The carbonate slabs (Plate I) showed frequent inclusion of planktonic foraminifera and sediment particles supporting the origin by near-surface cementation of existing soft sediment. The oxygen isotope composition

M. Wiedicke et al. / Marine Geology 184 (2002) 121^141

135

Fig. 9. 3D perception of the vent site and its position atop a major fold structure in the sediment ll of the fore-arc basin. Seepage at the vent location appears fault-controlled. Fluids rise along conduits from the core of the anticline (possibly also along permeable inclined sediment layers). Depth positions of BSRs rise towards the vent site. We have added hypothetical authigenic carbonate layers below the vent to represent a potential history of the site, considering the time-scale involved for the evolution of the anticline. Regional compression is indicated by the two bold arrows. (Not to scale.)

of about N18 O = +5x PDB is in agreement with formation in equilibrium with cold bottom-water temperatures at 3 km water depth. Further evidence of uid venting comes from biological indicators at the sea oor which were used to map the extent of the venting area. Most species of pogonophoran tube worms and all spe-

cies of the bivalve families Vesicomyidae, Solemyidae and Thyasiridae investigated so far depend on the symbiosis with chemoautotrophic sulphur-oxidising bacteria (Southward et al., 1981; Fisher, 1990). The prerequisite for the specialised symbiotic biota to thrive (supply with sufcient hydrogen sulphide) is achieved by the an-

136

M. Wiedicke et al. / Marine Geology 184 (2002) 121^141

aerobic oxidation of advecting methane discussed above. Vesicomyid clams, which occur at many cold seeps around the world, indicate particularly high sulphide uxes (Sahling et al., 2002). Therefore, clusters of giant living clams, as well as slabs of authigenic carbonates, and dark (sulphidic) sediment patches dene the most active (methane-venting) area with an extent of at least 300U50 m near the hill top (Fig. 6). The widespread occurrence of pogonophoran tube worms, white bacterial patches and empty bivalve shells at the hill top marks a zone which may temporarily or locally experience venting with uctuating intensity. Besides activity at the main venting area, we have evidence of widespread, low-intensity seepage. Living specimens of the Acharax sp. were recovered more than 1 km away from the main area (33GA). Solemyidae have been shown to occur in environments with considerable but low sulphide concentrations (Sahling et al., 2002). Active venting of methane is further conrmed by signicant methane anomalies in the water column; the positions of the methane plumes in near-bottom waters correspond to the water depth of the hill top (2900 m) where our vent site is located. The methane-rich uids at cold vents are readily mixed with the ambient bottom water and tend to generate horizontal plumes, as observed at other active margins (Suess et al., 1998). The N13 C values of extracted methane from samples at the peaks of the methane anomalies in the water column fall in a narrow range of 359 to 363x PDB. Since the isotope signature of methane plumes in the water column is about 10x heavier than at the likely source sampled at station 44GA (N13 C = 371x PDB, Fig. 5), the data suggest bacterial oxidation. In highly con-

centrated methane plumes, ongoing bacterial oxidation changes both the concentration and the isotope signature quickly (often within weeks; DeAngelis et al., 1993). Therefore, a correlation between concentration and isotope signature should be expected. However, despite variable concentrations, the stations do not dier signicantly in their isotope signatures. Thus our data argue for a process of fairly rapid dispersion of the methane in the lowermost 150 m of the ocean water. Apart from the well pronounced methane plumes in the water column, the repeatedly observed increase in concentration towards the sea oor may indicate the release of methane from the sediments in a wide area. Such a large-scale (moderate) seepage would explain the observed presence of vent-typical biota outside the central venting area on Snail Hill. Active venting is also corroborated by the heatow data. Regional heat ow in the relatively cold fore arc o Java is considered to be 30^50 mW m32 (Delisle et al., 2001), which is consistent with data from analogous structural units in other convergent settings. The heat ow at marginal sites around the vent location was found to be in a similar range; even so, the values vary considerably within a short distance (85HF: 34, 35HF : 55, 36HF: 58 mW m32 ). The 72^174 mW m32 determined in the vicinity of the venting area is anomalously high; the three- to ve-fold increase can be best explained by expulsion of warm uids from the sediment ll of the basin. The BSR depth under Snail Hill (0.6^0.9 s TWT) indicates a background q value of approximately 35 mW m32 (0.9 s TWT), which increases under the hill site to 55 mW m32 . The two very high q values (27HF and 86HF) near the vent site are

Table 1 Dependence of heat ow anomaly as a function of velocity of the rising uid and depth extent of convective heat transport (d); thermal conductivity of rising mud = 1.2 W m31 K31 Fluid velocity m s31 m yr31 q in mW m32 d = 700 m q in mW m32 d = 2000 m 1.0U10312 3.1U1035 34.3 34.9 1.0U10311 3.1U1034 34.7 36.0 1.0U10310 3.1U1033 38.6 48.3 1.0U1039 3.1U1032 91.4 242.2 3.0U1039 9.5U1032 249.7 723.5 5.0U1039 0.15 414.4 1201.7

M. Wiedicke et al. / Marine Geology 184 (2002) 121^141

137

made up of this background value plus a convective heat transport component, which expresses itself in a steeper temperature gradient, measurable in the sediments right below the sea oor. The rise of the BSR under the hill site is rm evidence for a source of the ascending uids which is seated considerably deep. 5.2. Subsurface structure and tectonic framework We think that the architecture of the underlying sequence favours the ascent of charged uids from several hundred metres depth. The seismic records across this structure display several potential pathways for ascending uids. Crossing MCS lines (Fig. 2A,B) suggest that the abrupt termination of the ridge is caused by a major, approximately N^S-trending fault (oset/bending of reectors), which provides a plausible explanation for the alignment of the chaotic reection patterns. The convex-shaped reectors below the abrupt ridge end (Fig. 2B, left) pose a question as to the geological nature of this acoustic phenomenon: based on accompanying faults and the compressional setting we suggest diapiric mobilisation of sediment and uids at this axial setting. The observed authigenic carbonate precipitation at the present sea oor also allows us to consider a dierent origin: (i) buried hydrocarbon-derived carbonate build-ups, as described at the Louisiana slope (Roberts and Aharon, 1994) or cold-water reefs (Huvenne and Henriet, 2000) and/or (ii) a zone of high sound velocity caused by carbonates (Anselmetti and Eberli, 1997) below the vent location, resulting in the pull-up of seismic reectors (Fig. 2B). The latter scenario does not require (buried) constructive carbonate build-ups but simply assumes sucient carbonate precipitation near the sea oor with a long-standing history to alter the acoustic properties at the root zone of the vent location. O Vancouver Island Spence et al. (2000) have reported an analogous case: on seismic records they found a low-amplitude blank zone below a vent surrounded by a high-amplitude rim. Given the uniform geometric conguration with inclined reectors stretching several hundred metres aside of the vent location, we favour the interpretation of initial diapirism.

The huge anticline aecting the entire sedimentary basin ll (Reichert et al., 1999) indicates signicant compression. Compression and uplift of the central part of the structure are continuing, as inferred from the thinning of the upper sediment sequence towards the ridge despite a nearly horizontal basin oor (Fig. 2A). Thus, we consider the process of tectonic compression combined with crosscutting faulting (potentially related to the E^W extension in the western fore-arc basin; Huchon and LePichon, 1984; Malod and Kemal, 1996) to be the driving force of the rise of uids. This interpretation is supported by the position of the BSR; over a lateral distance of 1 km the BSR rises 270 m (vp = 1600 m s31 ) close to the anks of the ridge with the vent location (Fig. 2A). Directly below the ridge no BSR is observed. Similarly, the BSR about 8 km east of the vent site rises when approaching the site from the east (Fig. 2B, right; Fig. 9). The signicant changes in the BSR depth indicate the rise of material and uids over several kilometres into the crestal part of the anticline, accompanied by faulting. The magnitude of the measured geothermal anomaly on the hill allows us to estimate the minimum amount of uids rising annually to the sea oor. Following the approach of Bredehoeft and Papadopoulos (1965), we can calculate the increase in heat ow as a function of uid velocity in a vertical direction and the length of ascending path. Table 1 presents the relationship whereby an average background heat-ow density of 35 mW m32 (typical for a back-arc basin with high sedimentation rates) was chosen. Table 1 shows that the required uid ow for heat-ow values of 120^170 mW m32 is on the order of 0.8^ 2.2U1039 m s31 (0.025^0.07 m yr31 ). This rate refers to a situation where uids rise uniformly through the sediment column. Multiplied by a conservative estimate of the vent site extent (500 mU500 m, based on TV-camera surveys), the annual ux into bottom waters would then be on the order of 6250^17 500 m yr31 . This amount appears to be insucient to support the measured methane anomaly of about 5000 nl/l at station 80MS (Fig. 5). We suspect that larger quantities rise along conduits (faults) which we were unable to precisely locate. In this scenario our heat-ow

138

M. Wiedicke et al. / Marine Geology 184 (2002) 121^141

measurements would have been placed in the thermal halos surrounding these preferred ow conduits. This survey cannot present hard proof for diapiric extrusion at the sea-oor surface, such as mud volcanoes, chaotic texture of sediments or mixed stratigraphic ages. But in a similar structural position o Sumatra (Mentawai fault zone) mud diapirism is known to occur (Samuel and Harbury, 1996). Pathways are thought to exist, as indicated by the MCS records. A permeable gas-hydrate layer could explain the lack of a BSR in the axial zone of the anticline. Free gas, often accumulating below the gas-hydrate stability zone and providing the necessary acoustic contrast to generate a BSR (e.g. Holbrook et al., 1996; Sain et al., 2000), might rise to the sea oor. Further support comes from the reduced salinity in pore-water samples from the vent location (44GA) and the nearby coring site 88SL (Fig. 6), suggesting that destabilisation of gas hydrates (Paull and Matsumoto, 2000) at least contributes to the vented methane. From a number of venting areas it is reported that destabilised gas hydrates may play a major role in the process of seepage (Martin et al., 1996; Suess et al., 1999; Spence et al., 2000). The position of the vent site is fault-controlled, not only due to the major crosscutting fault but also because a second minor fault runs parallel to the ridge (Fig. 9). The latter interpretation is supported by the elongate active venting area and the dissected crestal topography (Fig. 6). Geographically, the investigated fold structure relates to the Ujung Kulon fault zone (Malod and Kemal, 1996). This fault zone is thought to be transpressional in character, owing its origin to the evolving oblique subduction south of western Java. Therefore, we postulate that this vent site is not a singular feature; vents are probably common along the fault zone, especially as compression and strike-slip motion should increase towards the northwest according to the concept of oblique subduction (McCarey, 1991; Malod and Kemal, 1996). In fact, there are indications that additional seeps exist where we have recorded diuse acoustic reections at the crestal zone of the waning anticline (Fig. 3C) 5 km west of Snail Hill.

The scattering of acoustic reections at the sea oor (exposed hard rock or escaping gas) and, additionally, a faulted zone beneath (potential conduit for uids; Fig. 2B, centre) support this idea.

6. Summary and conclusion Active venting is presently occurring in the thickly sedimented fore-arc basin south of Java. MCS records give evidence of existing pathways rising steeply from the core of an underlying deepreaching anticline which developed in the sedimentary basin ll. Methane anomalies of up to 5000 nl/l in the near-bottom water above the anticline and three to ve times elevated heat-ow values support this nding. At the sea oor three dierent zones of the seep area can be distinguished: (i) The major seep zone is located at a ridge crest and extends at least 50U300 m, as indicated by clusters of Vesicomyid clams, large authigenic carbonate slabs and black sulphidic sediment at the sea-oor surface (Plate IA,C). The most focused discharge zone of methane-rich uids occurs in this area at a depth of 2910 m, which corresponds to the largest methane anomaly encountered in sea water samples. Methane oxidation coupled to sulphate reduction is the dominant process at shallow sediment depths of a few tens of centimetres, leading to sulphide production and carbonate precipitation. The location appears fault-controlled as suggested by its position at the bifurcated eastern end of the ridge. (ii) The main seep zone is surrounded by a wider area populated by pogonophoran tube worms, living specimens of the burrowing bivalve Acharax sp., and white patches of lamentous bacteria. Heat-ow values measured in this zone are extremely high (86HF). The extent of this area was used to calculate a minimum uid ux. (iii) Apart from the main uid-venting zone and its surrounding area with typical macrofauna at the sediment surface, a much larger area is affected by moderate methane seepage. The following arguments support this: methane concentrations rise widespread when approaching the sea

M. Wiedicke et al. / Marine Geology 184 (2002) 121^141

139

oor above the anticline (80MS, 81MS, 82MS, 87MS); heat-ow values are elevated but variable (27HF, 35HF, 36HF); living specimens of solemyid bivalves (33GA) and shells of tyasirid bivalves were present. Recent uplift of the anticline indicates ongoing tectonic movement fostering the rise and expulsion of uids. The comparatively steep rise of a BSR towards the axis of the anticline and the reduced chlorinity encountered at the vent suggest that destabilisation of gas hydrates may contribute to venting of methane. On the basis of this structural set-up indications of additional seeps in the vicinity of this site suggest to us that Snail Hill is not an isolated vent phenomenon. Given the tectonic setting with compression and strike-slip faulting due to (the beginning of) oblique subduction, it appears most likely that venting is a common process along compressional/transpressional zones (Ujung Kulon fault zone, Mentawai fault zone) in the fore arc of the Sunda convergent margin.

Acknowledgements We wish to thank captain H. Papenhagen and his crew on board RV Sonne for their support. U. von Rad and A. Lu ckge provided helpful comments on the manuscript. We also acknowledge M. Joachimski, University of Erlangen, for the stable isotope determinations. We are indebted to M. Torres and a second anonymous reviewer for their constructive comments. RV Sonne cruise SO139 was funded by the German Bundesministerium fu r Bildung und Forschung (BMBF), Grant 03G 0139A.

References
Anselmetti, F.S., Eberli, G., 1997. Sonic velocity in carbonate sediments and rocks. In: Palaz, I., Marfurt, K.J. (Eds.), Geophysical Development Series No. 6. Society of Exploration Geophysicists, Tulsa, OK, pp. 53^74. Baroux, E., Avouac, J.-P., Bellier, O., Sebrier, M., 1998. Slippartitioning and fore-arc deformation at the Sunda Trench, Indonesia. Terra Nova 10, 139^144. Beiersdorf, H., Cruise Participants, 1999. Cruise Report SO-

139, GINCO 3, Geoscientic investigations at the active convergence zone between the Eastern Eurasian and IndoAustralian plates o Indonesia. BGR Report, Hannover, archive no. 118.878. Bekins, B., Dreiss, S.J., 1992. A simplied analysis of parameters controlling dewatering in accretionary prisms. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 109, 275^287. Bohrmann, G., Greinert, J., Suess, E., Torres, M., 1998. Authigenic carbonates from the Cascadia subduction zone and their relation to gas hydrate stability. Geology 26, 647^650. Bredehoeft, J.D., Papadopoulos, I.S., 1965. Rates of vertical groundwater movement estimated from the Earths thermal prole. Water Resour. Res. 1, 325^328. DeAngelis, M., Lilley, M., Olson, E., Baross, J., 1993. Methane oxidation in deep-sea hydrothermal plumes of the Endeavour Segment of the Juan de Fuca Ridge. Deep-Sea Res. I 40, 1169^1186. Delisle, G., Beiersdorf, H., Neben, S., Steinmann, D., 1998. The geothermal eld of the North Sulawesi accretionary wedge and a model on BSR migration in unstable depositional environments. In: Henriet J.-P., Mienert, J. (Eds.), Gas Hydrates ^ Relevance to World Margin Stability and Climatic Change. Geol. Soc. Spec. Publ. 137, 267^274. Delisle, G., Zeibig, M., Beiersdorf, H., Block, M., 2001. Heatow measurements on the accretionary wedge oshore Java and Sumatra, Indonesia. Statusseminar 2001 ^ Meeresforschung mit FS SONNE, Rostock-Warnemu nde, pp. 75^76. DeMets, C., Gordon, R., Argus, D., Stein, S., 1990. Current plate motions. Geophys. J. Int. 101, 425^478. Dia, A., Aquilina, L., Boulegue, J., Bourgois, J., Suess, E., Cavanough, C., 1993. Origin of uids and related barite deposits at vent sites along the Peru convergent margin. Geology 21, 1099^1102. Diament, M., Harjono, H., Karta, K., Deplus, C., Dahrin, D., Zen jr, M., Gerard, M., Lassal, O., Martin, A., Malod, J., 1992. Mentawai fault zone o Sumatra: a new key to the geodynamics of western Indonesia. Geology 20, 259^263. Fisher, A.T., Hounslow, M.W., 1990. Heat ow through the toe of the Barbados accretionary complex. In: Moore, J.C., Mascle, A. et al. (Eds.), Proc. ODP Sci. Results 110, 345^ 363. Fisher, C., 1990. Chemoautotrophic and methanotrophic symbioses in marine invertebrates. Rev. Aqua. Sci. 2, 399^436. Fitch, T., 1972. Plate convergence, transcurrent faults and internal deformations adjacent to Southeast Asia and the West Pacic. J. Geophys. Res. 77, 4432^4460. Grant, J.A., Schreiber, R., 1990. Modern swaths sounding and sub-bottom proling technology for research applications: the Atlas Hydrosweep and Parasound systems. Mar. Geophys. Res. 12, 9^19. Grassho, M., Ehrhardt, K., Kremling, K., 1983. Methods of Seawater Analysis. Verlag Chemie, Weinheim. Hamilton, W., 1979. Tectonics of the Indonesian region. USGS Prof. Paper 1078. Harjono, H., Diament, M., Dubois, J., Larue, M., Zen, M., 1991. Seismicity of the Sunda Strait: evidence for crustal

140

M. Wiedicke et al. / Marine Geology 184 (2002) 121^141 McCarey, R., 1991. Slip vectors and stretching of the Sumatran forearc. Geology 19, 881^884. McCarey, R., Zwick, P., Bock, Y., Prawirodirdjo, L., Genrich, J., Stevens, C., Puntodewo, S., Subarya, C., 2000. Strain partitioning during oblique plate convergence in northern Sumatra: geodetic and seismologic constraints and numerical modeling. J. Geophys. Res. 105, 28363^ 28376. Minshull, T., White, R., 1989. Sediment compaction and uid migration in the Makran accretionary prism. J. Geophys. Res. 94, 7387^7402. Neben, S., Block, M., Damm, V., Hinz, K., Reichert, C., 1999. Distribution of gas hydrates inferred from BSR occurrence along the Sunda Arc, Indonesia. EOS Trans. AGU 80, S341. Paull, C., Matsumoto, R., 2000. Leg 164 overview. In: Paul, C., Matsumoto, R., Wallace, P., Dillon, W. (Eds.), Proc. ODP Sci. Results 164, 3^10. Reichert, Ch., Cruise Participants, 1999. Cruise Report SO-137 GINCO 1, Geoscientic investigations on the active convergence zone between the east Eurasian and Indo-Australian Plates along Indonesia. BGR Report, Hannover, archive no. 118.844. Roberts, H., Aharon, P., 1994. Hydrocarbon-derived carbonate buildups of the northern Gulf of Mexico continental slope: a review of submersible investigations. Geo-Mar. Lett. 14, 135^148. Sahling, H., Rickert, D., Linke, P., Suess, E., Lee, R., 2002. Macrofaunal community structure and sulde ux at gas hydrate deposits from the Cascadia convergent margin. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. (in press). Sain, K., Minshull, T.A., Sing, S.C., Hobbs, R.W., 2000. Evidence for a thick gas layer beneath the bottom simulating reector in the Makran accretionary prism. Mar. Geol. 164, 3^12. Samuel, M., Harbury, N., 1996. The Mentawai fault zone and deformation of the Sumatran forearc in the Nias area. In: Hall, R., Blundell, D. (Eds.), Tectonic Evolution of Southeast Asia. Geol. Soc. Spec. Publ. 106, 337^351. Schmitt, M., Faber, E., Botz, R., Stoers, P., 1991. Extraction of methane from seawater using ultrasonic vacuum degassing. Anal. Chem. 5, 529^532. Sieh, K., Natawidjaja, D., 2000. Neotectonics of the Sumatran fault, Indonesia. J. Geophys. Res. 105 (B12), 28295^28326. Southward, A., Southward, E., Dando, P., Rau, G., Felbeck, H., Flu gel, H., 1981. Bacterial symbionts and low 13C/12C ratios in tissues of Pogonophora indicate unusual nutrition and metabolism. Nature 293, 616^620. Spence, G., Riedel, M., Novosel, I., Solem, C., Hyndman, R., Chapman, R., Kastner, M., 2000. Seaoor gas hydrates at an active vent oshore Vancouver Island: seismic, coring, and heat ow investigations. EOS Trans. AGU 81, F603. Suess, E., Bohrmann, G., von Huene, R., Linke, P., Wallmann, K., Lammers, S., Sahling, H., 1998. Fluid venting in the eastern Aleutian subduction zone. J. Geophys. Res. 103, 2597^2614. Suess, E., Whiticar, M., 1989. Methane-derived CO2 in pore

extension and volcanological implications. Tectonics 10, 17^ 30. Henry, P.H., Le Pichon, X. et al., 1996. Fluid ow in and around a mud volcano eld seaward of the Barbados accretionary wedge: results from Manon cruise. J. Geophys. Res. 101, 20297^20323. Hoehler, T., Alperin, M., Albert, D., Martens, C., 1994. Field and laboratory studies of methane oxidation in an anoxic marine sediment: evidence for methonogen-sulfate reducer consortium. Glob. Biogeochem. Cycles 8, 451^463. Holbrook, W.S., Hoskins, H., Wood, W.T., Stephen, R.A., Lizarralde, D., Shipboard Scientic Party of Leg 164, 1996. Methane hydrate and free gas on the Blake Ridge from vertical seismic proling. Science 273, 1840^1847. Huchon, P., LePichon, X., 1984. Sunda Strait and central Sumatra fault. Geology 12, 668^672. Huvenne, V.A., Henriet, J.P., 2000. A 3D seismic study of the morphology and spatial distribution of buried mounds in the Porcupine Seabight. EOS Trans. AGU 81, F627. Jarrard, R., 1986. Terrane motion by strike-slip faulting of forearc slivers. Geology 14, 780^783. Karig, D., Lawrence, M., Moore, G., Curray, J., 1980. Structural framework of the fore arc basin, NW Sumatra. Geol. Soc. London J. 137, 77^91. Kastner, M., Eldereld, H., Jenkins, W., Gieskes, J., Gamo, T., 1993. Geochemical and isotopic evidence for uid ow in the western Nankai subduction zone, Japan. In: Hill, I., Taira, A. Firth, J. et al. (Eds.), Proc. ODP Sci. Results 131, 397^413. Kastner, M., Zeng, Y., Laier, T., Jenkins, W., Ito, T., 1997. Geochemistry of uids and ow regime in the decollement zone at the northern Barbados ridge. In: Shipley, T., Ogawa, Y., Blum, P., Bahr, J. (Eds.), Proc. ODP Sci. Results 156, 311^319. Katili, J., 1970. Large transcurrent faults in southeas Asia with special reference to Indonesia. Geol. Rundsch. 59, 581^600. Kaul, N., Rosenberger, A., Villinger, H., 2000. Comparison of measured and BSR-derived heat ow values, Makran accretionary prism, Pakistan. Mar. Geol. 164, 37^51. Kulm, L., Suess, E., Moore, J., Carson, B., Lewis, B., Ritger, S., Kadko, D., Thornburg, T., Embley, R., Rugh, W., Massoth, G., Langseth, M., Cochrane, G., Scamman, R., 1986. Oregon subduction zone: venting, fauna, and carbonates. Science 231, 561^566. LePichon, X., Kobayashi, K., Crew, 1992. Fluid venting activity within the eastern Nankai Trough accretionary wedge: a summary of the 1989 Kaiko-Nankai results. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 109, 303^318. Malod, J., Kemal, B., 1996. The Sumatra margin: oblique subduction and lateral displacement of the accretionary prism. In: Hall, R., Blundell, D. (Eds.), Tectonic Evolution of Southeast Asia. Geol. Soc. Spec. Publ. 106, 19^28. Martin, J., Kastner, M., Henry, P., LePichon, X., Lallemant, S., 1996. Chemical and isotopic evidence for sources of uids in a mud volcano eld seaward of the Barbados accretionary wedge. J. Geophys. Res. 101, 20325^20345.

M. Wiedicke et al. / Marine Geology 184 (2002) 121^141 uids expelled from the Oregon subduction zone. Paleo3 71, 119^136. Suess, E., Torres, M., Bohrmann, G., Collier, R., Greinert, J., Linke, P., Rehder, G., Trehu, A., Wallmann, K., Winckler, G., Zuleger, E., 1999. Gas hydrate destabilisation: enhanced dewatering, benthic material turnover, and large methane plumes at the Cascadia convergent margin. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 170, 1^15. Tregoning, P., Brunner, F., Bock, Y., Puntodewo, S., McCaffrey, R., Genrich, J., Calais, E., Rais, J., Subarya, C., 1994. First geodetic measurement of convergence across the Java Trench. Geophys. Res. Lett. 21, 2135^2138.

141

von Rad, U., Berner, U., Ro sch, H., Geyh, M., Marchig, V., Schulz, H., 1996. Authigenic carbonates derived from oxidized methane vented from the Makran accretionary prism o Pakistan. Marine Geology 136, 55^77. von Rad, U. et al., 2000. Gas and uid venting at the Makran accretionary wedge o Pakistan. Geo-Mar. Lett. 20, 10^19. Wallmann, K., Linke, P., Suess, E., Bohrmann, G., Sahling, H., Schlu hlmann, A., Lammers, S., Greinert, J., ter, M., Da von Mirbach, N., 1997. Quantifying uid ow, solute mixing, and biogeochemical turnover at cold vents of the eastern Aleutian subduction zone. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 61, 5209^5219.