THE FROG: MUSCULAR SYSTEM

The two principal types of muscles in a frog are (1) the involuntary or smooth muscles of the internal organs which are studiext best in microscopic sections; and (2) the voluntary or striated muscles attached to the skeleton which are under wilful control and perform movements and locomotion. The latter comprise the muscular system. Each muscle is enclosed in a tough covering of connective tissue, the fascia, and many are prolonged at one or both ends by tendons of connective tissue for attachment. The origin is the more fixed or more proximal attachment, and the insertion that more movable or distal. The action of a muscle is by contraction or shortening in length, which brings the points of attachment closer together. Slender muscles often have an enlarged contra! part (belly), some are tapered, and others are broad and thin. Some have more than one head (origin or insertion). Of the nearly 200 muscles in a frog, many are essentially the same in name, location, and action as in other land vertebrates and in man. Each muscle is symmetrically paired on the right and left sides of the body.

Muscles seldom act singly; several usually contract together in differing amount and in sequence to produce a particular movement. Over any joint (elbow, etc.) and in other places the alternate movements are produced by more or less opposed (antagonistic-) muscles.

Dissection of muscles involves freeing each from those adjacent, using a probe to loosen the fascia, so that the origin, insertion, and general action may be learned. To find deeper muscles, each more superficial muscle after identification is cut squarely across the belly. The following list gives the position, shape, origin (O), insertion (I), and action (A) of the principal muscles, beginning anteriorly. The smaller muscles of the eye, head, hand, and foot are omitted. The instructor will indicate which muscles are to be Dissected and the means for removing the skin.

When removing the skin, notice that it is attached to the muscles only along certain lines, by connective tissue; the spaces between are lymphVsacs. In all vertebrates except frogs and toads the skin is attached generally to the muscles. On the inner side of the frog's skin are large cutaneous blood vessels, arteries (red) and veins (dark), important in respiration.

FLOOR OF MOUTH AND TONGUE

1. Mylohyoid (submandibular).

Broad sheet across lower jaws. O.Inner side of lower jaw. I. Tendon in median line. A. Raises floor of mouth in breathing. Cut mylohyoid in mid-line and turn aside carefully to find Nos. 2 to 7. 2. 2. Submental. In tip of lower jaw, short, fibers transverse. O.Anterior end of mandible. I. Tendon in mid-line. A. Pushes sublingual tubercle on lower jaw against premaxillae to close external nares in respiration. 3. Geniohyoid. Narrow, fibers lengthwise (lateral to No. 5). O.Front of jaw, under submental. I. Divided (around No. 4); posterior process on hyoid (Fig. 10). A. Pulls hyoid forward, raising floor of mouth in respiration; also aids in swallowing, opening jaw, and moving tongue. 4. Sternohyoid. Broad (under cpisternum; 0. Dorsally on coracoid and clavicle. I. Ventral side of hyoid. A. Bulges hyoid ventrally; depresses floor of mouth in breathing. 5. Hyoglossus. Narrow (medial to No. 3). O. Posterior (thyroid)process of hyoid. I. The two hyoglossus muscles join, run to chin, and then into tongue. A. Retracts or withdraws tongue. 6. Genioglossus. Small, thick. O. Lower jaw, dorsal to submental. 1. In tongue. A. Protracts or extends tongue. 7. Petrohyoids. Four, small. O. Prootic crest. I. Fan-like on sides of hyoid and mid-line of pharynx. A. Raise hyoid, in respiration and swallowing. LOWER JAW

Remove skin over tympanic membrane and tissue between it and eye; find tympanic ring of cartilage over squamosal bone. Remove posterior end of upper jaw. 8. Depressor mandibuli. Behind tympanic ring; tapered. O. Posterior edge of tympanic ring and dorsal fascia. I. Extreme posterior end of lower jaw. A. Opens mouth. 9. Temporal. O. Side of skull between eye and tympanic ring. I. Near posterior end of lower jaw. A. Closes mouth.

10. Massctcr. Short (between Nos. 8 and 9). O. Tympanic ring and adjacent bones. I. Lower jaw, behind temporal. A. Like temporal.

PECTORAL GIRDLE AND ARM 11. Deltoid. Anterior border of upper arm. O. Two heads from clavicle, scapula, and omostermim. I. Deltoid crest of humerus. A. Draws arm forward. 12. Sterno-radialis (biceps). Fan-shaped (behind No. 11, partly under No. 13). O. Episternum. I. From proximal part of radius, by tendon. A. Flexes forearm. 13. Pectoralis. Large, fan-shaped, of 4 parts. O. Sternum, coracoid, and rectus abdominis muscle. I. Converges to deltoid crest on humerus. A. Flexes arm; also expands abdomen by compressing viscera in thorax. 14. Triceps brachii. Dorsal side of upper arm. O. Three heads: (a) hind border of scapula; (6) anterior half of humerus; and (c) lateral surface of humerus. I. On radius, over elbow. A. Extends forearm.

Many small muscles on the forearm and hand act to turn and either flex or extend the wrist, palm, and fingers.

ABDOMINAL WALL 15. Rectus abdominis. Thin lengthwise sheet beside the midventral line (tho whitish linea alba, of connective tissue) divided transversely by 5 tendinous bars. O. Pubis. I. Dorsally on sternum and coracoid. A. Supports abdomen, holds sternum. 16. Obliquus externus. Thin sheet over entire side of body; fibers run postero-ventrally. O. Dorsal fascia. I. Linea alba, dorsal to rectus abdominis. A. Supports and compresses abdomen; also compresses lung. 17. Transversus (+ obliquus internus). Thin sheet beneath obliquus externus; fibers run laterally and antero-ventrally. O. Transverse processes of 4th to 9th vertebrae, and ilium. I. Coracoid and xiphi-sternum, esophagus and pericardium, and on linea alba. A. Same as obliquus externus.

BACK AND PELVIC GIRDLE

The dorsal fascia is a strong sheet of connective tissue attached to the skull, transverse processes of the vertebrae, and ilium; it provides (and covers) the origins of several muscles. Remove after study of No. 18. 18. Dorsalis scapulae (infraspinatus). Triangular (behind No. 8, partly under No. 19). O. Scapula. I. By tendon joining that of latissimus dorsi. A. Raises arm toward body. 19. Latissimus dorsi. Narrowly tapered. O. Dorsal fascia. I. On deltoid crest of humerus. A. Raises arm upward and backward. 20. Longissimus dorsi. Along back; long and slender, with transverse septa (remove Nos. 18 and 19 to see). O. Urostyle, anterior third. I. Vertebrae and skull. A. Straightens back, raises head. 21. Coccygeo-sacralis. Narrow, fibers diagonal (behind No. 20). O. Urostyle, lateral middle part. I. Sacral (9th) vertebra, on transverse process. A. Singly, turns back; both muscles, raise back. 22. Coccygeo-iliacus. Behind No. 21; narrow, fibers diagonal. O. Side of ur,ostyle. I. Ilium, anterior part. A. Holds urostyle in place. 23. Glutens. Short, stout (passes ventrally between Nos. 25a and 256). O. Ilium, middle of lateral surface. I. Anterior side of head of femur. A. Draws thigh forward and upward. 24. Pyriformis. Short, slender (behind No. 25a). O. Posterior tip of urostyle, above anus. I. Medial surface of femur. A. Raises thigh.

THIGH

When the frog's leg is extended, the lateral border (with the kneecap) corresponds to the anterior surface of the human leg. Muscles of the thigh are described in sequence around the dorsal, posterior, and ventral surfaces. "25. Triceps femoris. Large, covers entire anterior border of thigh,both dorsally and ventrally. Origin by three heads joining midway on thigh: a. Vastus externus. Dorsal. O. Posterior dorsal crest of ilium (behind No. 23). b. Hectus anticus femoris. Medial, smallest. O. Midventral third of ilium. c. Vastus internus. Ventral. O. Antero-ventral border of. acetabulum. I. Tibio-fibula, proximally, by knee tendon. A. Draws (adducts) thigh against trunk, also extends shank. 26. Ileofibularis (biceps femoris). Long, slender (between Nos. 25a

and 27). 0. Crest of ilium, above acetabulum (behind No. 25a). I. Two heads (a) distally on femur and (b) posteriorly on tibio-fibula. A. Like that of triceps femoris. 27. Semimembranosus. Large, postero-dorsal on thigh. O. Dorsally on ischium. I. On head of tibio-fibula posteriorly. A. Flexes shank. 28. Gracilis minor (rectus internus minor). Slender, flat, attaches to skin. O. Edge of ischium. I. Inner side of tibio-fibula, below head. A. Flexes shank, adducts thigh. 29. Gracilis major (rectus internus major). Larger than No. 28. O, I, A, as for No. 28. 3O. Sartorius. Thin oblique band, across ventral surface of thigh. O). Ilium, below acetabulum. I. Inner head of tibio-fibula. A. Flexes shank, adducts thigh. Cut to find No. 31. 31. Adductor magnus. Large (runs under Nos. 28 and 30). O. Ischium and pubis. I. Distal third of femur. A. Adducts thigh and leg. 32. Adductor longus. Narrow (mostly under No. 30). O. Ilium, anterior symphysis. I. With adductor magnus. A. Same as adductor magnus. 33. Semitendinosus. Long, thin (remove No. 29 to see). O. Ischium, by"2 heads. I. With gracilis minor on proximal end of tibio-fibula. A. Adducts thigh and flexes shank.

SHANK

34. Gastrocnemius. Large, posterior, forms "calf" of leg (much used in physiological experiments). O. Two heads (a) distal end of femur by flat tendon; (b) edge of knee tendon. I. By Achilles tendon over heel and into plantar fascia on sole of foot. A. Extends foot and flexes shank. 35. Peroneus. Stout, posterior (between Nos. 34 and 36a). O. Knee tendon. I. Tibio-fibula, distally, and ankle (calcaneum). A. Draws shank against thigh (before leaping or swimming), also extends or twists foot. 36. Tibialis. Group of 3 ventral muscles next to tibio-fibula: a. Tibialis anticus longus.- 0. Distal end of femur by long tendon. I. Two heads, to proximal ends of astragalus and calcaneum. A. Flexes ankle. 6. Tibialis anticus brevis. Small (distally under No. 36a). O. Middle part of tibio-fibula. I. Astragalus. A. Flexes ankle. c. Tibialis posticus. Long (under No. 34). 0. Along entire tibiofibula.

I. Astragalus. A. Flexes and twists ankle. 37. Extensor cruris. Small (under Nos. 36a and 366). O. Medial end of femur. I. Middle part of tibio-fibula. A. Extends shank. There are many small muscles on the ankle, sole, and toes.