Keynote Keynote Lecture Lecture EFCA EFCA 2004 2004 CONFERENCE CONFERENCE AND AND GAM GAM May

May 22-May 22-May 25, 25, 2004 2004 Istanbul, Istanbul, Turkey Turkey

The Collapse of Twin Towers: Causes and Effects

Dr. Oral Buyukozturk
Professor of Civil and Environmental Engineering

Dr. Oguz Gunes

2004 IST Group. All rights reserved

Massachusetts Institute of Technology Cambridge, MA, USA

OUTLINE
WTC DESCRIPTION CAUSES OF COLLAPSE
IMPACT FIRE PROGRESSIVE FAILURE

EFFECTS OF COLLAPSE
CASUALTIES STRUCTURAL TRANSPORTATION ECONOMIC/BUSINESS COMMUNICATION LOGISTICS

LESSONS LEARNED CONCLUSION

2004 IST Group

WTC WTC

Causes Causes

Effects Effects

Lessons Lessons

Conclusion Conclusion

WTC Facts
Consist of Seven Buildings Own zipcode: Owner Port Authority of NY and NJ Architect: Minoru Yamasaki & Associates Engineer John Skilling & Leslie Robertson Contractor Tishman Construction Company Ground Breaking August 5, 1966 Opened April 4, 1973
2004 IST Group

10047 & 10048

WTC WTC

Causes Causes

Effects Effects

Lessons Lessons

Conclusion Conclusion

WTC Facts
Area of WTC complex 65,000 m2 (16 acres) Total rentable office area 1.1 million m2 (12 million foot2) Tower floor dimensions 63 m (207 ft) sides Tower heights 110 stories, 417 (N) and 415 (S) m (1368 and 1362 ft) Antenna 110 m (360 ft) Earth work 920,000 m3 (1.2 million cubic yards) Steel weight 200,000 tons Concrete 325,000 m3 (425,000 cubic yards) Total weight 500,000 tons
2004 IST Group

WTC WTC

Causes Causes

Effects Effects

Lessons Lessons

Conclusion Conclusion

WTC Facts
3 exit stairways in the core of each tower 99 elevators and 16 escalators in each tower 43,600 windows/tower >350 businesses 50,000 employees in twin towers 150,000 daily visitors

2004 IST Group

WTC WTC

Causes Causes

Effects Effects

Lessons Lessons

Conclusion Conclusion

Innovations in Design of WTC

A basement like a bathtub A building like a tube An elevator system like a subway system Viscoelastic dampers (10,000 in each tower) Outrigger space frame to support antenna Wind tunnel study for wind loads First commercial building designed to resist plane impact

2004 IST Group

WTC WTC

Causes Causes

Effects Effects

Lessons Lessons

Conclusion Conclusion

Structural Loads
Gravity loads
Dead loads Live loads Snow loads
Impact Load

Lateral loads
Wind loads Seismic loads
Wind Load

Special load cases

Impact loads Blast loads Design wind speed: 240 km/h (150 m/h) Design impact object: Boeing 707
WTC WTC Causes Causes Effects Effects Blast Load Gravity Loads Earthquake Load
2004 IST Group

Lessons Lessons

Conclusion Conclusion

Structural System
Framed tube construction principle: load bearing external walls stiffened by the floors to form a flexurally and torsionally rigid tube 63.1 m (72 2)

42 m (137 ft)

Core area (Steel Frame)

26.5 m (87 ft)

Cross-braced floors

Outer steel lattice

2004 IST Group

WTC WTC

Causes Causes

Effects Effects

Lessons Lessons

Conclusion Conclusion

Exterior Column System

(FEMA 403)

Assembly of the external wall units and floor units Wall units alternately staggered in one-storey heights
2004 IST Group

WTC WTC

Causes Causes

Effects Effects

Lessons Lessons

Conclusion Conclusion

Erection of Prefabricated Components

Prefabricated column units
(FEMA 403)

Erection of floor framing

(FEMA 403)

2004 IST Group

WTC WTC

Causes Causes

Effects Effects

Lessons Lessons

Conclusion Conclusion

Floor Joists (Trusses)

(10,000 viscoelastic dampers used in each tower)

(FEMA 403)
2004 IST Group

WTC WTC

Causes Causes

Effects Effects

Lessons Lessons

Conclusion Conclusion

CAUSES OF COLLAPSE IMPACT

FIRE

PROGRESSIVE FAILURE

2004 IST Group

WTC WTC

Causes Causes

Effects Effects

Lessons Lessons

Conclusion Conclusion

Timeline of Events in 9-11

8:46 a.m. 9:03 a.m. 9:17 a.m. 9:17 a.m. 9:17 a.m. 9:21 a.m. 9:40 a.m. 9:43 a.m. 9:59 a.m. 10:00 a.m. 10:20 a.m. 10:29 a.m. 10:30 a.m. 10:37 a.m. 10:45 a.m. 10:50 a.m.
WTC WTC

Plane hits North Tower Plane hits South Tower FAA shuts down NYC airports Amtrak suspends all service NY DOT shuts down highways Port Authority closes bridges and tunnels FAA grounds all flights Plane hits Pentagon South Tower collapses Armed forces put on high alert NYC Transit shut down North Tower collapses NJ Transit stops rail service to Penn Station Fourth plane crashes in Pennsylvania All PATH operations stop All remaining bridges and tunnels close
2004 IST Group

Causes Causes

Effects Effects

Lessons Lessons

Conclusion Conclusion

Impact Configuration
(FEMA 403)

2004 IST Group

WTC WTC

Causes Causes

Effects Effects

Lessons Lessons

Conclusion Conclusion

Impact Velocity

Estimated Impact Velocities

Target Flight Aircraft Impact Time Approximate Velocity km/hr North Tower South Tower AA-11 UA-175
Boeing 767-200

m/s 192 240

8:46 AM 9:03 AM

691 864

Boeing 767-200

2004 IST Group

WTC WTC

Causes Causes

Effects Effects

Lessons Lessons

Conclusion Conclusion

Characteristics of Plane Impact

Conservation of linear momentum m

F = ma

t2

t1

F dt = m ( v2 v1 )

Impulse = change in momentum

14 m (46 ft)

d = distance traveled by plane to a stop 50 m v = velocity of plane 250 m/s m = mass 200 ton F = collision force F = mv / td = mv2 / d 12,500 ton
(weight of each floor 2,500 ton)

5.5 m (18 ft) 48.5 m (159.2 ft) Boeing 767-200ER

mmax = 180 ton (395,000 lb) vc = 237 m/s (530 mph)

td = duration of collision = 2 d / v 0.4 s Ek = kinetic energy 2 Ek = 1 MV = 6250 MJ 2

2004 IST Group

WTC WTC

Causes Causes

Effects Effects

Lessons Lessons

Conclusion Conclusion

Impact Damage to North Tower

Floors 94 - 98
(FEMA 403)
2004 IST Group

WTC WTC

Causes Causes

Effects Effects

Lessons Lessons

Conclusion Conclusion

Impact Damage to South Tower

Floors 78 - 84

(FEMA 403)
2004 IST Group

WTC WTC

Causes Causes

Effects Effects

Lessons Lessons

Conclusion Conclusion

Impact Induced Fires

Estimated 38,000 liters (10,000 gallons) of jet fuel in each plane at impact.

(FEMA 403)

2004 IST Group

WTC WTC

Causes Causes

Effects Effects

Lessons Lessons

Conclusion Conclusion

Column Safety Under Service Loads

Safety against yielding

FY =

Y Yield stress = Working stress

Safety against buckling

b Buckling stress Fb = = Working stress

Buckling stress

b = E L

R=

I A
2004 IST Group

WTC WTC

Causes Causes

Effects Effects

Lessons Lessons

Conclusion Conclusion

Behavior of Materials under Heat

Substrate Fire proofing

Diffusion T 2T =D 2 t x Conduction

Steel

D = 11.3 13.7 106 m 2 / s k = 45W / m / K

Concrete

T D = 2.4 3.8 106 m 2 / s k = (Text Tint ) k = 6 8W / m / K x e

6-8 times more fire proofing required for steel

Concrete
Material property Material Property
1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2
0

Steel
1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 0 200 400 600 800 1000

Compressive Strength

Yield Strength

Modulus of Elasticity
0 200 400 600 800 1000

Modulus of Elasticity

Temperature (C)

Temperature (C)
2004 IST Group

WTC WTC

Causes Causes

Effects Effects

Lessons Lessons

Conclusion Conclusion

Fire Type and Protection

Jet fuel fire provides more heat than typical office fire. Degree of fire proofing significantly affects the time for evacuation

1200

Temperature (C)

1000 800

Temperature (C)

Petrochemical fire

1000 800

Fire Temperature Unprotected steel

Cellulosic fire
600 400 200 0 0 20 40 60 80 100 120

600 400 200 0

Protected Steel

20

40

60

80

100

120

Time (Minutes)

Time (Minutes)
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WTC WTC

Causes Causes

Effects Effects

Lessons Lessons

Conclusion Conclusion

A Possible Failure Mechanism

2004 IST Group

WTC WTC

Causes Causes

Effects Effects

Lessons Lessons

Conclusion Conclusion

Collapse of the Towers

Collapse of South Tower

South tower: 9:59 a.m. North tower: 10:29 a.m.

(FEMA 403)

2004 IST Group

WTC WTC

Causes Causes

Effects Effects

Lessons Lessons

Conclusion Conclusion

EFFECTS OF COLLAPSE
CASUALTIES STRUCTURAL TRANSPORTATION ECONOMIC/BUSINESS COMMUNICATION LOGISTICS
2004 IST Group

WTC WTC

Causes Causes

Effects Effects Effects Effects

Lessons Lessons

Conclusion Conclusion

Casualties
Estimated 58,000 Present 2,830 Died

All but four people above the crash zones died Nearly everyone below the crash zones lived Most people died in the North Tower, which was hit first Nearly 500 rescue workers died when two towers collapsed Victims were 78% male and 22% female

2004 IST Group

WTC WTC

Causes Causes

Effects Effects

Lessons Lessons

Conclusion Conclusion

Structural Damage
Collapsed or Destroyed
One World Trade Center (North Tower) Two World Trade Center (South Tower) Marriott Hotel (3 WTC) Five World Trade Center Seven World Trade Center

Partially Collapsed
Four World Trade Center Six World Trade Center

Major Damage
One Liberty Plaza East River Savings Bank N.J. Kalikow and Co. Building and Millennium Hotel Federal Building N.Y. Telephone Building One World Financial Center Two World Financial Center Three World Financial Center St. Nicholas Greek Orthodox Church 90 West Street Bankers Trust
2004 IST Group

WTC WTC

Causes Causes

Effects Effects Effects Effects

Lessons Lessons

Conclusion Conclusion

Critical Infrastructures Affected by 9-11

Government Operations Emergency Services Transportation Water Supply Systems Telecommunication Energy Supply Banking and Finance Gas & Oil Storage and Delivery

2004 IST Group

WTC WTC

Causes Causes

Effects Effects Effects Effects

Lessons Lessons

Conclusion Conclusion

Transportation
First shut down of all air transportation

8:48 a.m. AA-11 9:04 a.m. UA-175 9.38 a.m. AA-77 10:20 a.m. UA-93

hit WTC 1 hit WTC 2 hit Pentagon crashed

U.S. Air Traffic on 9/11 Morning

10:00 a.m. 10:17 a.m. 10:31 a.m. 10:40 a.m. 10:55 a.m. 11:40 a.m. 3,181 Aircrafts aloft 2,201 Aircrafts aloft 1,240 Aircrafts aloft 820 Aircrafts aloft 680 Aircrafts aloft No commercial aircrafts aloft

9:17 a.m. FAA shut down NYC airports 9:40 a.m. FAA grounded all flights

2004 IST Group

WTC WTC

Causes Causes

Effects Effects Effects Effects

Lessons Lessons

Conclusion Conclusion

Transportation
3 million commute to NYC everyday Damage to 1/9 Line (serves 600,000 people daily) WTC subway & PATH station destroyed 427 m (1400 feet) of tunnel destroyed two fan plants destroyed Transportation disruptions for up to 14 days

2004 IST Group

WTC WTC

Causes Causes

Effects Effects Effects Effects

Lessons Lessons

Conclusion Conclusion

Economic/Business
Big economy of the Big Apple
Over 8 Million people reside in NYC $42.3 Billion budget 350,000 City employees in 38 Agencies

50,000 office workers at the WTC each day Six banks, five large investment firms, and three insurance companies had their headquarters in the towers. The Port Authority of New York and New Jersey had its headquarters in the building. American Express had three floors in the WTC. Major damage to World Financial Center next to the WTC site.
2004 IST Group

WTC WTC

Causes Causes

Effects Effects Effects Effects

Lessons Lessons

Conclusion Conclusion

Business Continuity
What companies had planned for before 9-11
Hardware & Software failure Data corruption Telecommunication failure Site physical facility problems Security failure

What was not anticipated?

Collapse of the building Long-term outage

Many companies which did not have alternate sites and trained personnel are gone!

Transportation failure Logistics failure People support issues Loss of key personnel
2004 IST Group

WTC WTC

Causes Causes

Effects Effects Effects Effects

Lessons Lessons

Conclusion Conclusion

Telecommunications Challenges
Significant destruction of Verizon Central Office at 140 West Street
Between 9000 and 14000 businesses left without service (IDC Flash) 300,000 voice lines (200k for homes/small businesses) 3.5 million data circuits, 2 million that pass through 1,737 employees (all evacuated) Water from broken mains and fire hoses flooded basement vaults, shorting cables that had not been cut by the falling debris Ducts outside were covered by 30 foot high debris, denying Verizon access for several days

Power outages

2004 IST Group

WTC WTC

Causes Causes

Effects Effects Effects Effects

Lessons Lessons

Conclusion Conclusion

LESSONS LEARNED
Vulnerability assessment Design against vulnerabilities Redundancy Structural Egress paths Transportation Communication Energy Business continuity Preparedness
2004 IST Group

WTC WTC

Causes Causes

Effects Effects

Lessons Lessons Lessons Lessons

Conclusion Conclusion

Vulnerability and Risk Assessment

Probabilistic risk assessment (PRA) and decision making have been effectively used in nuclear engineering, manufacturing, seismic loss estimation etc. Probabilistic, nonlinear, and coupled evaluation of building vulnerability is needed for identified hazards.
Hazard identification, prioritization and evaluation Risk assessment & Loss estimation Decision & Implementation

Vulnerability analysis

Optimum mitigation strategy

2004 IST Group

WTC WTC

Causes Causes

Effects Effects

Lessons Lessons Lessons Lessons

Conclusion Conclusion

Design for Fire

Old: Prescriptive-Based Design
Design based on fire rating of materials used Fire rating of material from tables Compliance with a code specified value

New: Performance-Based Design

Evaluate the strength and stiffness for a particular design fire Coupled stress-thermal analysis Specialized design for fire effects Use of fire retardant materials, advanced coatings and ceramics
2004 IST Group

WTC WTC

Causes Causes

Effects Effects

Lessons Lessons Lessons Lessons

Conclusion Conclusion

Performance Evaluation Under Fire

Coupled structural/fire analysis Structural Model
Elastic/strength properties Geometry Thermal properties Onset of fire

Time: 20 min

Demand
Structural loads Fire modeling Time: 35 min

Thermal analysis

Stress analysis

Time: 45 min Weakest link

Deformations, damage, collapse

2004 IST Group

WTC WTC

Causes Causes

Effects Effects

Lessons Lessons Lessons Lessons

Conclusion Conclusion

Design for Impact Loading

Engineering problems related to impact loads:

Modeling of impact Assessment of impact damage Evaluation of structural safety after impact Modeling of potential fire after impact Coupled evaluation of structural integrity and collapse potential

2004 IST Group

WTC WTC

Causes Causes

Effects Effects

Lessons Lessons Lessons Lessons

Conclusion Conclusion

Impact Modeling
Floor

V V
Boeing 767-200 Boeing 767-200

Core area

Floor
Core columns Velocity

Exterior columns

Boeing 767-200 Max. takeoff weight: 395,000 lb (180 ton) Max. fuel capacity: 24,000 gal (91,000 liter) Cruise speed: 530 mph (237 m/s)

V 220 m/s
Pcutting 3.0 MN

Total kinetic energy

Fuselage cutting force

Ek = MV = 3460 MJ
1 2

MIT Impact and Crashworthiness Laboratory 2004 IST Group

WTC WTC

Causes Causes

Effects Effects

Lessons Lessons Lessons Lessons

Conclusion Conclusion

Energy Dissipation During Impact

The initial kinetic energy of the plane is dissipated through Permanent plastic deformation (crushing) Generated Heat Fracture and fragmentation (creating new surfaces) Friction Residual velocity Elastic vibrations
Floor structure 53% Aircraft 25% Estimated distribution of energy dissipation Core columns 28%

May be used as a design tool

WTC WTC Causes Causes Effects Effects

Exterior columns 3%
Lessons Lessons Lessons Lessons

MIT Impact and Crashworthiness Laboratory 2004 IST Group

Conclusion Conclusion

Redundancy and Progressive Failure

Redundancy in column system

System Redundancy (Global frame) Local Redundancy (Local joints)

FEMA 403

Redundancy in floor system

Improved local redundancy

2004 IST Group

WTC WTC

Causes Causes

Effects Effects

Lessons Lessons Lessons Lessons

Conclusion Conclusion

Emergency Egress Strategies

Elevated passages to neighboring buildings Refuge floors/rooms with fire escape elevators Perimeter wall rescue vehicles Fire resistant escape chutes Flying rescue platforms Individual fire resistant parachutes

2004 IST Group

WTC WTC

Causes Causes

Effects Effects

Lessons Lessons Lessons Lessons

Conclusion Conclusion

Lessons for Business Continuity

Establish multiple physical sites (redundancy) Assign same level workers over two or more physical sites. Favor distributed networks Cross train high level manages (IT) in each others duties. Have a clear order of succession. Regularly rehearse full disaster drills.

2004 IST Group

WTC WTC

Causes Causes

Effects Effects

Lessons Lessons Lessons Lessons

Conclusion Conclusion

Lessons for Logistics

Assess vulnerability to special events What can go wrong? What is the likelihood of a disruption? What are the consequences if it happens? How do we recover?

Reduce probability of disruption Keywords: Redundancy and flexibility Strategic planning - locations Operational security Public-private partnerships Awareness culture
2004 IST Group

WTC WTC

Causes Causes

Effects Effects

Lessons Lessons Lessons Lessons

Conclusion Conclusion

Conclusions Causes
Vulnerability to unexpected events in physical and social dimensions Progressive and time-sensitive nature of destruction

Effects

Large scale casualties, structural damage, infrastructure disruption, and economic loss Worldwide impact on way of human life Rigorous engineering paradigms Preparedness Effective emergency management and disaster recovery planning
2004 IST Group

Lessons

WTC WTC

Causes Causes

Effects Effects

Lessons Lessons

Conclusion Conclusion Conclusion Conclusion

Lesson Learned

Expect the unexpected. Be prepared!

2004 IST Group

WTC WTC

Causes Causes

Effects Effects

Lessons Lessons

Conclusion Conclusion Conclusion Conclusion