Legal Restrictions on Afro-Indian Relations in Colonial Mexico Author(s): Edgar F.

Love Reviewed work(s): Source: The Journal of Negro History, Vol. 55, No. 2 (Apr., 1970), pp. 131-139 Published by: Association for the Study of African American Life and History, Inc. Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/2716446 . Accessed: 19/03/2012 20:41
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LEGAL RESTRICTIONS ON AFRO-INDIAN RELATIONS IN COLONIAL MEXICO The Spanishofficials in colonialMexico formulated a plan designed to keep the Indians separatedfromthe Spaniards,Negroes, and other ethnicgroups. The king,in instructions issued to Hernan Cortes,June 26, 1523, orderedthe conquistadorto have Indians live in theirown instructions weregivento thepresidente and villages.' In 1599, similar oidoresof theAudienciaof New Spain.2 If theSpanishhad been totally in achieving their successful populationwould have goal, theindigenous in special pueblos and reducciones. Indians been reduced to residing would have been excludedfromlivingin the cities,the latterbeingreservedforthegentede razon - theSpanish. FernandoBenitez,in his recentstudyof the Indians of Mexico, suggests that
in principle The Spaniardsand theirdescendants the creolesestablished thatseparatedthemfrom a trueapartheid, a rigidline of demarcation the Indians. They (the Indians) lived in theirown isolateddwellings and pueblos,and the Spanishlived isolatedin theircities.3

The intentof the Spanish was undoubtedly to maintainthe cities as "white islands," but this objective was not realized. The noted Germanscientist Baron Alexanderde Humboldt, forexample,estimated thatin 1793 therewere 25,603 Indians livingin Mexico City, 11,584 in the cityof Queretaro,and 4,695 in Valladolid.4 AlthoughIndians were of theindigenes were able to residein the cities,the vast majority in the pueblos and reducciones, and numerous restrictions concentrated were enacted to limit the contact of the Indian with the Negro and Spanishpopulation. of Negro rebellionsand the The Spanish were especiallyfearful the outnumbered that Indians and Negroes, who together possibility join in commoncause againstthecolonialpower. ViceSpanish,might written to theking, May 4, 1553, advised royLuis de Velasco, in a letter themonarchthattheNegroesof New Spain desired"to buy their liberty with the lives of theirmasters."5 manyNegroesmarryViceroysbecame alarmedas theywitnessed of such unionswere and livingwithIndian women. The offsprings ing elementsamong the Indian population. Viceroy viewed as disturbing Enriquez consideredthe zambos (children of Indian-Negrocouples) the king:6 as one of the major causes of Indian unrest. He informed
thatthe timeis comingwhenthesepeople ... it appears,Our Majesty, of the Indians,inasmuchas theywere born will have become masters and are men who dare to die as well as maidens, amongthemand their and join any Spaniardin the world. But if theIndiansbecomecorrupt to resist them. It I do not knowwho will be in theposition withthem, will take place in severalyears. thatthismischief is evident

rebellion led by zambos did not become of Afro-Indian The threat were the colonial a reality period. Negroesof Mexico, however, during who acceptedthe yoke of servitude without not passive individuals protest. Negro revoltsoccurredin 1537, 1546, 1570, 1608, 1609, 1611, Indian rebellionsand insur1612, and 1670. In view of the frequent 131

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JOURNALOF NEGRO HISTORY

rectionsand the rebelliousness of the Negro, Spanish colonial officials were constantly concernedwithproblemsof security. on the believed that the Negro had a bad effect Spanish officials Indian population. Felipe II asserted that Negroes, mulattoesand mestizos taughtthe Indians theirbad customs and vices "and other thatwe, in an orderly and pervert the benefice faultswhichcan corrupt to this As a corollary seek for his salvation and manner, tranquility."7 by view,the SpanishassumedthattheIndian could easilybe influenced the Negro and that Indian women were especiallysusceptibleto their influence. The prevailing Spanishview was thattheIndian womanwas a "flaccidpersonand easilymisguided by theNegro man."8 were also concernedabout the impact of The colonial officials Indian customs,beliefs,and religionson people of African descent. From the Spanish point of view both groups were naturales,no sin factors. and otherirrational who wereinfluenced motivo, by superstition for example, believed that both the Indian and Religious authorities, the Negro was easily temptedby the devil. Br. Hernando Ruiz de Indian to theInquisition regarding Alarcon,who made a detailedreport accused the Indians of having a "pact with the devil."9 superstitions, theSpanishinstituted customsand beliefs, Since bothgroupshad similar theprocessof acculturation. sternmeasuresdesignedto retard contactswas One of the schemes employedto limitAfro-Indian that of forbidding Negroes fromlivingin Indian villages. Numerous to carryout thispolicy. As earlyas decreeswere issued in an attempt that 1563, the king declared Negroes and mulattoesmust be barred fromliving in Indian villages.10 Corregidoresand alcaldes mayores were orderedto punish and expel Negroes fromtheirvillages." The of Negro-Indian thatchildren couples stipulated royal decree,however, were not to be separated from theirparents.'2 Negroes marriedto to live in Indian pueblos. On werepermitted children Indians and their who boughtland in Indian villages,notwiththe otherhand, mulattoes of were deniedtheright theprohibition againstsuch purchases, standing to limited not were others and livingin thesepueblos.l3 These decrees in from barred also were and mestizos living Negroes. Spaniards Indian villages.14 of the Spanish expulsionpolicycan in part be The ineffectiveness to complywith orders to colonial officials the illustrated frequent by and enforcethis royal policy. Viceroy Rodrigo Pacheco y Osorio in of Chalco to enforcethe prohibition against 1626 warned the officials and mestizoslivingin Indian pueblos.15 In 1654 Negroes,mulattoes, of Acapulco, Chilapa, and Tixtlaweregivenorders thealcaldes mayores Negroes and to enforcethe Real Auto de la Real Audiencia regarding sambhigos and chinos, mulattoes, to ordered Negroes, expel specifically from the Indian pueblos in their districts.l6In later years, similar orderswere issued to the Juez de la Cuenta Personal of the cityof los Angeles (Puebla),'7 the alcalde mayorof Leon,'8 and the Gobernador also solicitedthe The Spanish authorities Capitan General of Yucatan,19 fromIndian of the Negroes in expulsion of the church aid enforcing 15, 1784, December on for of The Sonora, example, bishop villages. issued an edict banningpersons of Africandescent fromresidingin

MEXICANRESTRICTIONSON AFRO-INDIANRELATIONS

133

Indian pueblos,and thekingin a ConsultaCircularof 1784, demanded that the bishop's orderbe enforced by secular authorities.20 The Spanish attempted between to restrict commercial intercourse and In Indians. a of decree the 1541, royal officially Negroes king forbidNegroes fromtradingor having any type of business relations withIndians.21 The royalorderspecifically thatNegroesnot stipulated have any "trade,commerce, or communication" withIndians. A number of measureswere later enacted to enforcethe prohibition against Negro-Indiancommercialcontacts. Certain fieldsof commercewere exclusively designatedfor Indians and denied to Negroes, mulattoes, Spaniardsand mestizos. The above groupswerebarredfromengaging in the sellingof chickens, and vegetables.22ViceroyLope Diaz fruits, del Armendarizorderedthe justicias of Mexico City not to interfere withor obstruct the rightof Indians to engage in the sellingof fruits and vegetables.23Occasionallyexceptionswere made to these restrictions and special license grantedto a few Negroes and othersto sell theforbidden commodities.24 defiedthe A numberof bold and audacious Negroes deliberately withthe Indians. A group commercial relations Spanish law regarding and of Negroes establishedan extortion racket, called recontoneria, extorted and otherproducefromthe Indians and sold food,vegetables, these productsto the people of Mexico City.25 The multitude on Negroes includedmany of Spanish restrictions on dress. were prohibitions prohibitedfrom wearing silk Negroes clothes and mantillasadorned with gold or silver. Certain stylesof and mesdress were reserved forthe gentede razon. Negro, mulatto, to tizo women, except those marriedto Indians, were not permitted Indians like wear Indian clothing.26The prohibition dressing against was partiallydesignedto cope with the problem of the vagabundos. Mulatto and mestizovagabundos,masqueradingas Indians in Indian able to elude theSpanishauthorities.The folvillages,were frequently of thisproblem:27 issued cedula, by PhillipII, is illustrative lowing
and of mestizos to me thatthereare largenumbers It has been reported mulattosin those provincesand they increaseevery day and are inclinedto evil..... because theyare the sons of Indian women,as soon dressup as Indiansand hide out withtheir as theycommit a crime, they and cannotbe found. mother's relatives

The presenceof large numbersof Indians in the cities of Mexico with createdseriousproblemsforthe Spanish officials. Aftermeeting to keep theIndians out of thecities,the Spanish failure in theirattempt the urban Indians fromoher ethnic instituted a policy of segregating groupsof the cities. In Mexico City,forexample,a barrier(la traza) was establishedto achieve this racial separation. Angel Rosenblat assertsthattheracial separation policyin thecitieswas neverrigorously on Mexican enforced.28Vicente Riva Palacio, noted commentator of the traza in Mexico colonial life, in discussingthe ineffectiveness Citypointedout29
the traza,which separatedthe century By the end of the seventeenth had faded,notonly population, Spanishof thecityfromthe indigenous because Spaniardshad built houses in thatpart of the citydesignated who did not for Indians,but also for the reason that rich mestizos, built houses outside of considerthemselves subjectto thatprovision,

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JOURNAL OF NEGROHISTORY
the traza,and in whatever in the place suitedthembest. Furthermore, housesof the Spaniardstherewerelargepatios or yardsin whichlived
it cannot be doubted that Indians lived

in the center of the city, in the yardsof the homesof the rich,and the of the Indians had failed. separation

large numbers of Indians. ...

the Indians were not supposed to live in the cities. In Officially 1672, for instance,the king warned the presidenteand oidores of Mexico CitythattheIndians shouldnotlive "mixedwiththeSpaniards, the to concentrate mestizos,and mulattoes,"and orderedthe officials Indians of Mexico City in Tlaltelolco, a barrio near Mexico City.30 did not stay out of Mexico City. On May 8, 1792, Indians, however, the Indians of Mexico City,as a resultof a shortageof maize, burned the palace of ViceroyGaspar de Sandoval, forcing the viceroyto take in thegardensof theconventof St. Francis. Followingthisriot, refuge theviceroy orderedtheIndians to go live in their own barrios.31 of racial segregation The pattern in thecitiesincludedtheexclusion of Negroes and Indians fromhospitalsestablished forwhites. In 1540 a special royal hospitalwas foundedfor the Indians of Mexico City. to this hospital. The king,in a Negroes,however,were not admitted of Mexico City cedilla of November4, 1568, noted thatthe mulattoes to any of the hospitalsof thecity,and, as a resultof were not admitted of a thechurch, a special licenseforthebuilding a requestfrom granted hospitalforthisgroup.32 One leading authorityon racial problems in colonial Spanish thatin Mexico the policy of racial segregation also America,maintains Angel Rosenblat,observes applied to churchattendance. This expert, that"duringthe epoch of Humboldtthe whitesattendedthe cathedral, of San Maurico, and the pardos Altagrathe Negroes the hermitage on no legal or religiousrestrictions cia . . . 33 There were,however, churchattendance. The Negroes, Spaniards,and pardos (persons of Afro-Indian the churchlisted. descent) were not limitedto attending of the churchof Santa Veracruz,located in the heart The parishioners of Mexico City,includedmembers of all ethnicgroups. Notwithstandbarredthe formation of Negro assoing the fact thatcolonial officials of the Santa Veracruz were able to ciations, priests persuade the king to let them establisha cofradia (religious confederation)among the Negroes, mulattoes,morenos,and other persons of African descent ofthischurch.34 who wereparishioners The colonial officials were particularly about thetendenperturbed of men live with to or Indian women. cy Negro marry Legally there were no laws limiting Indians to marrywithinspecificethnicgroups. In a cedula, issued on February5, 1515, the king announcedthatIn"whomever dians were freeto marry theywish."35 As theNegro slave the colonial officials to impose barriers attempted populationincreased, in and tried various againstAfro-Indian ways to prevent intermarriages Negro men fromhavingIndian concubines. The Spanish government tried to encourage Negroes to marry within theirown racial groups. Negroes,however, werenot specifically forbidden by law frommarrying non-Negroes. In 1527, for example, the king declared as official policy that "in so far as possible,Negro men shouldmarry Because of thefactthattheSpanwomen,"36 Negro

MEXICANRESTRICTIONSON AFRO-INDIANRELATIONS

135

ish broughtto Mexico threetimes as many Negro male slaves as females it would have been difficult to limittheNegro male slave to marryingfemaleslaves. As a consequence,the Negro male slave sought his mate fromamong the Indian maidens. The Negro male had an extremely and practicalreason important forseekingan Indian bride or havingsexual relations withIndian women. Accordingto the ancientcode of Alfonso the Wise, "children bornof a freemother and a father who is a slave are freebecause they 37 Since Indian of themother, as aforesaid." alwaysfollowthecondition women were consideredfreesubjects,theirchildren, regardlessof the statusof thefather, were also free. The Negro male slave by takingan Indian wifeor concubinewas in effect theclass stratificacircumventing tion of colonial societyto the extentof slightly the lot of his improving offspring. As the numberof children born to Afro-Indian couples increased, in Mexico soughtto get thekingto revoketheprothe colonial officials writvisionsof the ancientcode. ViceroyMartinEnriquez,in a letter ten to thekingon January 9, 1574, warnedthemonarchof thedangers thatthe royalsovand recommended caused by the zambo population, withNerelations sexual Indian women from having ereigndiscourage unions be defrom such children that resulting any groes by declaring was based on the assumption clared slaves.38 The viceroy'sargument that Indians solelyforthepurposeof ensuring thatthe Negroesmarried would be bornfree,and thatIndian women,if theyknew theirchildren to have would be reluctant birth to slave children, thattheywere giving withNegro men. relations inclinedtowardEnmanychurchleaderswere favorably Although refused to enact the Indies Council of the the recommendation, riquez's auMexican Gonzalo Beltran, leading Aguirre legislation. suggested thattheCouncil of theIndies on theNegro of Mexico, maintains thority because "this attempt could not accept the viceroy'srecommendation libre (freedomof the womb) of the to revokethe principleof vientre thatthemetropolitan so profound Indian womenimplieda retrogression it out."39 darednotcarry government to escape fromthe chains of The Negro of Mexico, in his attempt Indian women. freedom his secure to by marrying servitude, sought the Wise of Alfonso of the code aware of were provisions Negroes whichmade it possible forhim to changehis legal status. Partida IV, titulo XXII, leyV, of thecode stipulated:40
a freewoman,and his masteris aware of it and When a slave marries the slave becomesfreeforthisreason. We decree no opposition, offers a freeman. thatthe same rule shall applywherea femaleslave marries
We also decree that, where a master marries his slave, she for this reason becomes free.

The king soon became aware of the fact thatNegroes in various formarrying masters partsof the Indies were usingtheconsentof their freedom. Negroes,who withthe consent Indians as a means of gaining freewomenof otherethnic married masters groupsalso claimed of their fromthe code of Alfonso freestatus. In 1526 King Carlos, departing the Wise, issued a Real Provisionin whichhe statedthatNegro slaves would not gain theirfreedom through marriage.41

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to persuade decree,Negroescontinued Despite the aforementioned their masters to recognize freedombased on marriage. Bartolome of Mexico City,senta petition the to thekingdescribing Zarate,regidor situationand asked the king to take remedialaction. The king in a cedula issued on the subject,said in part that'2
.... Bartolomede Zarate, resident and regidorof Mexico City, has to me thatNegro slaves,who travelfromyonder reported places,soon live in concubinage, withIndian nativesand Negro havingconcubinage insideand outsidethehomesof their and thatthemaswomen, masters, tersof such slaves,in orderto freethemfromtheirsins,marry them, and so married, the said slaves,without any othercause, are said to be free.... and begs me thatyou (Council of theIndies) shoulddeclare, themto thatpersonswho possessNegro slaves and marry nevertheless, Indians of the land, that they cannot be freedby them,nor claim liberty.

The recommendation of Zarate was acceptedby the Council of the Indies. A cedula was issued on July 10, 1538, statingthat Negro slaves, who with the consentof theirmasters,marriedIndian women did not gain freedom as a resultof such mariages.43ViceroyMendoza the was orderedto enforce thiscedula in New Spain. Three yearsafter issuanceof the decree,the Cabildo of Mexico City,June10, 1541, promarthat"Negro slaves, although mulgatedanotherdecree announcing ried to Indians,do not gain theirfreedom."" The actionof the Counof Indian cuscil of the Indies and the Cabildo represented a rejection toms and the ancientSpanish law on marriage. Dr. Gonzalo Aguirre his opinionon the above cedula, stated:45 Beltran,in expressing
of the previousrevocation The importance is most evidentwhen we see that the Negro slave generally lived in concubinagewith Indian women. On the otherhand, according to Nahuatl law, the marriage hence the royal cedula not of slaves was synonymous withliberation, Nahuatl only revokeda normof Spanishlaw, but also the established right.

The steps taken by the king,Council of the Indies, the Cabildo, of Negroes to and the viceroydid not successfully retardthe tendency seek Indian wives or concubines. Colonial authorities soughtthe aid relations. An exof spiritualauthorities in dealing withAfro-Indian de Consulta del Indias, August 1, 1781, Consejo tremely interesting urgedthe priestsof Mexico to advise the Indians about the bad habits of Negroes, and to tryto persuade Indians not to marryNegroes.46 thatthe priestsshould point out to the The Consulta further suggested Indians that if theydid marryNegroes, neithertheyor theirchildren could hope to obtain honorable officein the republic,because such wereto be held onlyby pureIndians. offices Negroesfrom prevent Althoughthe Spanish could not successfully could and did enactsetheroyalgovernment havingIndian concubines, vere penal laws designedto discourageNegroes fromhavingrelations withIndian women.In a cedula of 1551, whichwas reissuedin 1589, the Spanish decreedthatno freeNegro man or womancould be served The justification citedforthislaw was based on the asby an Indian.47 sertion"that it is knownthatmanyNegro men have Indian mistresses of and treat . ."48Negroslavesfoundguilty thembadlyand oppressively. thislaw would be givenone hundred public lashingsforfirst disobeying for the second. If the offender offense and more severe punishment

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was a freeNegro,he would be subjectto one hundred lashingsforfirst fromthe kingdomif foundguiltyon a second offense and banishment occasion. Under this decree, owners of male or female slaves who them to have Indian males or women, could be finedone permitted the defianceof the law. hundred pesos forpermitting to avoid paying Sons of Afro-Indian attempted couples frequently tribute to theSpanishgovernment by allegingthattheywerenotIndians were not subjectto the tribute. In 1572 and 1573 or thattheirfathers reales cedulas were issued dealing withthe above typesof allegations. Under the decree of 1572, the kingdeclaredthat49
sons of free Negroes or slaves marriedto If thereis doubt whether thepersonaltribute, from Indiansare exempted nothwithstanding paying thattheseare it is allegedthattheyare not Indiansnor resemble them, as Indians and the Audienciarule on this as obligatedto pay tribute soon as possible.

The cedula of 1572 simplyprovided: "We declare thatthe sons to Indians,mustpay frommarriages of freeor slave Negroes,resulting like the otherIndians,even thoughtheyclaim thattheyare not tribute 50 paid tribute." Indians,nor thattheirfathers on Afro-Indian aims of the legal restrictions One of the primary between these two relationswas to preventor retard acculturation groups. The Spaniardsbelievedthatunlesschecked,theIndians would adopt many of the bad practicesof the Negroes, and that Negroes and customs. It Indian practices would likewiseaccept theundesirable would also be affected was feltthattheSpanishpopulation by thistrend. acculturation the aid to tended factors cultural other the On prohand, cess betweenNegroes and Indians. Dr. Gonzalo AguirreBeltran in on this tendency, pointsout 59 commenting
motive. His culture without as naturales, were classified The indigene in nature. For the Negro, and also the Indian, kept him submerged constifactsand symbols, humanand cosmicevents, man and nature, coalescence. Theredid notexista clear separation tutedan indubitable divineand the human, between and physical, the metaphysical between and a mutualdea continuum life and death,on the contrary, between world,both pendenceand reciprocalamong man and the phenomenal of magicaldispoforceswhichproducea causality psychic determining nature. of time,space, life,and the worldof mystic sitionand concepts

on Afro-Indianrelations in The multitudeof legal restrictions contactsbetween frequent colonial Mexico did not successfully prevent thatduringthe Indians and personsof Africandescent. It is estimated colonial period more than 200,000 Africanslaves were broughtinto Mexico.52 As a consequence of interracialmarriagesand conjugal been absorbedinto the Mexithe Negro has to a large extent relations, can population. Relativelyfew Negroes did not become involvedin thisprocessofmiscegenation. Edgar F. Love El Camino College
de Disposicionescomplementarias 1 Spain, InspeccionGeneral Emigracion, las Leyes de Indias (3 vols.,Madrid,1830), vol. I, p. 2. de Su Magestad cedulas instrucciones 2 Vasco de Puga, comp.,Prouisiones, de los negociosy y audienciapara la buena expedicion ordenanzasde difuntos de Nuena Espana,para el buentratamiende justicia administracion y gouernacion

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JOURNALOF NEGRO HISTORY

to y conseruacion de 63, de los Indios desde el ano de 1525 hasta este presente lib. VI, tit.III, ley XXI. (Hereinafter cited as Recop. de Indias). 3 Los Indios de Mexico (Mexico, 1967), p. 16. 4 Alexanderde Humboldt, on the Kingdomof New Spain, PoliticalHistory trans.by JohnBlack (London, 1822), vol. I, p. 254. 5 Cartas de Indias (Madrid, 1877), p. 264. 6 Cartasde Indias,p. 300. 7 Recopilacionde leyesde los reynos de las Indias (4th ed., Madrid,1791), citedas Recop. de Indias). lib. VI, tit.III, ley XXI (Hereinafter 8 Cartasde Indias,p. 299. 9 Letterto the Inquisition, 13, 1624, MS in ArchivoGeneralde September vol. 303, exp. 19, f. 78. citedas AGN), Mexico,Inquision, la Nacion (hereinafter 10 Recop. de Indias, lib. VI, tit.III, ley XXI; lib. VI, tit.IX, ley XIV; lib. VI, tit. IV, ley I. See also Cedulario Indiano, recopiladopor Diego Encinas, de la ed. unica de 1596 (Madrid, 1945), vol. 4, p. 341; facsimil reproduccion al descubriniento, relativ'os ineditos y organconquista Coleccionde documenotos izacion de las antiquasposeisones expanolesde Americay Oceania ... (42 vols., tomoIV, f. 68, no. 71. Madrid,1864-84),vol. 18, p. 136,and AGN, Ordenanzas, 11 Recop. de Indias,lib.VI, tit.III, leyXVII. 12Recop. de Indias,lib. VI, tit.III, leyXXI. 13Recop. de Indias,lib. VI, tit.III, leyXXII. Los 14 A detailed accountof this problemis given in Norman F. Martin, en Nueva Espana, siglo XVI (Mexico, 1957). vagabundos 15AGN, Ordenanzas, tomoII, f. 53v, no. 5. Threeyearsearlierthe viceroy of New Spain (AGN, Ordenanzas, had issued similarordersto colonial officials tomo II, f. 44, no. 42). 16 AGN, Reales Cedulas (duplicados), vol. 23, exp. 58, f. 175, April 28, 1654. 17AGN, Reales Cedulas (duplicados),vol. 5, exp. 758, f. 186, May 19, 1607. 18 AGN, Real Cedulas (duplicados),vol. 20, exp. 111, f. 69. de la forma19RichardKonetzke, Colleccionde documentos para la historia 1493-1810 (Madrid, 1962), vol. III, pt. I, pp. cion social de hispanoamerica, 70-71. 20 Ibid,vol. III, pt.2, pp. 591-593. 21Recop. de Indias,lib. VI, tit.IX, leyXV. 22AGN, Reales Cedulas (duplicados),vol. 3 exp. 24, f. 12, October6, 1587. This cedula was issued to enjoin compliancewithan earlierordenanzaon this subject. 23AGN, Ordenanzas, tomoII, F. 318, no. 361. to FranciscoCamacho, a Newas the licensegranted 24A typical exception in theplaza. (AGN, Reales Cedulas (duplicados),vol. 35, exp. gro,to sell fruit f. 273, August18, 1664). (Buenos 25Carlos FredericoGuillot,Negro rebeldesy Negros Cimarrones Aires,1961), p. 128. 26 AGN, Ordenanzas, tomo I, f. 75, no. 75, July 31, 1582. The punishment lashings. thisodenanza was one hundred forviolating
27

28La poblacion indigenay el mestizajeen America (Buenos Aires, 1954), vol. II, p. 147. vol. V, p. 665. 29Mexicoa traves de los siglos(Barcelona,1888-1889), 30Cedula in AGN, Reales Cedulas (duplicados), vol. 30, exp. 22, f. 27, 30, 1672. July 31Agustin Teatromexicano. Descripcionbrevede los sucesde Vetancourt, y relgiososde Nuevo mund occihistoricos, sos exemplares politicos,militares dentalde las Indias (Madrid, 1960), vol. II, p. 225. vol. I, p, 435, 32 Cedula in Colecction de documentos para la historia, 137, 33Rosenblat. yol, p. II, cit., op.

Collecion de documentos para la historia ...,

vol. I, pp. 436-437.

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139

34Parroquiade la Sta. Veracruz, de la Parroquia Ligerosapunteshistoricos de la Santa Veracruzde Mexico (Mexico, 1926), pp. 31-32. The license was issuedon December 15, 1790 (AGN, Reales Cedulas (originales),vol. 147, exp. 202, f. 363).

1932), vol. IX, p. 52. 36 Recop. de Indias,lib. VII, tit. V, leyV. 37 Las sietepartidas, translation and notesby Samuel Parson Scott (Chicago and New York, 1931), fourth tit.XXI, ley II, p. 977. partida, 38Cartasde Indias,p. 300. Mexico etnohistorica 39La poblacion negrade Mexico, 1519-1810:Esttudio (Mexico, 1946) p. 262. 40 Las siete p. 982. partidas, 41 Coleccion de documentos ineditos de ultranmar, vol. IX, pp. 239-242. 42Ibid,vol. X, p. 430. 43 Ibid,vol. X, p. 431. 44Actasde Cabildo (Mexico, 1959), vol. IV, p. 245. 45 La poblacion de negra, p. 257. 46Coleccionde documentos vol. III, pt. 2, p. 477. para la historia, 47 Recop. de Indias,lib. VII, tit.V, ley VII.
48 Ibid.

35 Colecciones de decoumentos ineditos ...,

second series (Madrid, 1885-

49Recop. de Indias,lib. VII, tit.V, ley II.

61 Medicina y magia: El proceso de aculturacion colonial en la estructura (Mexico, 1963), pp. 76-77. Otherclassical studiesof Indian practicesand bede la Serna,Pedro Ponce,Pedrode Feria, Hernando liefscan be foundin Jacinto Ruiz de Alarcon,Pedro Sanchezde Aguilar,and Gonzalo de Balsalobre,Tratado gende las idolatrias y otras costumbres dioses,ritos,hechicerias supersticiones, de Mexico (Mexico, 1953), vols. X and XX. tiliciasde las razas aborigenes 62Gonzalo AguirreBeltran, de un pueblo negro Cuijla, esbozo etnografico (Mexico, 1958), p. 8. 60 Ibid,lib.VI, tit.V, leyVIII.