Polymers in Everyday Life

1. Introduction to Polymers

Tooth Brush Shaving blade Shampoo Lotions Sun screens Mascara Cosmetics Nail enamels

Polymers Everywhere

Definitions
Polymer: a substance whose molecules consist of many (poly-) parts (meros, greek) or units. Large molecular weight Macromolecule

Plastic: a polymer-based material that can be molded, cast, extruded, drawn, or laminated into objects, films, or filaments.

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Oligomers and Polymers

Monomer, Dimer, Trimer Multimer Oligomer (N = 30-200) Polymer (N = >200)

Polyhuman. Poly(red man)

Molecular weight: heterogeneous

average

Synthetic Polymers
Linear polymers (1930s)
Homopolymer, block copolymer

Books on Polymers/Plastics

Crosslinked gel (1940s)

Branched polymers (1960s)

N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N

N N N N

N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N

Dendrimers (1980s)

N N N

N N N N N

Polymers/Plastics: Synthetic, artificial, cheap, non-genuine, low-class

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Sabrina (1954)

The Graduate (1967)

One word. Just one word: Plastics. Theres a great future in plastics.

Polymer Stuff

Natural Rubber

H C H C CH 3

H C

H C H

Polyisoprene

1839

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Celluloid

TM

The first thermoplastic. The first flexible photographic films for still and motion pictures 1866

Cellophane & Rayon

Cellulose is dissolved in alkali and carbon disulfide to make a solution called viscose. Wash viscose in a bath of dilute sulfuric acid and sodium sulfate to reconvert into cellulose. (Plasticizer Glycerin) Cellophane = cellulose and diaphane ("transparent)

Rayon: artificial silk. (1891) Regenerated man-made fibers of cellulose from cuprammonium cellulose, viscose (cellulose xanthate), or cellulose acetate. Study on silkworm by Louis Marie Hilaire Bernigaut, Paris: Silkworm secretes a liquid from a narrow orifice that hardens upon exposure to air (silk). Idea: Pass a liquid that has similar characteristics to silk before being secreted through a man-made apparatus to form fibers that can spun and feel like silk.
Giant molecules. Essential materials for everyday living and problem solving. Raymond B. Seymour & Charles E. Carraher. John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1990, pp. 117-119.

Plastics

The Beginning of the Synthetic Polymers:

Ivory replacement in 1866

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The Polymer History:

Beginning of Synthetic Polymers

1907. Bakelite Phenol-formaldehyde resin. The first completely man-made substance. The first thermoset plastic.

Urea-formaldehyde Resin (1929)

Bakelite

1907

Giant Molecules. Essential Materials for Everyday Living And Problem Solving. Raymond B. SEYMOUR & CHARLES E. Carraher. John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1990, pp. 43-44.

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Poly(vinyl alcohol)

1924

CH2 CH OH

Poly(vinyl Chloride)
n

H C

H C Cl

1927

Poly(vinyl alcohol) has been available since around 1924, when its synthesis via the saponification of poly(vinyl acetate) was first described by Herman and Haehnel. In the early years, the principal application for PVOH was in textile sizing. Today, much of the PVOH produced is used as a protective colloid in the manufacture of polymer emulsions. It is also found in many other applications, including the binding of pigments and fibres, dip coated articles, protective strippable coatings, the production of detergents and cleansing agents, adhesives, emulsion paints and solution cast film. All of these applications involve the use of the polymer in solution, since the thermal degradation characteristics of PVOH limit its ability to be used as a conventional thermoplastic. Unplasticised PVOH thermally degrades at temperatures of about 150C, with the release of water and the formation of conjugated double bonds. As the crystalline melting point of PVOH ranges from 180C to 240C, its use as a thermoplastic, processable on conventional thermoplastic processing equipment, is limited unless it can be plasticised to such an extent that thermal dehydration is avoided. In practice, the amount of plasticiser necessary to achieve this is so high that many of the useful properties of PVOH are sacrificed.

http://www.wacker.com/cms/en/wacker_group/wacker_facts/history/history.jsp http://www.azom.com/article.aspx?ArticleID=266

Vinyl Polymerization

Synthetic Rubber

H C H C Cl

H C

H C H

Polychloroprene = Poly(2-chloro-1,3-butadiene)] (Trade name: Neoprene)

1931

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Polyethylene

1933

Polystyrene

1937

Cost: $12 million per square mile

Workers cover the ski slopes on the Pitztal Glacier in Austria with an innovative white fleece in an effort to protect the mountain from glacier melting.

LANDINGS VERSION 1.0 When a 50,000-pound fighter lands on the Reagan at 150 mph, a hook bolted to the jet's tail catches one of three polystyrene cables on the deck, yanking the aircraft to a halt in 350 feet. The brute force of those arresting wires wears down fighters and could break lightweight drones. UPGRADE Engineers are developing a system that will ID incoming aircraft and automatically adjust cable tension for a smoother landing.
http://www.wired.com/wired/archive/11.09/navy_pr.html

Contact Lens
1936

H C H

CH 3 C C O

1931 Poly(methyl Methacrylate)

(Plexiglas, Lucite)

H C H

CH 3 C C O

Contact Lens

OCH 3

Poly(hydroxyethyl Methacrylate)

OCH 2 CH 2 OH

1960

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Poly(tetrafluoro ethylene)

1938

F C F

F C F

Nylon

During World War II, designers of the atomic bomb utilized Teflon to manufacture gaskets and linings that could resist the bomb's corrosive uranium hexafluorides.

Condensation Polymerization (Step-reaction Polymerization)

Nylon
1939

Need For New Tough Plastic. Synthesis of nylon based on Staudingers theory on polymeric nature of plastics.

Nylon 6-10
H2N (CH 2 ) 6 + O Cl C (CH 2 ) 8 O C Cl Sebacoyl chloride in tetrachloroethylene Cl C Cl H N (CH 2 ) 6 H N O C (CH 2 ) 8 O C x Cl C Cl NH 2 Hexamethylenediamine in water

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Poly(ethylene Terephthalate) 1941

Silicone Rubber

CH 3 Si O

CH 3
1943

Tradenames: Dacron Vycron (Fibers) Mylar (Films) Applications: Biomaterials Film Recording Tapes Bottles

Silicone Rubber

Polyurethane

1943

H C H

H C Cl

OCN n HO

R + R'

NCO OH O

O C

H N R

H N

O C O R'

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Velcro
1955

Nylon, Polyesters, Teflon

Polycarbonate

1957

Carbon Fiber

1958

Carbon fiber reinforced plastic

Polyacrylonitrile (PAN) (1) Polymerization of acrylonitrile to PAN (2) Cyclization during low temperature process (3) High temperature oxidative treatment of carbonization (hydrogen is removed) (4) Process of graphitization: nitrogen is removed and chains are joined into graphite planes (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_%28fiber%29)

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Kevlar (Poly(p-phenylene terephthalamide)

1964

Stephanie Kwolek

Hydrogen bonding and van der Waals forces

Gossamer Albatross crossed the English Channel in 1979. It was constructed frpm a variety of plastics, including Kevlar film, Teflon, Delron, acetral resin, molded polystyrene, and carbon-reinforced polymer (E.I.; DuPont).

Poly(acrylic acid)

Patented in 1966

H C H

H C COOH

Polyacrylamide
H C H H C CON H 2

Poly(acrylic acid) as a super-absorbent (SAP) was patented in 1966 by Gene Harper of Dow Chemical and Carlyle Harmon of Johnson & Johnson. It was first used in diapers in 1982 in Japan.
http://toxipedia.org/display/toxipedia/Polyacrylic+Acid

Additional Evidence That Potato Chips Should Be Eaten Only In Moderation ScienceDaily (Feb. 26, 2009) A new study published in the March 2009 American Journal of Clinical Nutrition by Marek Naruszewicz and colleagues from Poland suggests that acrylamide from foods may increase the risk of heart disease. Acrylamide has been linked previously to nervous system disorders and possibly to cancer.
http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2009/02/090213161040.htm

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Poly(acrylic acid) in acid form

No charge. Poor water solubility. The ability to form intermolecular hydrogen bonding. Strong Adhesive

INTER- AND INTRAMOLECULAR HYDROGEN BONDING POLYMERS Intermolecular Hydrogen Bonding (A) CH2 O H O C CH CH2 n (B) CH2 O H C
n

H C C n O H N H

CH2 O H O

H C C n O CH3 N CH3 C CH CH2 n

O CH2 N H O N N O O C H2 C O CH2 CH n

N H

CH2 CH N O
n

CH2OR O RO OR OR O

CH2OR O OR OR O R
n

OH R = H or CH 2CHCH3

HydroTac

Post-it

Result of a failure of making high strength polymeric adhesive

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Golf

Surlyn
Surlyn is the random copolymer poly(ethylene-co-methacrylic acid). The incorporation of methacrylic acid is typically low (< 15mol. %). Some or all of the methacrylic acid units can be neutralized with a suitable cation, commonly Na+ or Zn+2.

Polybutadiene (Synthetic Rubber)

H C H H C H C H C H

Polyisoprene (Natural Rubber)

Surlyn: Distance Polyurethane: Spin
H C H C CH 3 H C H C H

Polymer molding

Polymeric Soldier of the Future

Computer Display

Body Armor

Smart Fabric:
Sense and seal out chemical and biological weapons

Artificial Muscle

http://www.gizmag.com/go/3062/

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Polyester Fiber Coolmax

Polymeric Body Parts

Polyacrylonitrile hydrogels

Colorful Polymers

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LightBlocks

http://www.lightblocks.com/

Electrifying Plastics

Organic light-emitting diode

Tris(8-hydroxyquinolinato) aluminium

Poly(p-phenylene vinylene)

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Metal Rubber

Self Healing Plastics

NanoSonics Metal Rubber is a highly electrically conductive and highly flexible elastomer. It can be mechanically strained to greater than 1000 percent of its original dimensions while remaining electrically conductive. As Metal Rubber can carry data and electrical power and is environmentally rugged, it opens up a new world of applications requiring robust, flexible and stretchable electrical conductors in the aerospace/defense, electronics and bioengineering markets. http://www.nanosonic.com/80/4/metalrubber.html http://videos.howstuffworks.com/sciencentral/2938metal-rubber-video.htm

Cell phones, tablets, cars and even weapons systems that can heal themselves when scratched or cracked are no longer confined to science fiction. During the American Chemistry Societys annual conference on Monday, University of Southern Mississippi Professor Marek Urban demonstrated the new material and discussed numerous potential applications. When scratched or cracked, the new plastic responds on a molecular level and regenerates to repair itself without leaving any signs of damage. Similar developments in the past have made use of embedded capsules with repair material that would fill scratches when a plastic is cracked, but Urbans method repairs broken bonds when an outside stimulus is applied. In the case, sunlight alone can do the trick. Our new plastic tries to mimic nature, issuing a red signal when damaged and then renewing itself when exposed to visible light, temperature or pH changes, Our material is what's called a thermoplastic," which means no crosslinks are formed during the creation of the plastic. In contrast, plastics that do form cross-links are called "thermosets." The key difference between the two, explains Urban, is that once a thermoset cures, its structure is basically set for life, which makes it less-than-optimal for self-healing applications. "Thermoplastics, however, you can heat and reshape however you want," Urban explains. When we pressed Urban to share more details with us about the bleeding capabilities of his team's latest plastic, he politely declined to go into specifics on the science, explaining that it would have to remain under wraps until a later date.

Nissan recently announced they were creating the world's first self-healing iPhone case that uses their "Scratch Shield" paint originally designed for cars.

http://www.bgr.com/2012/03/29/scientists-create-selfhealing-plastic-the-holy-grail-of-material-science/ http://io9.com/5897475/new-bleeding-healing-plasticwill-be-used-on-airplanes-not-androids

Plastics are Forever! No biodegradation

Plastics to Bioplastics
One word. Just one word: Bioplastics. Theres a great future in bioplastics.

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Bioplastics

Regular, petroleum-based plastic doesn't biodegrade. But this year's crop of Earth Day inspired ads shows plantbased plastics doing just that: an empty SunChips bag fading into the soil, a Paper Mate pen dissolving underground. Although the visuals suggest that these items simply disintegrate (Goodbye, landfill!), the reality is more complicated. Take the SunChips bag. It needs to go in a compost bin; the packaging is clear about that. Bioplastics could be really good for the environment the manufacturing process produces fewer greenhouse-gas emissions than that for petroleum-based plastics, and these biomaterials don't contain an allegedly hormone-disrupting chemical, bisphenol A (BPA), that some regular plastics do. But is society green enough to use bioplastics? Many of us still don't recycle all our bottles and cans, and now companies are expecting us to start composting? Bioplastics have been around for decades Henry Ford made automotive parts out of corn and soybean oils for the Model T and interest in these materials has tended to fluctuate with the price of oil. Of the two promising new varieties of bioplastic, one type dubbed poly(lactic acid), or PLA is clear in color and costs manufacturers about 20% more to use than petroleum-based plastic. The other called polyhydroxyalkanoate, or PHA biodegrades more easily but is more than double the price of regular plastic. Both bioplastics are made of fermented corn sugar, and both come with a major benefit: if disposed of properly, they won't stick around in landfills for thousands of years. But that's a big if. The PLA resins that biodegrade when composted are showing up in more and more consumer products. For example, NatureWorks makes polymers that are now in SunChips bags, water bottles in some government cafeterias and new Coca-Cola fountain-soda cups. (There are also nonbiodegradable versions in Canon copiers and Toyota Prius floor mats.) Other firms are trying to make PLA using switchgrass, potatoes and algae.

Going Green The Promise And Pitfalls of Bioplastic By Kristina Dell Monday, May 03, 2a010 Read more: http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,1983894,00.html#ixzz22s15Nemh

PHA is more expensive, but it can handle higher temperatures and is the only bioplastic that will decompose in soil or waterways. (No more floating garbage.) "Disposable, one-use plastics that biodegrade seem the most beneficial for society," says Oliver Peoples, co-founder of and chief scientific officer at Metabolix, whose Mirel PHA is in Paper Mate pens and Target gift cards. "A regular plastic fork stays around for hundreds of years." But if a biodegradable fork ends up in an airtight landfill, it will most likely remain intact, just like regular plastic. However, should moisture seep in, bioplastics could anaerobically degrade and give off methane, a powerful greenhouse gas. "When you dispose of biodegradable plastic, it decomposes into an air-pollution problem," says Tillman Gerngross, an engineering professor at Dartmouth, who used to work for Metabolix and is now one of PHA's main critics. (NatureWorks says third-party tests revealed that its PLA stayed inert.)

Biodegradable Polymers

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Polymers for Wetlands

Build Wetlands from Scratch

The Problem The wetlands are losing ground. Crops and condos are rapidly overtaking much of the waterlogged land-home to thousands of bird and animal species-while pollution and sea-level rises take care of the rest. With this loss comes drastically reduced water quality, increased flooding of surrounding areas and the looming specter of the extinction of many species. The Fix Construct archipelagos of boat-size to basketball-court-size islands out of recycled plastic and foam, plant habitatspecific vegetation, and set the islands afloat wherever natural wetlands once thrived. Along with rainforests and coral reefs, wetlands are the most active and diverse ecosystems on the planet, serving as a home or breeding ground to one third of all bird species, 190 amphibians and more than 200 types of fish. Wetlands filter out excess nutrients and pollutants by trapping them in roots and soil where plants and bacteria break them down into less harmful substances. To mimic wetlands, inventor Bruce Kania starts with layers of polymer mesh bonded together with adhesive foam and carpets them with sod and wetland vegetation. Plants are selected to attract insects, frogs, waterfowl, beavers or whatever wildlife is native to the area. As the plants grow, their roots weave their way through the plastic matrix to the water below. Microbes cling to the polymer fibers and colonize the root system, forming a slimy layer of "biofilm" that purifies the water and oxygenates it. (It is unclear whether the islands will help limit flooding.) Cost: $800 million per square mile of island.

http://www.popsci.com/node/3241

Aerogel

Space Jacket using Aerogel

Withstand temperatures from -50 C to 1,600 C
Quota Zero Jacket

Since their invention, aerogels have primarily been made of silica. The silica is combined with a solvent to create a gel. This gel is then subjected to supercritical fluid extraction. This supercritical fluid extraction involves introducing liquid carbon dioxide into the gel. The carbon dioxide surpasses its super critical point, where it can be either a gas or a liquid, and then is vented out. This exchange is performed multiple times to ensure that all liquids are removed from the gel. The resulting material is aerogel. The first innovation is a method of creating aerogels that are reinforced by polymers. The method changes the surface of the gel as it reacts with a polymer. The result is that the interior surface of the aerogel gets a thin layer of polymer, which greatly strengthens the aerogel. "If you were to compare a polymer-enforced silica aerogel with the same density silica gel, the polymer reinforced aerogel is about two orders of magnitude stronger," Meador says. The second innovation is a method of creating aerogels made completely of polymers. These polymer-based aerogels are extremely strong and flexible. They can also be made into a bendable thin film. http://www.nasa.gov/topics/technology/features/aerogels.html

$2,700. www.n9ve.com
Aerogel Design System
This second type of padding, which also offers extraordinary thermal performance, is made with one of the most insulating materials in the world, namely Aerogel. Breathable and light, this padding makes it possible to maintain body temperature. The mesoporous structure of the aerogel allows humidity produced by the body to be released gradually to the exterior. Certain parts of the interior of the garment have been identified as needing to provide maximum controlled body temperature, and thus have been covered with anatomically shaped Aerogel patches.

http://spinoff.nasa.gov/spinoff2001/ch5.html

http://www.gzespace.com/gzenew/index.php?pg=qzerojacket

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Polymer Aerogel
Organic RF Polymer aerogels are made of resorcinol-formaldehyde polymer

Speedo LZR Racer

The specially engineered, highly flexible fabric called LZR PULSE is ultrasonically welded so as to appear seamless.
http://www.aerogel.org/?p=3

http://www.aerogel.org/?p=71

http://www.speedousa.com/technology/index.jsp

DNA Natural Polymers

Nucleic acids Proteins Polysaccharides

Natural vs. Synthetic Are all natural polymers safe?

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DNA

Protein

http://apbrwww5.apsu.edu/thompsonj/Anatomy%20&%20Physiology/2010/2010%20Exam%20Reviews/Exam%201%20 Review/Ch02%20Protiens%20and%20Enzymes.htm

Protein Aggregation by Acid

Gelatin

Peptide bond
H N H C R O C

Ballistics Gel for Bullet Tests

Cheese is made from milk that has been curdled by the addition of acids and an enzyme from the stomach of calves called rennet. The acid can be from almost any food source, but for the most part it is produced by bacteria that convert the milk sugar lactose into lactic acid. Yogurt is also produced this way. Cheese can be made without rennet, but the enzyme makes the curds stronger and more rubbery. Rennet allows the milk to curdle with less acid, which in turn allows flavor producing bacteria to colonize the curd. Cheeses made with rennet will melt easily, while cheeses made with acid alone remain intact at high temperatures. The curds are salted, and moisture pressed out, so the product will not be as easily attacked by bacteria as raw milk would. Thus cheese making is a way of preserving milk. (http://kitchenscience.sci-toys.com/protein)

10% Gelatin gel (250 Bloom): The density and viscosity of human and animal muscle tissue. Bloom: The weight (in grams) needed by a probe (normally with a diameter of 0.5 inch) to deflect the surface of the gel 4 mm without breaking it.

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Hydrogen Bonding
Alpha Helix Beta Pleated Sheet

Microtubules, Microfilaments

The eukaryotic cytoskeleton. Actin filaments are shown in red, microtubules in green, and the nuclei are in blue.
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:AlphaHelixBALL.png http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:BetaPleatedSheetProtein.png http://iverson.cm.utexas.edu/courses/310N/POTDSp06/POTD2-26-10.html http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/cells/microfilaments/microfilaments.html http://www.phschool.com/science/biology_place/biocoach/cells/cytoreview.html http://www.freethought-forum.com/forum/showthread.php?t=11575&garpg=19 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cytoskeleton

Polysaccharides
CH 2 OH O OH OH O CH 2 OH O OH OH O

Agarose: Gel eelectrophoresis for DNA sequencing

There have been 297 post-conviction DNA exonerations in the United States. The first DNA exoneration took place in 1989. Exonerations have been won in 36 states; since 2000, there have been 230 exonerations.
CH 2 OC 2 H 5 O OH OC 2 H 5 O CH 2 OC 2 H 5 O OH OC 2 H 5 O

Cellulose
CH 2 OCH 2 COOH O OH O OCH 2 COOH CH 2 OCH 2 COOH O OH O

Ethylcellulose
COOH O OH OH O COOH O OH OH O

H
OCH 2 COOH

Carboxymethylcellulose
CH 2 OH O OH NH 2 O CH 2 OH O OH NH 2 O

Alginic acid
COO O OH OH O OH NH C O CH 2 OH O O

Chitosan

Hyaluronic acid

CH 3

http://www.sumanasinc.com/webcontent/animations/content/gelelectrophoresis.html

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Alginic Acid

Dietary Fibers

Plant substances that are indigestible in the digestive system. 20-35 g/day/adult (American Dietetic Association)

++ Ca
Calcium ion

Ch e la t i n g a ge n t

COOH O OH OH O

COOH O OH OH O

Dietary fiber is a relatively broad term that includes many plant components that share the characteristics of being indigestible. This means that dietary fiber is not digested, absorbed by the body , or used for energy. There are two main sources of dietary fibersoluble fiber and insoluble fiber. *Note many plant sources include both soluble and insoluble fiber.
Insoluble fiber does not dissolve in water and does not get broken down by bacteria in the intestine. Instead, it essentially absorbs water to help to increase bulk and to soften stool. Soluble Fiber differs from insoluble fiber in that it dissolves in water and additionally is broken down by bacteria in the intestine. Soluble fiber helps prevent cholesterol from being absorbed by the intestines and is thought to help minimize the rise in blood sugar following a meal.

http://www.jarretmorrow.com/dietary-fiber-cheat-sheet/

Chitosan: Hemorrhage control bandage

CH 2 OH O OH NH 2 O CH 2 OH O OH NH 2 O

Starch

Bread: Soft Hard

The U.S. military became HemCon's first and biggest customer. "The military has already paid for 21,000 bandages and they are being used in Iraq," said Sue Van Brocklin, spokeswoman for HemCon. "The HemCon bandage is also approved for use by paramedics, firefighters and hospitals." Made from chitosan, a shrimp-based product, the bandage is designed to halt severe bleeding fast. But the four-inch by four-inch patch doesn't come cheap, costing about $130 a piece. Van Brocklin said demand for the bandage has risen rapidly since it won FDA clearance and the company does have plan to bring the HemCon bandage to the consumer market. "The cost and the size is a factor right now," said Brocklin. "But eventually as the cost comes down we are hoping to move it to civilian use. The bandage will probably be smaller and come as a part of a first-aid kit available in drug stores. http://money.cnn.com/2003/04/09/news/companies/war_fads/index.htm

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Guar Gum

Industrial applications Pharmaceutical industry as binder or as disintegrator in tablets; main ingredient in some bulk-forming laxatives Cosmetics and toiletries industries thickener in toothpastes, conditioner in shampoos Hydroseeding formation of seed-bearing "guar tack" Medical institutions, especially nursing homes - used to thicken liquids and foods for patients with dysphagia Fire retardant industry - as a thickener in Phos-Chek Food applications The largest market for guar gum is in the food industry. Xanthan gum and guar gum are the most frequently used gums in gluten-free recipes and gluten-free products.

Pectin

Pectic Acid

Xanthan Gum

Applications include: In baked goods, it increases dough yield, gives greater resiliency, and improves texture and shelf life; in pastry fillings, it prevents "weeping" (syneresis) of the water in the filling, keeping the pastry crust crisp. In dairy products, it thickens milk, yogurt, kefir, and liquid cheese products, and helps maintain homogeneity and texture of ice creams and sherbets For meat, it functions as a binder. In condiments, it improves the stability and appearance of salad dressings, barbecue sauces, relishes, ketchups and others. It is also used in dry soups, instant oatmeal, sweet desserts, canned fish in sauce, frozen food items and animal feed. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guar_gum

Pectic acid, also known as polygalacturonic acid is a water insoluble, transparent gelatinous acid existing in ripe fruit and some vegetables. It is a product of pectin degradation in plants, and is produced via the interaction between pectinase and pectin (the latter being common in the winemaking industry). http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pectic_acid

Pectin is a complex polysaccharide consisting mainly of esterified D-galacturonic acid resides in an alpha(1-4) chain. The acid groups along the chain are largely esterifed with methoxy groups in the natural product. There can also be acetyl groups present on the free hydroxy groups. The galacturonic acid main chain also has the occasional rhamnose group present which disrupts the chain helix formation.
http://www.cybercolloids.net/library/pectin/introductionpectin-structure http://www.scientificpsychic.com/fitness/carbohydrates2.html

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Emergence of Synthetic Polymers Year 1960 - present

1. Large scale operations. 2. Applications in daily lives, transportation, communications, education, & leisure. 3. Polymer composites 4. Polymers as biomaterials. 5. Functional polymers Polymers with bioactivity 6. Smart polymers and hydrogels 7. Biodegradable polymers

Foundation of Polymer Science

Polymers are indispensable in our daily life and in the biomedical and pharmaceutical systems. Understanding relationships between chemical structure and (molecular and bulk) properties of polymers. Polymer characterization Use the relationships to design new materials with predictable properties, and to mimic natural substances without need to duplicate their structures in detail.

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