CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the internship program attended by CH.NAGA PAVAN KUMAR (11004225), CH.RUPESH SASANKA (11004246), T.SAI NAGARJUNA (1004249), T.R.V.M.PAVAN KUMAR (11004240), D.SAINADH (11004252), A.KARTHEEK (11004211), P.V.NAVEEN (11004281), G.VAMSIDHAR (11004201) in partial fulfilment for the award of the Degree of Bachelor in Technology of ECE to the K L University is a record of benefited work carried out by them under the guidance of CS SWAMY and supervision of TARA SINGH. The results embodied in this project report have not been submitted to any University or Institute for the award of any Degree or Diploma.

SIGNATURE OF GUIDE

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Acknowledgement
This internship program would not have been possible without the support of many people. We are very grateful to them in making our project a successful one. We the entire group member would like to acknowledge the advice, encouragement and guidance of them. We are extremely grateful to the Department of the Electronics and communication Engineering, KL University, for the encouragement given. With immense pleasure, we would like to thank Mr. TARA SINGH for his valuable suggestions and guidance for the timely completion of this Internship. We are very much glad for having the support, Dr.K.N.MURTHY who inspired me with his words filled with dedication and discipline towards work. We express my sincere gratitude to CS SWAMY for encouraging and guiding us to undertake this project work. We are really indebted to my parents and friends for their support in completion of this internship program.

Place: Date:

CH.NAGA PAVAN KUMAR (11004225) CH.RUPESH SASANKA (11004246) T.SAI NAGARJUNA (11004249) T.R.V.M.PAVAN KUMAR (11004240) D.SAINADH (11004252) G.VAMSIDHAR (11004201) A.KARTHEEK (11004211) P.V.NAVEEN (11004281)

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INDEX
RADIATION AND INSTRUMENTATION DIVISION: INTRODUCTION: Fundamentals of nuclear physics Biological effects of radiation TYPES OF DETECTORS: Geiger-Muller Tube Scintillator detector SIGNAL AMPLIFICATION AND PROCESSING: Block Diagram Description

APPLICATIONS Area monitoring systems Portal monitoring systems Vehicle monitoring systems

CONCLUSION

OTHER DIVISIONS IN ECIL

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INTRODUCTION:
FUNDEMENTALS OF NUCLEAR PHYSICS: RADIATION: Radiation is a process in which energetic particles or energetic waves travel through a vacuum, or through matter-containing media that are not required for their propagation.

TYPES OF NUCLEAR RADIATION: An atom is made up of a small nucleus surrounded by orbiting electrons. The nucleus of the atom consists of particles called protons and neutrons. The nuclei of the atoms in some elements are unstable and emit radiation. The radiation can be of three types - alpha radiation, beta radiation and gamma radiation. Alpha radiation is slow moving helium nuclei Beta radiation is fast moving electrons Gamma radiation is high-energy electromagnetic waves.

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Absorption of radiation

The energy of the three radiations is absorbed by the material through which the radiation passes. The amount of energy which is absorbed depends on the type of radiation and the type of the absorbing material. The range of the alpha radiation in an absorbing material is less than that of beta or gamma. The alpha radiation transfers more energy to an absorber than beta or gamma radiation. Alpha radiation is absorbed by the thickness of the skin or by a few centimeters of air.

Beta radiation is more penetrating than alpha radiation. It can pass through the skin, but it is absorbed by a few centimeters of body tissue or a few millimeters of aluminum.

Gamma radiation is the most penetrating of the three radiations. It can easily penetrate body tissue. It requires a few centimeters of lead or about 1 meter of concrete to absorb it.

Ionization
The radiation on passing through the material causes electrons to be stripped from some of the atoms in the absorbing material. The process is called ionization. Energy is transferred to the absorber during the ionization process. For a given thickness of absorber, alpha radiation produces most ionization, beta next and gamma least.

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DETECTORS: Geiger-Muller Tube: Introduction:

Ionizing radiation that is associated with radioactivity cannot be directly detected by our senses. Ionization is the process whereby the radiation has sufficient energy to strip electrons away from atoms. The ionization results in the formation of free electrons and an ionized atom that has lost some of its orbital electrons. Examples of ionizing radiation include particles such as alpha and beta particles, and photon radiation such as xrays and gamma rays. Neutrons and protons can also cause ionizations. Since radiation can be harmful to our health, we need detectors that are capable of sensing the presence and intensity of radiation and convert it into an electrical signal to provide suitable alarm. Geiger-Mller tubes are gas-filled radiation detectors that are useful, cheap and robust. A GM tube basically detects the presence and intensity of radiation (particle frequency, rather than energy). Geiger counters are used to detect radiation (usually gamma and beta radiation, but some models can also detect alpha radiation).Geiger-Mueller counters respond to the commonly encountered types of radiation, namely, alpha and beta particles as well as gamma and x-radiation. In general, GM counters cannot determine the type, energy, or vectors of the detected radiation. Generally they are used for detecting and measuring radioactivity that consists of low level beta particles and gamma-ray radiation. It has high sensitivity, versatility with various types of radiation, wide variety of shapes and windows, large output signal and reasonable cost. GM detectors are of three types: end-window, pancake and the sidewall detector. The end-window detector employs a thin wall at its end to allow most alpha and beta radiations to enter the detector without being stopped. This detector can also measure gamma/x-ray radiation. The pancake detector also has an end-window, with a wider diameter which permits faster detection. A side-wall tube can detect beta and gamma or x-ray radiation using an aluminum or stainless steel outer wall that can slides or rotates to selectively expose the actual detector to the radiation. The window can either be opened or shut so that beta and gamma/x-ray radiation above some energy can be detected. When shut, the window permits the detection of only gamma or x-ray radiation.
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Principle of Operation:
The Geiger counter is a gas-ionization device. The basic design consists of a metal tube, often with glass or mica window at one end. At the center of the tube runs a wire with a strong positive charge. The tube is sealed and filled at low pressure with an inert gas such as argon, helium or neon with some gases added. In the absence of radiation, the detector does not conduct charge. Whenever ionizing radiation passes through, however, an electric signal is generated because the metal casing of the Geiger-Muller tube acts as a cathode, and the central wire is the anode. The\anode transfers the pulses of current through a resistor, where they are converted to pulses of voltage. The voltage pulses are then recorded by a counting device. Finally, an oscilloscope, LED screen, or other display conveys the particle count to the user. In a GM counter, the avalanche produced near the anode wire spreads along its entire length. That is why the output signal is independent of the magnitude of the triggering event. After the ionizing event creates electrons and positive ions, the electrons are collected very quickly while it takes longer time for the ions to move slowly. When the discharge is quenched, the space charge sheath surrounding the anode moves towards the cathode. After it reaches sufficient distance from the anode, the voltage is sufficient to re-establish the threshold for Geiger action. If another ionizing event occurs immediately after this, a second pulse is recorded. In the circuit, the collector electrode is maintained at high voltage above the ground but this is blocked by a capacitor from the counter input. The cathode is maintained at ground potential for safe operation.
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Sensitivity:
Most GM tubes will detect gamma radiation, and usually beta radiation above about 2.5 MeV.Geiger-Mller tubes will not normally detect neutrons which do not ionize the fill-gas. However, neutron-sensitive tubes can be produced with their insides coated with elemental boron or is filled with boron trifluoride/helium-3 gas. The neutrons interact with the boron/helium nuclei, producing charged particles and electrons. These charged particles then trigger the usual pulse-generating mechanism.

QUENCHING: It is the termination of ionization current pulse in the GM tubes.

DOSE RATE: It is the quantity of radiation absorbed per unit area.

Dose rate= (source constant*source strength)/ (distance) ^2

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OPERATING CHARACTERSTICS:

Starting voltage: This is the lowest voltage of pulses about 1V amplitude which appear across the anode resistor. Plateau: In this we plot a graph across counting rate versus voltage with constant irradiation characteristics. Counting rate=100 counts per second Plateau threshold voltage: This is a minimum voltage to start a plateau. Supply voltage: This is the voltage that is chosen at the mid of the plateau. Back ground: This is the counting rate in the absence of radiation.

Dead time: This is a time interval during which the GM tube is insensitive to further ionizing events.

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Scintillation detector:
The principle of this kind of detector is based on the use of a scintillation material (NaI, BaF,) When a photon enters the detector, a burst of small energy photons results. Typically, the wave lengths of these photons is in the visible region and in principle, they can be seen with bare eyes, if the source of radiation is strong enough. When these photons hit the photo cathode, electrons are released. A photo-multiplier tube increases the amount of these electrons with the help of a dynode chain and high voltage (there is a potential difference between the two neighboring dynodes and this potential difference accelerates electrons released from the previous dynode). A photomultiplier tube has a minimum voltage below which the tube doesnt give any signal out. Typically the total accelerating voltage is about 1000V. Somewhere in the dynode chain the number of electrons gets saturated and at the end of the chain, a strong saturated signal is obtained irrespective of the photon energy. If the energy of the photon is needed, it must be taken from a dynode where the number of electrons is not yet saturated, since the number of electrons reaching the photo cathode is proportional to the energy of the photon. Typically, there are two outputs in the photomultiplier: An output for energy measurement and an output from the last dynode for collecting timing information.

SEAKER

DETECTOR

PREAMPLIFIER

AMPLIFIER

DISCRIMINATOR

HVPS

OSCILLOSCOPE

MULTICHANNEL ANALYSER

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SIGNAL AMPLIFICATION AND PROCESSING:

DETECTOR

PREAMPLIFIER

SHAPING CIRCUITS

COMPARATOR/ MONOSTABLE CIRCUIT

COUNTER

MICRO CONTROLLER

ADC

DETECTOR OUTPUT The output from the detector is usually a current signal. This is converted in to a voltage signal using I to V converter using op-amp. The signal generated is a tail falling pulse of amplitude approximately 50mv. The signal obtained is not suitable for further analysis. Thus the signal should be amplified.

PREAMPLIFIER The primary function of a preamplifier is to extract the signal from the detector without significantly degrading the intrinsic signal-to noise ratio. Therefore, the preamplifier is located as close as possible to the detector, and the input circuits are designed to match the characteristics of the detector. In this stage the output from the detector unit is amplified in different stages to a range of 5 to 6V using op-amps. Several types of detectors produce moderately large signals at their outputs, and this relaxes the restrictions on the noise contribution from the preamplifier. Detectors that typically fall in this category are: photodiodes operating with intense light pulses, photomultiplier tubes (PMT), scintillation detectors (scintillator mounted on a PMT), micro channel plate PMTs, micro channel plates, channeltrons, and electron multipliers. For such detectors, a wideband amplifier with a low input impedance can be used directly at the detector output to generate short, fast-rising pulses for timing or counting purposes.
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SHAPING CIRCUITS In this stage integrator and differentiator circuits are used to shape the tail falling pulse in to a Gaussian pulse.it is essentially to be converted in to a Gaussian pulse to maintain a low signal to noise ratio.

COMPARATOR/MONOSTABLE MULTIVIBRATOR A comparator circuit such as Schmitt trigger or a monostable multivibrator converts the signal in to a TTL pulse. ADC An analog-to-digital converter (abbreviated ADC, A/D or A to D) is a device that converts a continuous physical quantity (usually voltage) to a digital number that represents the quantity's amplitude. The conversion involves quantization of the input, so it necessarily introduces a small amount of error. The inverse operation is performed by a digital-to-analog converter (DAC). Instead of doing a single conversion, an ADC often performs the conversions ("samples" the input) periodically. The result is a sequence of digital values that have converted a continuous-time and continuous-amplitude analog signal to a discretetime and discrete-amplitude digital signal. using analog to digital converter. The analog signal is converted to digital form

COUNTER By counting the number of pulses the frequency of the signal is determined.

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DESCRIPTION: The energy signal from the photo multiplier is usually quite weak; therefore it must be amplified before analyzing it. The amplification takes place in two stages: 1) The signal from the photo multiplier is amplified in a preamplifier (PA) close to the detector. 2) The signal (about 100 mV) from the preamplifier is led to a linear amplifier (LA) where the signal is shaped and amplified so that it is suitable for the analogue-digital converter (ADC). The amplitude of the signal from the LA is typically a few volts.

APPLICATIONS

BLOCK DIAGRAM OF AREA MONITOR

MAINS

LOW VOLTAGE POWER SUPPLY

PREAMPLIFIER

CONTROL CIRCUIT

VOLTAGE TO CURRENT CONVERTER

HIGH VOLTAGE POWER SUPPLY FRONT PANEL DIGITAL METER

IONISATION CHAMBER

AUDIO /VIDEO

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PORTAL MONITORING SYSTEM Portal monitoring systems are passive radiation detection devices used for the screening of individuals.

DETECTOR UNIT

SIGNAL PROCESSING UNIT

SIDE 1

SIDE 2

In the above block diagram side 1 consists of gamma and neutron detectors usually PM tubes and BF3 gas detectors. Side 2 consists of signal processing circuit.

DETECTOR

4-STAGE AMPLIFIER

DRIVER CIRCUIT

COMPARATOR

MONOSTABLE MULTIVIBRATOR

The output signal of the detector stage is negative going pulse. The output of the detector is fed to a 4-stage amplifier circuit which consists of Inverting stage Base line distortion 2-amplifier stages

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The output of the amplifier stage is 8-12V range. The output is fed to driver circuit which gives an output of 4V and the output is fed to the comparator which compares the input signal to a reference voltage and gives the output to a monostable multivibrator which produces TTL pulses that are given to a counter. In this system we use ETHERNET communication to communicate between the detector and the control unit.

VEHICLE MONITORING SYSTEMS Vehicle monitoring systems are passive radiation detection devices used for the screening of Vehicles, cargos.

RDP 3

RDP 4

5m

RDP 1

RDP 2
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Each RPD consists of 2 detectors i.e., a PM tube for detecting gamma radiation and BF3 detector to detect neutrons. All the detector outputs are connected and given to signal processing unit of RPD 1.

OTHER APPLICATIONS Criticality alarm systems Doorway monitoring systems Nuclear reactors (detection of radioactive particles)

CONCLUSION Nuclear power is a major energy source which can meet many of the power demands in the modern era, but it also vital to detect and control the radiation. Nuclear radiations can not only harm the human existence but also effect the environment by greater extent. Nuclear radiations can thus be detected as per the specifications such as the range of detection, intensity of radiation and the type of radiation by using the suitable detectors. Further advancement in the accuracy and quality of detection is expected in future.

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INSTRUMENTS AND SYSTENS DIVISION To strive continual growth in products with customer satisfaction and good contribution by technological improvement in product, production process and services. CONTROL AND AUTOMATION DIVISION To be a leading Nuclear C&I systems division for all types reactors. (PHWRs, FBRs, LWRs) To be a leading power electronics division to be a Major partner to BHEL, Hyderabad for their requirement of LCPs, SCAP to be a leading PLC supplier to both DAE & Non-DAE organizations. Enter into Software area for Nuclear C&I and B1 B2. Enter Field instrumentation area. CONTROL INSTRUMENTATION DIVISION To be a one stop solution provider for the C&I requirements of process industries especially DAE units. SPECIAL PRODUCT DIVISION New Customers for all allied products such as DGPS, North Finding Systems, Doppler Radars. New Business lines such as Night Vision Devices, Sensor Fuzed Munition (SFM). To associate with ARDE in the development programmers of ET Fuze for Pinaka and New Family Munition (NFM).

SERVO SYSTEMS DIVISIONS

To bring ECIL in the forefront at National level by indigenizing high precision, multi-disciplinary products in electro-mechanical and control electronics fields to the Defense customers.

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ANTENNA PRODUCTS AND SATCOM DIVISION

To design, develop, supply, install and commissioning the state of the art of reflector antennas, large telescopes, VSAT Network Systems for CUG and become a center of excellence for stabilization platforms, for strategic applications & take up projects of national importance with Science & Technology background.

SYSTEMS AND QUALITY ASSURANCE GROUP

To provide state of the art and best in class services in the selected areas of Quality Management with due regard to customer satisfaction in terms of quality, cost, delivery and response.

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