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Visco-Plastic Constitutive Models of Steel at High Temperature
Visco-Plastic Constitutive Models of Steel at High Temperature
Abstract
Two constitutive elasto-visco-plastic models are adopted to simulate the behavior of plain carbon steel at high temperature, speci®cally at
the austenitic range (950±1300 C), being particularly appropriate for the numerical simulation of casting and hot-working processes. The
response in hardening, creep and non-uniform loading conditions is analyzed and compared with experimental data. An ef®cient numerical
integration scheme is proposed and its accuracy is evaluated using iso-error maps. The consistent isothermal tangent matrix is computed
and the ®nal models are implemented into an FEM code. Several tests are performed to evaluate the accuracy and robustness of the
integration scheme. Finally an application concerning the analysis of the thermal stresses produced at the early stage of a steel continuous
casting process is shown. # 2000 Elsevier Science S.A. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Steel constitutive models; Numerical approach of visco-plasticity; Thermal stresses in casting processes
0924-0136/00/$ ± see front matter # 2000 Elsevier Science S.A. All rights reserved.
PII: S 0 9 2 4 - 0 1 3 6 ( 0 0 ) 0 0 4 4 2 - 8
144 A.E. Huespe et al. / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 102 (2000) 143±152
means of iso-error maps. Section 4 is devoted to numerical in terms of Lame parameters (l; m) as D 2mI l
1
1,
applications illustrating the power of the algorithm. with I and 1 being the fourth and second-order identity
^
tensors. The thermal linear expansion (TLE) function b
y,
is de®ned as follows:
2. Visco-plastic models Z y
^
b
y b
s ds; (4)
The ®rst model belongs to the class of generalized yr
standard materials. It can be derived from a general model where b is the thermal expansion coef®cient and yr a
proposed by LemaõÃtre and Chaboche [9] by adopting ade- reference temperature for thermal deformation. This rela-
quate parameters and a slightly different hardening law. As tionship is capable of handling isothermic volumetric expan-
is known, this kind of material model has a well founded sion during solid±solid phase transformations.
thermo-mechanical framework. The free-energy term associated with the hardening
The second model has an empirical basis and was pre- mechanism is given by
sented by Anand [3], being extended in the present work to
a
describe multi-dimensional stress states. ch
a; y an1 ; (5)
Both models are able to describe some important phe- n1
nomenological aspects associated with visco-plastic beha- where the material parameters a and n are assumed to be
vior, such as isotropic hardening and creep. Nevertheless, strongly dependent on temperature y.
neither recovery effects nor cyclic plasticity are modeled. Starting from the expression of free energy and by
The incompressibility assumption of visco-plastic deforma- applying classical arguments of thermodynamics, the state
tions is implicit in the ¯ow laws. equations are derived as follows:
Parameter estimation in both models has been made using
^ vol 1;
r ree c Dee ÿ 3bk (6)
the experimental data set of Wray [1]. In the ®nal part of this
section, the results of both implemented models are com- R ra c aa ; n
(7)
pared with the data set published by Wray and that by Suzuki
et al. [2]. where r is stress and R the generalized force, which are
conjugate variables to
ee ; a. The second term on the r.h.s.
2.1. A model based on thermodynamics of Eq. (6) is the thermal stress, which is computed using the
volumetric modulus kvol 23 m l.
Next the constitutive equations are given in the context of Next the generalized potential function O
r; y; R is
the small deformations thermo-mechanical theory. The work de®ned within the context of generalized standard materials
of Kozlowski et al. [4], who adjusted several one-dimen- L
sional visco-plastic models, one of them being characterized O hseq ÿ Rim1 ; (8)
m1
by a time-independent hardening, which we generalize here
into the three-dimensional case. where hi is the Macauley bracket, L
y and m
y are
The free energy c can be written as the addition of two material
3 parameters depending on the temperature, seq
1=2
terms 2
s s the equivalent stress and s the deviatoric stress
s dev r. The gradient of O determines the ¯ow law (the
c
ee ; y; a ce
ee ; y ch
a; y; (1) generalized normality rule [9,10]), resulting in
q
where the terms ce and ch are associated with reversible
e_ vp rs O 32Lhseq ÿ Rim m; (9)
processes and with hardening mechanisms, respectively.
The state variables
ee ; y; a are the elastic strain, the tem- q
perature and an internal variable that represents the material a_ ÿrR O Lhseq ÿ Rim 23
_evp e_ vp e_ vp eq ;
hardening being equal to the accumulated inelastic equiva-
where m s= k s k and e_ vp
eq is the equivalent visco-plastic
lent strain. From the small deformation hypothesis, the total
strain rate.
strain can be decomposed additively into an elastic part and
The functional dependence of L with temperature is given
an inelastic part
by the Arrhenius law
e 12
ru rT u ee evp ; (2)
Q
L
y C
c exp ÿ ; (10)
where u is the displacement ®eld. The free-energy term y
associated with the reversible processes is de®ned as
where Q is the activation energy over the Boltzmann's
e e
c
e ; y 1 e ^ e constant and C a proportionality factor depending on the
2 D
e ÿ 2b
y1e ; (3)
carbon content of the steel
c.
where heat-capacity effects have been neglected. The Following the work of Kozlowski et al., the values of
fourth-order tensor of classical elasticity D, can be written the parameters are determined as: C 46 550 71 400c
A.E. Huespe et al. / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 102 (2000) 143±152 145
sk1
m k1 trial
:
k sk1
trial k
r !m
p 3 k
3.2. Analysis of the integration error
F
o o 6mDtL oÿR ÿg 0; (20)
2
q It is known that the EBS, although unconditionally stable,
whenever 32g > Rk , i.e. the loading case. After that, it is produces large errors when the differential equation to be
possible to evaluate ak1 from Eq. (19). In the unloading integrated is stiff (roughly when m > 5, see [7]). Another
case, the solution is o g, ak1 ak . source of error in the solution of the discrete equation system
is attributed to the choice of Rk instead of Rk1 in Eqs. (17)
Remark 1. An exact EBS, i.e. the use of Rk1 in Eqs. (17) and (19). Strictly, the unconditional stability property is not
and (19), results in a system of two coupled non-linear necessarily preserved in this case.
algebraic equations. In order to assess the accuracy of the integration proce-
q dure, the iso-error maps have been computed and compared
Remark 2. Since F 0 > 0 for all o o0 23Rk , F
w0 with those corresponding to the exact EBS. The same
< 0 and F
w ! 1 > 0, a unique real root o of (20) exists approach has been followed by several authors to evaluate
in o0 ; 1. Therefore, a Newton±Raphson procedure should the accuracy of different integration schemes (see e.g. [7,11]
work appropriately to obtain it. However, some problems and the references therein).
with this iterative scheme can arise when the differential The construction of the error maps involves the solution of
equation becomes stiff, i.e. when m 1. In this case, a very several three-dimensional homogeneous state cases with
robust procedure consists of relaxing the Newton step (by a controlled strain. Starting from a point on the plane of
factor < 1) in such a way that jFj in the new iteration is less octahedral stresses (i.e. on the yield surface), a strain
than its previous value. increment is given with normal and tangential components
Anand's model can be integrated using the same idea. The to the yield surface, as is shown in Fig. 6(d). The stress r is
resulting scalar equation is slightly different from (20) and obtained using the proposed integration procedure and
can be obtained in a straightforward way. Since this model compared with a solution rEX computed using 1000 strain
does not have an elastic domain, there is always the need to sub-increments (with the time properly scaled to preserve
solve a non-linear algebraic equation in order to ®nd the constant strain rate). The integration error is then determined
correct state. evaluating
Fig. 6. Iso-error curves: (a) the present integration procedure (_e 5 10ÿ4 sÿ1 ); (b) the exact EBS (_e 5 10ÿ4 sÿ1 ); (c) the present integration procedure
(_e 5 10ÿ2 sÿ1 ) and (d) the deviatoric principal stress plane, incremental strain vs. stress vectors.
Two numerical examples are shown to analyze the accu- A thick-walled cylinder subjected to an internal pressure
racy, robustness and ef®ciency of the scheme that is pro- is modeled using the axisymmetric hypothesis (Fig. 7).
posed. The ®rst problem is a classical one with known The model consists of a mesh of crossed triangles forming
analytical solution, whilst the second example corresponds 10 rectangular cells. This example has been taken from
to the stress analysis in the solid shell of a continuous casting Peirce et al. [6], who solved it using a constitutive material
billet: it has been extracted from a more complete study that with a non-hardening visco-plastic strain rate law of the
includes ¯uid ¯ow and thermal phenomena [12,13], but here form:
only the mechanical aspects of the problem, are presented. m
seq
Both problems are discretized spatially using ®nite ele- vp
e_ e_ 0 m: (24)
ments. s0
4.2. Continuous casting process Fig. 8. Thick-walled cylinder: (a) pressure vs. inner wall displacement and
(b) radial distribution of the circumferential stresses at different times
(m 1000, Dt=t0 1).
The stress analysis of the initial stage of a round billet
steel continuous casting process (Fig. 9) is presented. The
liquid steel is poured into a hollow mould which extracts 632 J=kg K at 1000 C to 806 J=kg K at 1505 C. The solidus
suf®cient heat to solidify a thin outer shell. After leaving the temperature has been taken as ys 1490 C, the liquidus
mould, the billet passes through a water-spray zone where temperature as yl 1505 C, and the pure iron melting
complete solidi®cation of the section is obtained. Stress temperature yM 1530 C. A linearized equilibrium phase
analysis in the thin solid shell, into the mould region, is a diagram (Fe±C) has been adopted and the lever rule deter-
subject of interest because several kind of cracks and defects mines the relationship between temperature and the solid
are believed to arise at this early stage of the process. fraction in the mushy zone.
Assuming symmetry of revolution, a thermo-mechanical Heat ¯ow through the metal±mould contact surface is
formulation has been developed by Huespe et al. [12] to imposed via a Savage±Pritchard type law given by
solve the problem. Here is shown the mechanical aspect of s!
the analysis, making a detailed comparison of the computed 2 6 5 zm
qW=m 2:19 10 ÿ 5:64 10 3:37
stresses for different material models. vc m=s
The cast material is a 0:3 wt:%C plain carbon steel,
106 zm 0:160 106
zm2 ;
with liquid and solid heat conductivity of kl 30 W=
m2 K, ks 192 W=m2 K; solidi®cation latent heat L while heat extraction in the water-spray zone is described by
272000 J=kg, liquid and solid densities r 7200 kg=m3 ; a convective law hws
y ÿ yws , with hws 500 W=m2 K and
and temperature-dependent heat capacity cp that varies from yws 30 C. The temperature ®eld is evaluated using an
150 A.E. Huespe et al. / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 102 (2000) 143±152
Fig. 9. The continuous-casting process: (left) a schematic diagram; (center) geometry data, where the domain of analysis is shown in gray; (right) the
mechanical model and ®nite element mesh.
Fig. 11. Continuous casting: (left) Young's modulus as a function of temperature; (right) the thermal expansion function (yr 1495 C).
A.E. Huespe et al. / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 102 (2000) 143±152 151
surface: it may be mentioned that the latter evaluation is They considered one-dimensional mechanical models, in
crucial to the prediction of the correct mould taper. a parabolized approach to the governing differential equa-
Axial stress iso-curves, using the Kozlowski et al. mate- tions with visco-plastic materials. Particularly, the latter
rial model, are depicted in Fig. 14, whilst Fig. 15 makes a authors have also used Kozlowski et al.'s material model.
comparison amongst the axial stresses at different times The present results and theirs have a good general agree-
obtained with the three material models. The circumferential ment. However, in the present case traction at the billet
stress values are very close to the axial values, whilst the surface within the mould region is predicted, while they
radial components are approximately one order of magni- [15,16] have both obtained compression in this zone. In
tude smaller. Owing to the range of validity of the present other words, the present model indicates favorable condi-
material models, stress values in the mushy zone are not tions for the development of surface cracks. This difference
reliable. may be explained by the facts that: (i) Kristiansson have
It can be observed that stresses predicted by the three used a constant heat-extraction law; and (ii) Thomas et al.
material models are quite similar at the early stage. It is also modeled a 0.1 wt.% C steel and accounted for the d±g phase
noted that visco-plastic relaxation makes the stresses transformation.
decrease compared to the elasto-plastic stresses as time
proceeds. 5. Conclusions
Kristiansson [15] and Thomas and Parkman [16], per-
formed similar studies on continuous casting processes. Two visco-plastic material models have been presented to
simulate the thermo-mechanical behavior of a plain carbon
steel above the austenitic±ferritic phase transformation tem-
perature, both of them being adequate for modeling casting
and hot-working processes.
The numerical examples presented in this paper, enable
the conclusion to be drawn that Kozlowski et al.'s model is
better for several reasons. Firstly, it can be seen as a general-
ized standard material and therefore it has a well grounded
thermodynamic framework. Secondly, it has proven to be
more robust than Anand's model to simulate a visco-plastic
material with a tendency towards a rate-independent
response. Thirdly, Anand introduced a parameter z0, the
value of which is quite dif®cult to predict and in¯uence
greatly the results. Finally, although Anand's model has
shown a slightly better agreement with Wray's experimental
data, that of Kozlowski et al. showed a better ®t when
compared with Suzuki et al.'s data.
Fig. 13. Continuous casting, showing the radial displacement of the billet Special attention has been given to the computational
surface. aspects of models. A robust scheme for the time integration
152 A.E. Huespe et al. / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 102 (2000) 143±152
Fig. 15. Continuous casting showing the distribution of axial stresses (sz ) vs. distance beneath the surface at different times: (a) axial distance from meniscus
z 0:25 m (time t 8:33 s); (b) z 0:50 m (time t 16:7 s); (c) z 0:75 m (time t 25:0 s); (d) z 0:95 m (time t 31:7 s). (g is the austenitic phase; l is
the liquid phase and g l is the mushy zone.)
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