Lecture Notes - 6 - June 13th

DEVELOPING THROUGH THE LIFESPAN
Chapter 5 - Continued
SECOND EXAM
Thursday, June 20th 35-40 multiple choice questions It will cover chapters 4-5. Most questions will come from lectures and associated sections in the text. Remember to bring your questions to class: questions # 5-8. Also, I will set up a discussion forum (should be up by Friday, June 21st). Be sure to post one multiple-choice question (Ill post more details about it on PsychPortal)
INFANCY AND CHILDHOOD - SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT

Attachment:
Attachment refers to an emotional bond with a specic person that is enduring across space and time. Many investigators believe that childrens early relationships with parents inuence the nature of their interactions with others from infancy into adulthood, as well as their feelings about their own worth.

Why happens in the absence of attachment? Rene Spitz, a French psychoanalyst, made lms of infants in orphanages that showed despite receiving good physical care, including proper nourishment and health care, with no attachments to a primary caregiver , they su ff ered: physically and psychologically retarded. Many infants seemed unmotivated to live: death rate was about 37% over two years.
Rene Spitz
1887 - 1974
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VvdOe10vrs4

Why happens in the absence of attachment? Harry Harlows work with monkeys who were deprived of all early social interactions (because they exhibited severe social disturbances - bit and rocked themselves, avoided other monkeys, etc) strongly supported the view that healthy emotional and social development is rooted in childrens early social interactions with adults.
Harry Harlow
1905 - 1981

But what is important for attachment?
Harry Harlow
All videos in this series:

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OrNBEhzjg8I
1905 - 1981

Harry Harlow
1905 - 1981

Harry Harlow
1905 - 1981

But what is important for attachment? Harry Harlows experimental work with monkeys suggested that a variable he called contact comfort is important for the formation of attachments between infants and primary caregiver.
Harry Harlow
1905 - 1981

John Bowlby proposed attachment theory which posits that children are biologically predisposed to develop attachments with caregivers as a means of increasing the chances of their own survival. The attachment gure provides an infant or toddler with a secure base, or a sense of security, that makes it possible for the infant to explore the environment.
John Bowlby
1907 - 1990

Bowlbys four phases of attachment:
1. Preattachment Phase (birth to 6 weeks) The infant produces innate signals that bring others to his or her side and is comforted by the interaction that follows.
Goo Goo!
John Bowlby
1907 - 1990

2. Attachment-in-the-Making Phase (6 weeks to 6 to 8 months) The phase in which infants begin to respond preferentially to familiar people.
John Bowlby
1907 - 1990

3. Clear-Cut Attachment (6 to 8 months and 1.5 years) Characterized by the infants actively seeking contact with their regular caregivers and typically showing separation protest or distress (peaking at about 13.5 months) when the caregiver departs.
John Bowlby
1907 - 1990

4. Reciprocal Relationships (1.5 years to 2 years) Involves children taking an active role in developing working partnerships with their caregivers.
John Bowlby
1907 - 1990

Throughout this process, the child develops an internal working model of attachment, which consists of a mental representation of the self, of attachment gures, and of relationships in general. This working model guides childrens interactions with caregivers and other people in infancy and at older ages.
John Bowlby
1907 - 1990

Mary Ainsworth developed a laboratory procedure called The Strange Situation to assess infants attachment to their primary caregivers. In this procedure, the child is exposed to a number of episodes, including two separations and reunions with the caregiver and interactions with a stranger when alone and when the caregiver is in the room.
Mary Ainsworth
1913 - 1999
The Strange Situation: Step-by-Step
Mary Ainsworth
1913 - 1999
The Strange Situation: Step-by-Step
Mary Ainsworth
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QTsewNrHUHU
1913 - 1999

Mary Ainsworth developed a laboratory procedure called The Strange Situation to assess infants attachment to their primary caregivers. In this procedure, the child is exposed to a number of episodes, including two separations and reunions with the caregiver and interactions with a stranger when alone and when the caregiver is in the room. Using this procedure, Ainsworth identied three attachment categories.
Mary Ainsworth
1913 - 1999

Ainsworths three attachment categories:
1. Secure Attachment (~62-68%) Child has a high-quality relationship with his or her attachment gure. They use caregivers as a secure base for exploration. The infant may be upset when the caregiver leaves but is happy to see the caregiver return, recovering quickly from any distress.
Mary Ainsworth
1913 - 1999

1. Secure Attachment (~62-68%)
Mary Ainsworth
All videos in this series:

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PnFKaaOSPmk&feature=related
1913 - 1999

2. Insecure Resistant/Ambivalent (~9% ) Children are clingy and stay close to their caregiver rather than explore the environment or play with toys. Tend to become very upset when the caregiver leaves them alone in the room. When the caregiver returns, they are not easily comforted and both seek comfort and resist efforts by the caregiver to comfort them.
Mary Ainsworth
1913 - 1999

2. Insecure Resistant/Ambivalent (~9% )
Mary Ainsworth
1913 - 1999

3. Insecure Avoidant (~15%) Children seem somewhat indifferent toward their caregiver and may even avoid the caregiver. Often indifferent when caregiver leaves and indifferent or avoident when the caregiver returns. If these children become upset when left alone, they may be as easily comforted by a stranger as by the caregiver.
Mary Ainsworth
1913 - 1999

3. Insecure Avoidant (~15%)
Mary Ainsworth
1913 - 1999

Subsequent to Ainsworth a fourth category was identied:
4. Disorganized/Disoriented (~15 %) Children have no consistent way of coping with the stress of the Strange Situation. Their behavior is often confused or even contradictory, and they often appear dazed or disoriented.
Mary Ainsworth
1913 - 1999

Factors Associated with the Security of Childrens Attachment
Does Security of Attachment Have Long-Term Effects? Children who were securely attached as infants seem to have closer, more harmonious relationships with peers than do insecurely attached children. Secure attachment in infancy also predicts positive peer and romantic relationships and emotional health in adolescence. Securely attached children also earn higher grades and are more involved in school than insecurely attached children. Note: Parent-child interactions predict a childs social and emotional competence at that age better than measures of attachment at younger ages. So its likely that childrens development can be better predicted from the combination of both their early attachment status and the quality of subsequent parenting than from either factor alone.

What factor(s) is most important for secure attachment? A crucial factor that contributes to the security of an infants attachment is parental sensitivity. Secure attachment may be fostered by:
Being consistently responsive to the needs of an infant Mutual smiling, laughing, making sounds at one another Engaging in coordinated play
Mary Ainsworth
Insecure attachment may be fostered by: Being inconsistently responsive to the needs of an infant Often reject infants attempts at physical closeness Exhibiting frightening or disorienting behavior
1913 - 1999

Is there a causal relationship between parental sensitivity and security of attachment? Intervention Study - Daphna van den Boom (1994, 1995) Half of a group of mothers of 6-month-old babies at some risk for insecure attachment were randomly assigned to a condition in which sensitivity was trained, with the remaining half in a comparison condition. Three months later, more of the infants of the mothers in the experimental group were securely attached (62%) than were those in the control group (22%). The differences in attachment were still apparent when the children were 18 months, 24 months, and 3 years old. Results of intervention studies like these indicate a causal relationship between parental sensitivity and security of attachment.

Parenting Styles and Practices
Parenting styles are parenting behaviors and attitudes that set the emotional climate of parent-child interactions.

Supportive
Parent is accepting and child-centered
Unsupportive
Parent is rejecting and parent-centered
Authoritative Parenting
Demanding
Parent expects much of child
Relationship is reciprocal, responsive; high in bidirectional communication
Undemanding
Parent expects little of child

Style
Authoritative
Parent Characteristics
Set clear limits for their children and rm about enforcing them; allow considerable autonomy within those limits; attentive and responsive to childrens needs
Child Characteristics

Supportive
Unsupportive
Authoritarian Parenting
Demanding
Relationship is reciprocal, responsive; high Relationship is controlling, power- assertive; high in unidirectional communication in bidirectional communication
Undemanding
Parent expects little of child

Style
Authoritative
Set clear limits for their children and rm about enforcing them; allow considerable autonomy within those limits; attentive and responsive to childrens needs Non-responsive to childrens needs; enforce demands through threats of punishment; oriented towards obedience and authority; expect children to comply without question
Authoritarian

Supportive
Unsupportive
Demanding
Permissive Parenting
Relationship is indulgent; low in control Parent expects little of child attempts
Undemanding

Style
Authoritative
Set clear limits for their children and rm about enforcing them; allow considerable autonomy within those limits; attentive and responsive to childrens needs Non-responsive to childrens needs; enforce demands through threats of punishment; oriented towards obedience and authority; expect children to comply without question Responsive to their childrens needs; do not require that their children regulate themselves or act in appropriate or mature ways
Authoritarian
Permissive RejectingNeglecting

Supportive
Unsupportive
Demanding
Rejecting-Neglecting Parenting
Relationship is indulgent; low in control Relationship is rejecting or neglecting; uninvolved Parent expects little of child attempts
Undemanding

Style
Authoritative
Set clear limits for their children and rm about enforcing them; allow considerable autonomy within those limits; attentive and responsive to childrens needs Non-responsive to childrens needs; enforce demands through threats of punishment; oriented towards obedience and authority; expect children to comply without question Responsive to their childrens needs; do not require that their children regulate themselves or act in appropriate or mature ways Do not set limits for/monitor their childrens behavior; not supportive, often rejecting, neglectful; tend to be focused on their own needs
Authoritarian

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kdsDwVOMgwY

Style
Authoritative
Authoritarian


http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aAYqssSUD8w&feature=related

Style
Authoritative
Authoritarian


http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=h-Isc5Z6pzs&feature=related

Style
Authoritative
Authoritarian


http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eYIYwGtkUiE

Style
Authoritative
Authoritarian

Rejecting-Neglecting Parenting

Style
Authoritative
Set clear limits for their children and rm about enforcing them; allow considerable autonomy within those limits; attentive and responsive to childrens needs
Competent; self-assured; popular; able to control their own behavior; low in antisocial behavior; as a d o l e s ce n t s , h i g h i n s o c i a l a n d a c a d e m i c competence and positive behavior
Authoritarian
Non-responsive to childrens needs; enforce As children, tend to be unhappy and unfriendly, demands through threats of punishment; with boys aected more than girls; as adolescents, oriented towards obedience and authority; low in social and academic competence expect children to comply without question Responsive to their childrens needs; do not require that their children regulate themselves or act in appropriate or mature ways Do not set limits for/monitor their childrens behavior; not supportive, often rejecting, neglectful; tend to be focused on their own needs As children, they tend to be impulsive, lacking in self-control, and low in school achievement; as adolescents, misconduct and drug use relatively high As infants, attachment problems; as children, poor peer relationships; as adolescents, tend to show antisocial behavior, poor self-regulation, drug use, low academic and social competence

Parenting Style and Personality of Children
Practice Authoritarian
Description Parents impose rules and expect obedience.
Personality of Children Low self-esteem and social skills
Permissive
Parents submit to childrens Aggressive and Immature demands. Parents are demanding but responsive to their children. High self-esteem, self- reliance and social competence
Authoritative

Parenting styles are parenting behaviors and attitudes that set the emotional climate of parent-child interactions. We should be cautious in generalizing results to other cultures: For example, authoritarian child-rearing practices seem to be associated with less negative consequences in Chinese and rst-generation Chinese-American families than in Euro-American families. What might account for this? Whereas Chinese children may perceive such parenting as involving and caring, Euro children may perceive it as mean and cruel.
ADOLESCENCE - COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

Developing Reasoning Power
During early teen years, reasoning tends to be self-focused: But mom, you dont really know how it feels to be in love (Elkind, 1978). Adolescents ability to reason gives them a new level of social awareness. In particular, they may think about the following:
Their own thinking What others are thinking What others are thinking about them How ideals can be reached (become critical of society, parents and even themselves)

Development of Moral Reasoning
Kohlberg (1981, 1984) sought to describe the development of moral reasoning by posing moral dilemmas to children and adolescents: Should a person steal medicine to save a loved ones life? Identied three basic levels of moral reasoning:
Beyond Early Adolescence
Establish self - dened, basic ethical principles

Lawrence Kohlberg
Early Adolescence
Uphold laws and rules
Before age 9
Gain rewards or avoid punishment

1927-1987
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Development of Moral Feeling
Besides arriving at right and wrong via reasoning, we might also do so via our feelings. Is consensual incest morally wrong? Most people seem revolted by the idea and agree its morally wrong. When pressed to give reasons as to why, however, people seem to struggle, often just resorting to, It just is!
Jonathan Haidt
Moral judgements are ba sed on intuitive, emotional responses, and that conscious reasoning co m e s i n to i t s o w n i n c r e a t i n g p o s t h o c justications for our moral stances.
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Moral Reasoning vs. Moral Feeling
The Trolley Problem
Flip the switch? Most people will ip the switch: they will kill one to save ve.
Push the fat man? Most people will not push the fat man: they will not kill one to save ve.
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Moral Reasoning vs. Moral Feeling
The Trolley Problem
Cold Cognitive Moral Reasoning Hot Aective Moral Reasoning
Only frontal cortical areas ( associated with deliberative reasoning and cognitive control) light up during this judgment. Moral reasoning rules!
Both frontal cortical areas ( associated with deliberative reasoning and cognitive control) and areas associated with processing emotional information and conict resolution light up during this judgment. Moral feeling wins out! BUT those with damage to a part of the brain involved in processing emotional information are far more likely than normals to push the fat man.
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Moral Responsibility
Until puberty, neurons increase their connections. However, at adolescence, selective pruning of neurons begins. Unused neuronal connections are lost to make other pathways more efficient. During adolescence, neurons in the frontal cortex grow myelin, which speeds up nerve conduction. This process, however, isnt completed until the early 20s. This evidence, in part, led the Supreme Court in Roper vs. Simmons (2005) to rule that it is unconstitutional to impose capital punishment for crimes committed while under the age of 18. An article for your own interest (not examinable):
http://www.phschool.com/science/science_news/articles/teen_brains_trial.html
Dec Grey Matter Inc White Matter (Myelination)

Empathy and Delay of Gratication
Moral education programs teach kids: 1. Empathy for others feelings 2.To delay gratication Walter Mischel (1960s) - Marshmallow Test
Kids better at delaying gratication became more socially responsible, academically successful (e.g., average 210 points higher on SATs) and productive.
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ADOLESCENCE - SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT

Forming an Identity
Erik Erikson, a Danish-American-German developmental psychologist, forwarded a stage model of social development in which each stage has its own psychosocial task - a crisis that needs resolution. Adolescence wrestle with their identity.
Erik Erikson
1902-1994
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Forming an Identity
In Western cultures, many adolescents try out different selves before settling into a consistent and comfortable identity. In general, early to mid teen years are associated with low self-esteem/poor selfconcept while later teen years and early adulthood are associated with higher self-esteem/stronger self-concept. Most young people seem to develop a sense of contentment: 81% agreed I would choose my life the way it is right now; the other 19% agreed I wish I were somebody else.
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Parental and Peer Attachment
Kids become more independent of their parents as they grow older. Kids become more inuenced by their peers as they grow older (teens tend to become herd animals). Teens that have good (bad) relationships with their parents tend to feel happy (unhappy), healthy (unhealthy) and do well (poorly) in school.
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EMERGING ADULTHOOD
Emerging adulthood spans ages 18-25. During this time, young adults may live with their parents and attend college or work. On average, emerging adults marry in their mid-twenties.
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ADULTHOOD
Physical Development - Middle Adulthood - Physical Changes
Muscular strength, reaction time, sensory abilities and cardiac output begin to decline after the mid-twenties.
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ADULTHOOD
Physical Development - Middle Adulthood - Sex Life
Only 30% of Canadians surveyed age 40 to 64 rated their sex life as less enjoyable than during their twenties. In an American Association of Retired Persons sexuality survey, it was not until age 75 or older that most women and nearly half of men reported little sexual desire.
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ADULTHOOD
Physical Development - Later Life - Sensory Abilities
After age 70, vision, hearing, distance perception, and the sense of smell diminish. After 80, neural processes slow down, especially for complex tasks.
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ADULTHOOD
Physical Development - Later Life - Motor Abilities
At age 70, our motor abilities also decline (e.g., muscle strength, reaction time, and stamina). Fatal accidents also increase around this age.
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ADULTHOOD
Cognitive Development - Memory
As we age, recalling names becomes increasingly difficult (Crook and West, 1990).
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ADULTHOOD
Cognitive Development - Memory
Though recall declines with age, recognition memory remains intact (Schoneld and Robertson, 1966).
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ADULTHOOD
Cognitive Development - Intelligence
Cross - sectional evidence suggests decline whereas longitudinal evidence suggests stability in intelligence over the lifespan. Cross - sectional studies involve studying different individuals at the same point in time ( so measuring reasoning in a group of people made up of 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70 year olds). Longitudinal Studies involve studying the same individuals repeatedly over time (so measuring the same people when they are 20, then 30, then 40, then 50, etc). Can you think of why the two different designs yield different results? (Hint: how might 20 year-olds differ from 80 year-olds in terms of the conditions in which they grew up?)
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ADULTHOOD
Cognitive Development - Intelligence
Fluid intelligence (the capacity to think logically and solve problems in novel situations, independent of acquired knowledge. ) declines with age whereas crystallized intelligence (the ability to use accumulated knowledge and experience) increases with age.
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ADULTHOOD
Social Development - Well-being
Surveys indicate life satisfaction does not change markedly over the lifespan.
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INFANCY AND CHILDHOOD - THE BRAINS PLASTICITY

I didnt get a chance to show this in class. But this is the video I told you about earlier of the little girl that had half a hemisphere removed. It shows how remarkably resilient and, importantly, plastic the brain (especially a childs brain) can be!
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VaDlLD97CLM
QUESTION #7
Timmy is at Sea World watching Shamu (the killer whale show) with his parents. After the show they get up to leave and in the hustle and bustle Timmy gets separated. Timmy wanders around on his own for a while and eventually ends up at the Sea Lion exhibit. He gets a kick out of the funny noises the sea lions make. Suddenly he feels a hand on his shoulder. He whirls about and looks up only to see Mom staring down at him. What is wrong with you? she cries. Dont you ever wander o like that again! Timmy looks down for a moment, almost as if ashamed, but then quickly turns to redirect his attention to the sea lions. Using the above scenario, answer the following questions. First, briey describe the Strange Situation used by Mary Ainsworth to study attachment. Second, based on ndings from the former, what might we infer about Timmys attachment style? Third, given Timmys attachment style, what might we infer about the conditions under which Timmy has been raised? Fourth, if Timmys parents are concerned with curbing Timmys inclination to nonchalantly wander o, what sort of changes might you suggest in how they interact with Timmy?
This question (as with all questions) is to be answered in a maximum of one page, double-spaced, using 12 point, Arial font.
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QUESTION #8
Using the example of how intelligence changes over the lifespan, compare and contrast crosssectional and longitudinal research methods. Why did the two methods yield dierent results? Which set of results most accurately reects how intelligence changes over the lifespan? In addition, looking more closely at dierent tasks used to test intelligence, explain in what sense intelligence both increases and decreases over the lifespan.
This question (as with all questions) is to be answered in a maximum of one page, double-spaced, using 12 point, Arial font.
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DEVELOPING THROUGH THE LIFESPAN

INFANCY AND CHILDHOOD - SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT

INFANCY AND CHILDHOOD - SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT

INFANCY AND CHILDHOOD - SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT

INFANCY AND CHILDHOOD - SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT

All videos in this series:

INFANCY AND CHILDHOOD - SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT

INFANCY AND CHILDHOOD - SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT

INFANCY AND CHILDHOOD - SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT

INFANCY AND CHILDHOOD - SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT

INFANCY AND CHILDHOOD - SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT

INFANCY AND CHILDHOOD - SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT

INFANCY AND CHILDHOOD - SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT

INFANCY AND CHILDHOOD - SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT

INFANCY AND CHILDHOOD - SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT

INFANCY AND CHILDHOOD - SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT

INFANCY AND CHILDHOOD - SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT

The Strange Situation: Step-by-Step

INFANCY AND CHILDHOOD - SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT

The Strange Situation: Step-by-Step

INFANCY AND CHILDHOOD - SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT

INFANCY AND CHILDHOOD - SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT

INFANCY AND CHILDHOOD - SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT

All videos in this series:

INFANCY AND CHILDHOOD - SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT

INFANCY AND CHILDHOOD - SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT

INFANCY AND CHILDHOOD - SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT

INFANCY AND CHILDHOOD - SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT

INFANCY AND CHILDHOOD - SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT

INFANCY AND CHILDHOOD - SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT

INFANCY AND CHILDHOOD - SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT

INFANCY AND CHILDHOOD - SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT

INFANCY AND CHILDHOOD - SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT

INFANCY AND CHILDHOOD - SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT

Relationship is reciprocal, responsive; high in bidirectional communication

INFANCY AND CHILDHOOD - SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT

INFANCY AND CHILDHOOD - SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT

INFANCY AND CHILDHOOD - SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT

INFANCY AND CHILDHOOD - SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT

INFANCY AND CHILDHOOD - SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT

INFANCY AND CHILDHOOD - SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT

INFANCY AND CHILDHOOD - SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT

INFANCY AND CHILDHOOD - SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT

INFANCY AND CHILDHOOD - SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT

INFANCY AND CHILDHOOD - SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT

INFANCY AND CHILDHOOD - SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT

INFANCY AND CHILDHOOD - SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT

INFANCY AND CHILDHOOD - SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT

INFANCY AND CHILDHOOD - SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT

INFANCY AND CHILDHOOD - SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT

INFANCY AND CHILDHOOD - SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT

INFANCY AND CHILDHOOD - SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT

INFANCY AND CHILDHOOD - SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT

INFANCY AND CHILDHOOD - SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT

INFANCY AND CHILDHOOD - SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT

INFANCY AND CHILDHOOD - SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT

Description Parents impose rules and expect obedience.

Personality of Children Low self-esteem and social skills