Functions of connective tissue Physiological connection between tissues, organs and systems.

Protection of organs, vessels and other body parts by covering them. Defense protection from pathogens and toxic substances. Transportation Support mechanical strength and rigidity. Establish a constant .. for body.

Areolar tissue (loose con. tissue) Consist of scattered within an amorphous mass of proteins that form a ground substance, which is gel like. Gellike matrix in cooperating strands of protein fibers. It contains number of cells such as, (i) (ii) (iii) Location Beneath the skin. Between the organs. Digestive track Matrix of loose connective tissue is strengthen by a loose scattering of protein fibers. Most of the cells are flat in shape with irregular processes. Produce white collagen fibres and elastin fibres. Arrange along the white fibrous bundle and irregular in matrix production of fibres and secretion of matrix are the other functions. They produce and secrete the extracellular matrix. Fibroblasts transform into fibiocyles which maintain the matrix in mature connective tissues. Mast cells Contains granular cytoplasm. Involves in response to injury. Smaller in size and Amoebic in shape irregularly dispersed in matrix. Functions Production of matrix. Production of heparin important as an anticoagulant. (Prevents blood clotting) Production of histamine (histamine is released during allergic reactions. It dilates and increase permeability of small blood vessels which result in symptoms as localized swelling, itching sneezing and runny eyes and hose. Fibers Mast cells Macrophages

Macrophages The immune systems' first defense against invading organisms is done by macrophages. They engulf bacteria and other pathogenic cells, dead cells and digest them. Large in size and globular in shape. Irregularly arrange in the matrix each cell contains a droplet of fat (triglycerides) within a storage vesicle, when fat is needed for energy. Adipose cells hydrolyses it's stored triglycerides and secreate fatty acids into blood for oxidation by the cells of muscles, liver and other organs. Fat cell are capable of dividing form large group of cells and develop adipose tissue. When a person gains weight, the cells become larger and when weight is loss, the cells shrink. Plasma cells. Smaller in size. Irregular in shape. Originated from lymphatic tissue cells. Function Production of antibodies. Mesenchyme cells. Mesenchyme cells are relatively unspecialized and are capable of differentiation into all the cell types found in mature connective tissues. They are acting as packing tissue . irregularly dispersed in matrix. Matrix of loose connective tissue is composed of different types of fibres. (i) White fibrous collagen is a glycoprotein made up of collagen protein. They are not branched and arranged as bundles. Bundles are spreaded irregularly in the matrix. Performs the skeletal function within the tissue. They are dominant in tendons wary in appearance. Yellow fibres elastin fibres made up of elasting protein, elastic in nature, is a branched fibre which is arranged as a web within the matrix perform the elasticity for the tissue dominant ligaments, artery walls, pinna of ear. Reticulin Support the tissue. Functions of areolar Support Insulation Food storage Nourishment for epithelium White fibres tissue.

(ii)

(iii)

Matrix is very less. Collagen bundles are present in high percentage. Tissue is not much elastic, but strong. Transparency is less due to high percentage of white fibres. Location Places which reacquire limited elasticity and high strength. eg : tendons Yellow elastic tissue Modified tissue from areolar tissue which contains high percentage of yellow fibres. White fibres are very less or present. Low amount of matrix. High elasticity. Location Places where strength and elasticity are required. Special connective tissues Cartilage is a special connective tissue having a matrix formed from a glycoprotein, named 'chondroitin' and collagen fibrs which are lid in parallel to the direction of stress. This caused the tissue to be firm and flexible. These tissues are tougher than white fibrous and yellow elastic tissues. In vertebrates, cartilage are found, in the articular (join) surfaces of the body, nose, pinna (outer ear flap) and in the . discs of the backbone, larynx, etc. Chondrocytes are the cells of cartilage live within spaces called lacunae within the matrix. Blood vessels are not present in cartilage. Obtain vessels are not present in cartilage. Obtain oxygen and nutrients through diffusion, through the cartilage ground substance from surrounding blood vessels. This diffusion can occur because the cartilage is well hydrated, not clarified. In the course of fetal development the cartilage matrix is calcified at certain locations, so that the chondrocytes are no more able to obtain oxygen or nutrients through diffusion. The dying cartilage is replaced by living bone. Osteocytes or bone cells can remain a live even though the extracellular matrix becomes hard due to deposition of crystals of Ca3(PO4)2, as blood vessels travel through central canals to the bone. Osteocytes are connected to each other with a cytoplasmic network called canaliculi from which they communicate with blood vessels of the central canal. Consist of an organic extracellular matrix composed of collagen fibres. Process crystals (needle shaped) of Ca3(PO4)2 in the form of hydroxyl apatite, which is brittle but strong.

Collagen fibres acts to spread stress over crystals, hence giving more resistance to fracture. New bones are formed by osteoblasts, which secreate collagen containing organic matrix. Ca 3(PO4) is deposited later. Osteocytes are encased within spaces or lacunae, in the calcified matrix. Osteoclasts can dissolve bones to remodel them in response to different physical stresses. Bone is constructed in concentric layers called lamellae. Haversian canals are present in the middle. Fluid connective tissue This is a connective tissue made up of fluid matrix and free cells. No fibres in matrix and not secreated by cells in it. Transport materials from one place to another and maintains continuity of body. Its is the main function. It includes blood and lymph. Blood provides one of the means of communication between cells and different parts of body and the external environment. Blood constitutes about 7% of body weight (5.6l in 70kg man). Blood is composed of a straw coloured transparent fluid called blood plasma in which several types of cells are suspended. Fluid matrix of blood. Pale yellow colour. Transparent and clear. 55 60% of blood Islas plasma. 90 92% of plasma is water. Ph is about 7.4. Plasma is not secreated by blood cells. Blood differs from all other connective tissues. No fibres present. But fibres appear when blood clots. Lots of materials are present in blood plasma. (i) Proteins 7% of plasma. (ii) Albumin (most abundant protein in blood, form in liver, maintain osmotic pressure at it's normal level 25mmHg) Globulin (formed in liver, transport some mineral salts and hormones inhibits some proteolytic enzymes like trypsine and chymotrypsin) Fibrinogen (formed in liver)

Inorganic salts Na2CO3 NaCl K+, Ca2+, HCO3-, Cu2+, Zn2+

(iii) (iv)

Nutrients like monosccharides, amino acids, fatty acids and glycerol. Organic waste materials.

Urea, uric acid, creatinie, Bilirubin (gives pale yellow to plasma) Hormones, enzymes which take part in metabolic activities, antibodies, gases (O 2, N2) are also present in blood plasma. Has hemoglobin. No nuclei when mature. RBC appear as circular biconcave discs. The shape results a large surface area : volume ratio which is efficient in gaseous exchange. They do not have mitochondria to favour the O2 transport 93.94% of blood cells are RBC. They produce ATP only by glycolysis (Glycolysis is the initial stage of respiration). Due to the shape and the membranous characters they are flexible, enable them to flow through capillaries. 5 million RBC are present in 1mm3 of blood. Amount of RBC in body differ according to the age, sex and state of health. Production of RBC during the development of life is different foetus liver and spleen. No of red blood cells in the body, females (4.5 4.8 106 / 100ml) males (5.5 106 / 100ml) Life span of RBC is 120 days. Under low O 2 concentration bone marrow is stimulated to produce more RBC than destroyed in liver. This is how we acclimatize to lower O 2 levels in high altitudes. When number of RBC decrease or under low O2 concentration. Kidneys secreate a hormone called Erithropoitine which initiates the production of RBS. Vitamin B, folic acid and Fe3+ are important in producing RBC. RBC are destroyed in liver/spleen. Protein part is converted to amino acids and the iron/heam group is extracted and stored in liver as ferritine. (ferritine is an Tron containing protein). Those are reused in producing RBC and as a component of cytochrome (cytochrome is important for inspiration). The remainder of Haem part broken into Bilirubin and Biliverdin (green) Oxygen is transported by RBC as oxyhaemoglobin. Haemoglobin + 4O2 Oxyhaemoglobin

(Occupy 1% out of the total blood cells) (Out of all white blood cells, 72% are granulocytes) There are two types of WBC. (i) Granulocytes Granules are in plasma of these cells. Made in bone marrow by different cells, not the ones making red blood cells. There are three kinds, Neutrophils Eosinophils Granulocytes (ii) Agranulocytes

Basophils

Neutrophils (Phagocytes) 70% of white blood cells. Commonly squeeze through capillary walls and flow through capillary and move to the intercellular spaces and infected areas. Nucleus has more than two lobes. This may be 3 5. Actively phagocytic, and engulf and digest disease causing bacteria. Destroy dead cells by engulfing. This is present in small amount. But number increases deeper in allergic pocess anti histamine properties conditions like asthma. No. of eosinophils is under the control of hormones produced by the adrenal cortex in response to stress. Secreate major basic proteins which defense against certain parasitic worms. Produce heparine and histamine. (chemical found in damage tissues which involve in inflammation and create allergic conditions. Histamine causes inflammation which results stimulation to repair damaged tissues). Over production of histamine occurs due to allergies. A granulocytes Largest cells in blood. Bean shaped nucleus. Spend 3 4 hours in blood and enter the tissue, then are converted to macrophages. Macrophages are phagocytic, they engulf bacteria, large particles, and take part in immune system. Macrophage in neutrophils form a system throughout the body to act against diseases. Produce antibodies which help in defense against diseases. Has a large nucleus which has many copies of genes control the antibody production. Lymphocytes are produced by thymus gland and lymphoid tissue. They process only a small amount of cytoplasm because nucleus is comparatively large. Platelets Irregular shape, membrane bound cell fragments. Lack in nucleus. Formed form special bone marrow cells called Megakryocytes. Responsible for starting and process of blood clotting. Life span is about 5 9 days. Release Thromboplastin which is important in blood clotting. Indicate the biological molecules involved in formation of the following structures. Compare light microscope and electron microscope. Compare S. E. M and T. E. M. Name a protein/proteins for the following function. (a) Hydroltic enzymes.

(b) Transportation (c) Protein in spindle fibre (d) Structural protein (e) to bear up tension. Muscle tissue Muscle cells are the motors of the vertebrate body. The characteristic that makes them unique is the relative abundance and organization of action and myosin filaments within them. Although these filaments from a fine network in all eukaryotic cells, where they contribute to cellular movements, they are far more abundant and organized in muscle cells, which are specialized in muscle cells, which are specialized for contraction. Vertebrates possess three kinds of muscle, smooth, skeletal and cardiac. Skeletal and cardiac muscles are also known as striated muscles because their cells appear to have transverse stripes when viewed in longitudinal section under the microscope. The contraction of each skeletal muscle in under voluntary control, where as the contraction of cardiac muscles, and smooth muscle is generally involuntary. Smooth muscle (i) (ii) (iii) Earliest form of muscle present. Found throughout the animal kingdom. Invertebrates, smooth, muscles are found in the organs of the internal environment. known as visceral muscle. (iv) (v) They are organized into sheets of long, spindle shaped cells, each cell containing a single nucleus. In some tissues, the cells contract only when they are stimulated by a nerve, and then all of the cells in the sheet contract as unit. In vertebrates, muscles of this type line the walls of many blood vessels and make up the iris of the eye. In other smooth muscle tissues, such as those in the walls of many blood vessel the gut, the muscle cell themselves may spontaneously initiate electric impulses and contract, leading to a slow, steady contraction of the tissue. Nerves regulate, rather than cause, this activity.

(vi)

Skeletal muscle (i) Skeletal muscles are usually attached by tendons to bones, so that, when the muscles contract, they cause the bones to move at their joints. A skeletal muscle is made up of numerous, very long muscle cells called muscle fibres, which lie parallel to each other within the muscle and insert into the tendons on the ends of the muscle. A skeletal muscle fiber is stimulated to contract by a nerve fiber, therefore a stronger musle contraction will result when more of the muscle fibres are stimulated by the nerve fibers to contract. In this way the nervous system can vary the strength of the skeletal muscle contraction. (iv) Each muscle fibre contracts by means of myofibrils containing highly ordered arrays of actin and myosin, myofilaments that when aligned give the muscle fibre its striated appearance. Skeletal muscle fibres are produced during development by the fusion of several cells, end to end. This embroological development explains why a mature muscle fibre contains many nuclei.

(ii)

(iii)