shale caprock, the 1/r

b
term becomes relatively very
small and equation (10.8) can be simplied to:
(10.9)
Since the subsurface density of gas is less than that of
oil, it is clear that seals can support much larger oil
columns than gas columns. This has important implica-
tions for migration and entrapment. For example, it may
prevent the formation of gas caps overlying oil columns.
It also suggests that gas should migrate vertically more
successfully than oil.
In order to calculate seal potential, we need to know
the pore radius that is relevant to leakage. This should be
the smallest pore throat in a network of large pores that,
if penetrated, would allow an interconnected petroleum
slug to be established. This is clearly not the largest pore
throat, nor the smallest, but somewhere in between! It
may be approximated by a mean hydraulic radius, r
h
,
where
(10.10)
where K is permeability and f is porosity. The difculty
of estimating the critical pore radius of the caprock
renders seal capacity calculations subject to wide ranges
of error. They may frequently give only order of magni-
tude estimates.
FAULTS AND FRACTURES
Fault zones can act as both conduits and barriers to sec-
ondary migration ( Jones et al. 1998). The material
crushed by the frictional movement of the fault, the fault
gouge, is frequently impermeable and does not allow the
passage of petroleum. Clay smeared along fault planes,
as in the growth faults of the Niger delta (Weber et al.
1978) and in the Louisiana Gulf Coast region (Smith
1980; Lopez 1990), also blocks petroleum migration.
Fractures formed in either the footwall or hangingwall, if
they remain open, may form effective vertical migration
pathways. This is unlikely except at shallow depths, but
may occur in the uplifted hangingwalls of contractional
(thrust) faults on release of compressive stresses. Ten-
sional fractures in the crestal zones of anticlinal struc-
tures may also allow migration of petroleum. Lateral
migration will tend to be inhibited by the presence of
faults, since they interrupt the lateral continuity of the
carrier bed.
r K
h
= ( ) 2 8 . f
Y
r g
pc
t w p
=
- ( )
2g
r r
The sealing qualities of fault zones are discussed
further in 10.6 on petroleum traps.
MIGRATION PATHWAYS
Since the driving force behind secondary migration (in
the absence of hydrodynamics) is buoyancy, it is clear that
petroleum will tend to move in a homogeneous carrier
bed in the direction of steepest slope. This is perpendi-
cular to its structural contours, that is, in the true dip
direction. Lines drawn at right angles to the structural
contours of the top carrier bed/base seal horizon are
known as orthocontours. Orthocontour maps illustrate the
focusing and de-focusing effects of structural features in
prospect drainage areas (Fig. 10.34). When lateral migra-
tion is long distance, as for example in foreland basins,
where prospects may be remote from areas of mature
source rock (source kitchens), these effects may strongly
inuence the pattern of hydrocarbon charge. It is impor-
tant in play assessment to recognize those parts of the
fairway that are located on petroleum migration routes.
A petroleum ow may be split when encountering a low,
and concentrated along regional highs. The geometry
of the kitchen also affects petroleum charge volumes;
prospects located close to the ends of strongly elongate
source kitchens will receive relatively little charge.
It is important that orthocontour maps are constructed
for the actual time of secondary migration. Present-day
structure maps may be used to model present-day migra-
tion. Isopaching (or 3-D decompaction, see 9.3) allows
the production of paleostructure maps for use in model-
ing paleomigration routes. For example, an isopach of
the base Upper Cretaceous to base Miocene interval will
allow the modeling of migration routes in a carrier bed
situated at the base of the Upper Cretaceous sequence
at the beginning of Miocene time.
Other factors that should also be considered in evalu-
ating migration pathways include the presence of sealing
faults, which may deect petroleum ow laterally, and
nonsealing faults, which allow petroleum to ow across
the fault plane into juxtaposed permeable units at a dif-
ferent stratigraphic level. From this point a different
structure map needs to be used for migration modeling.
Communication between carrier beds caused by lateral
stratigraphic changes (e.g., by the sanding-out of a shale
seal) also needs to be considered. The orthocontour map
should be constructed only as far as a seal persists. These
factors affect the likelihood of petroleum charge into
specic segments of the play fairway, and into specic
prospects within them.
THE PETROLEUM PLAY 449
ABA10 11/22/04 4:33 PM Page 449