I

1.
PROJECT INSTRUMENTATION SPECIFICATION
The project instrumentation specification is a document prepared during the initial stage. It defines the elements on which the entire instruments and control design systems is prepared based on the contractual documents. It supplies basic data to other operating bodies on the project.
It states the standard rules to be applied and followed during the design stage of any measurement, monitoring, controlling and safeguarding process equipment. They elaborately state the codes, standards, the units of measurement, the symbols, the control philosophy, the general characteristics of all the field instruments as well as any specific conditions to be adhered by the operating bodies as per the requirements of customer.
The lead engineer of the project prepares the project instrument specification. It serves as the specification for the detailed design and for drawing up of other instrument technical specifications and automation elements. It is issued for comments to project group, process and environmental group and engineering group.
2. INSTRUMENT LIST
The instrument list is the first project operational document. It is prepared from the P&ID based on the contractual attachments, technical specifications from clients, TPIL specifications, standards, standards from document management.
It lists all instruments with the data such as tag name as on PID, loop name, location, service, the line number for online instruments, the equipment number for instruments on equipment and also tells about the signal type exchanged between different systems , identifying the system corresponding to a signal. It also specifies if an alarm is required. All requisitioning data such as MR and specification number for all field and panel instruments are recorded in the instrument list in order to check that all items have been procured, verifying the same with the MRS issued.
It is a document which is continuously being developed and updated and followed during the whole period of detail engineering. Generally comment is not requested for the instrument list and is
essentially a management document. It is issued to engineering department, process and environmental engineering department and for external distribution.
3. ICS DATABASE
The ICS database gives the various details needed for the configuration of the control system.
INPUTS TO THE DOCUMENT: 1. Instrument list 2. Project instrument specification DETAILS IN THE DOCUMENT:
1. Instrument tag, name, service, location, signals associated with it. 2. Alarm limits 3. DCS range(max, min) 4. Control action 5. Valve fail position 6. Cable details, loop name IMPORTANCE OF THE DOCUMENT:
This document is one of the input documents given to the vendor for the control system configuration. This document provides the details for configuring the system.
This document also serves as input for many documents. This document does not require any comments from other departments.
4. INSTRUMENT LAYOUTS
Instrument layout, also known as instrument plot plan indicates the physical location of field instruments
THE INPUT DOCUMENTS ARE:
1.Equipment layout 2.Plot plan 3.General arrangement drawings THE OTHER REFERENCE DOCUMENTS ARE:
1.P&I diagram 2.Area classification 3.Isometrics THE INSTRUMENT LAYOUT GIVES DETAILS LIKE:
1.Instrument location and elevation 2.JB number location and elevation 3.Tray width and section view 4.Instruments grouped junction box wise
GUIDELINES FOR PREPARING INSTRUMENT LAYOUT: 1. Online instruments are marked with the same elevation as in the piping layout
2. Field instruments and junction boxes (JB) are located at an elevation of 1.3* metres from ground. 3. Instruments are grouped as per their type and function. 4. Junction boxes are located at an elevation of 1.3* ms. from ground. 5. Different JB are used for grouping signal, alarm, control, RTD, T/C and power cables. 6. 20% space is considered for each tray for clamping. 7. Maximum size of branch tray limited to 250 mm only 8. Power and signal cables separated by a distance of 150 mm. The instrument layout is issued for review and detailed design, and finally for further action to construction department. It serves as the basis for cable list and used for drafting documents like main cable routing
*- DEPENDS ON PROJECT STANDARDS
5.INSTRUMENT MAIN CABLE ROUTING & CROSS SECTION
The instrument cable routing indicates the routing of the main cable to the control room from the field.
PURPOSE OF THE DOCUMENT: Laying of the main cables in trays, trenches etc.,
INPUTS TO THE DOCUMENT: 1. Overall plot plan 2. Piping gad / modelling 3. Project instrument specifications 4. Main cable routing drawing (electrical). 5. Junction box loading. DETAILS IN THE DOCUMENT: 1. Routing of the main cable from the junction box to the control room.
2. Cable tray details: (a) Width of the tray (b) List of cables with their classification (signal, alarm, is). (c) Spacing between the cables. (d) Individual cable tiers.
3. Trench details: (a) Width and depth of the trench. (b) List of cables with their classification (signal, alarm, is).
4. List of junction boxes with their type (signal, power, alarm etc.,) And elevation.
CO-ORDINATION WITH OTHER DEPARTMENTS:
Preliminary document - comments to
- 1.Civil - 2.electrical - 3.piping
Detail design:
- 1.civil - 2.electrical - 3.piping
Importance of the document:
This document is one of the inputs for the preparation of cable list and the length of the cables is calculated from this document.
6.CABLE LIST
It is a document, which gives details about the cable starting point and its termination point such as from individual instrument to the junction boxes and from the junction box to the control room. It also gives the cable length.
PURPOSE OF THE DOCUMENT:
1.Determining the amount of cable quantity 2.Preparation of the cable specification. 3.Deciding the cutting schedule.
INPUT DOCUMENTS:
1.Instrument list 2.Instrument main cable routing. 3.Project instrument specifications. 4.Junction box loading.
REFERENCE DOCUMENTS:
1.Instrument plot plan 2.Control room layout.
DETAILS IN THE DOCUMENT:
1. Cable number 2. Cable type (pair, core, triad, and two pair, cross section). 3.Starting point & termination point. 4.Length of the cable.
IMPORTANCE OF THE DOCUMENT:
This document is attached to the MR for cables, multi-cables and also included in the erection tender.
7.CONTROL PANEL/CONSOLE/DESK ARRANGEMENT, SUPPORTS & GROUNDING DETAILS.
This document defines the arrangement of control rooms front and rear panel, the supports for the panel and desks with the section details, the details of the intrinsic safe, system earth, panel earth, Earthing schemes.
This drawing is primarily used for deciding on the size of the control room and associated requirements like UPS, air conditioning etc
This document is prepared in strict co-ordination with the electrical department, and is issued at review, detailed design and construction stage for information to the electrical department.
This document forms the basis for the design of: control room layout
THE INPUT AND REFERENCE DOCUMENTS ARE:
1.P & ID 2.Instrument list for the first issue 3.Vendor drawings and details for the second issue
8. LEVEL INSTRUMENT DESIGN
INTRODUCTION
The document Design level instrument is alternately called as Level Sketches. These drawings indicate the following:
a) Arrangements of level instruments like level gauges, level transmitters, level switches, etc. in equipment. b) Connection details of the level instruments to vessels (Vessel connection, instrument connection, flange ratings, etc.). c) Connection details of vent / drain valves, wherever applicable, to the vent / drain headers. d) Limit of supply of piping & instrumentation. e) Standpipe details like size, if applicable. f) Nozzle location of each level instrument and stand pipe (if applicable). g) Process details like High Liquid Level, Low Liquid Level, High Alarm, Low Alarm, process parameters like design pressure / temperature, specific gravity, etc. may be indicated if required.
THIS DOCUMENT IS THE BASIC INPUT FOR THE FOLLOWING ACTIVITIES:
a) Deciding the number of level gauges required to measure the liquid level. b) Deciding the connection type of level gauges like top / bottom, top / side, side / side, etc. c) Deciding the Centre to Centre distance and visibility of the level gauges. d) Deciding the displacer length of displacer type LTs. e) Deciding the calibration range of level transmitters. f) Deciding the zero elevation of DP type level transmitters. g) Deciding the connection sizes / ratings of the level instruments to the respective vessels. h) Preparation of level instrument hook-up drawings.
GUIDELINES FOR PREPARATION OF DESIGN LEVEL INSTRUMENT DRAWINGS
Preparations of design level instrument drawings require interaction with equipment, process and piping disciplines. Based on equipment details and process detail, the approximate location of nozzles for various level instruments are fixed by the process disciplines. These equipment drawings are the basis for preparing Design level instruments
Depending upon the requirement of Instrumentation, the nozzle locations, etc. may be reoriented and these changes will be made after consultations with process and equipment disciplines. While reviewing the nozzle details of the equipment, the following points shall be taken into account:
a) The nozzle sizes for each type of level instrument and the ratings shall be as per the Project Design Basis. A sample of such document called Instruments Connection on Vessels is attached. b) If the process involves highly viscous fluids / solidifying fluids / fluids with solid particulates, it is not recommended to have nozzles from the bottom of the vessels unless process warrants such a location. c) For vertical vessels a distance of atleast 150 mm is recommended between the T.L (Tangent line) and the nozzle on the side of a vessel. d) If many level gauges are required to measure the liquid level and many DP type level transmitters are situated on a vessel, it is preferable to use a standpipe (2 or 3 depending on the number of instruments) in order to avoid too many nozzles on the equipment. e) The nozzles of level gauges should be situated such that they cover the whole level range as specified by process. If a level transmitter is also used for that application, it is preferable to have the level gauge nozzles covering the C-C distance of the level transmitter. f) The nozzles of DP type / Displacer type level transmitters shall be situated such that they cover the whole level range including the alarm settings as specified by process. g) In case multiple level gauges are used for the measurement of level, an overlap of atleast 50 mm shall be provided in the visibility between consecutive gauges to ensure that continuous level indication is possible. h) Vendor catalogues shall be referred for manufacturer standard connection sizes / ratings of level instruments so as to match the instrument connection to the vessels / equipment.
PROCEDURE:
a) Arrange for inputs from equipment data sheets and process data sheets for equipment. b) Based on the P&ID and Instrument list, identify the type of instruments on each equipment.
c) Follow the guidelines given above for arriving at the number of nozzles, sizes and elevations. d) Based on the number of instruments, the requirement of stand pipe is decided upon.
9.CONTROL ROOM & TECHNICAL ROOM LAYOUTS
THIS DOCUMENT SHOWS:
1.The overall dimensions of the control room 2.The physical location of the: a. Engineering sub station b. Process control room c. Termination racks d. Cabinet for gas leakage detection system 3.The physical location of the a. Telecom console b. Corner console c. Hardwired console d. With their dimensions 4. The relative position and location of the a. Data logger printers b. Alarm event printers c. Copy units 5. The front, back & side clearances between the various panels and the control room
THE INPUT DOCUMENTS FOR THE CONTROL ROOM LAYOUT ARE: 1. Control panel/ console / desk arrangement, supports and grounding details 2. Control room architecture 3. Vendor Drawings:
a. System engineering b. System architecture drawings
This drawing is issued for comments and approval to Civil department. After the final issue is approved by the civil dept it is issued to the construction dept for further action on the site.
10. LOCAL PANEL DRAWINGS:
These drawings are prepared for the local control panels directly purchased. These drawings indicate the arrangement of front panel instruments. Local panels are generally used with packages such as compressor, boilers etc.
INPUTS TO THE DOCUMENT:
1. Instrument list 2. Project instrument specifications. 3. Control panel/console/desk arrangement (during detail Eng.) 4. Vendor drawings (during detail Eng.)
DETAILS IN THE DRAWING:
These drawings indicate the arrangement of instruments, indicators, pushbutton, lamps in the local control panel.
The local panels come generally as a package and hence co-ordination with M & P is necessary.
Local panel drawings are used as one of the inputs for the preparation of instrument power supply distribution drawings. They are also utilised for junction box wiring diagrams, cable list.
11. INSTRUMENT POWER SUPPLY DISTRIBUTION DIAGRAMS:
12. LOOP DIAGRAMS:
Loop drawings or loop schematics are prepared for electronic instruments. They show all functions performed by the loop. They are prepared less frequently for pneumatic systems. They are also known as one-line diagrams and electrical schematic drawings.
THE INPUTS FOR THESE DRAWINGS ARE: 1 Wiring diagrams 2 Instrument list 3 P & ID The reference documents are P & I Diagrams
These comprehensive diagrams provide the following information
Location of instruments field/control room Tag number of instruments Cable routing Junction box terminations Wire and cable information like number and termination details Transmitter range Final control elements like control valves and solenoid valves.etc
These diagrams are used in the field / site for Hook up and testing, for maintenance and trouble shooting. It is issued for review during the preliminary stage. The final document serves as information to the construction department.
13. INTERLOCK LOGIC DIAGRAM:

THE INTERLOCK LOGIC DIAGRAMS DRAFTS THE INSTRUMENTATION DESIGN FOR:
1.Plant safety and interlocks 2.Control logic for plant operation
1. Project instrument specification 2. P & I Diagrams 3. Cause and effect chart
THE INTERLOCK LOGIC DIAGRAMS PROVIDE INSTRUMENTATION DESIGN FOR:
1 Safe sequential start-up of a system 2 Safe sequential shut down of a system for predetermined abnormalities. 3 Achieving desired level of automation for operator convenience 4 Providing information through mimic, horns, alarm, annunciators.
The interlock logic diagrams are issued for review & final design to process and electrical dept,
the final document acts as an input to the electrical department.
14. WIRING DIAGRAM:

THERE ARE TWO TYPES OF WIRING DIAGRAMS:
1.Instrument wiring diagram 2.Panel wiring diagram
Thus wiring diagrams define the interconnection between the instrument, junction box and control room local panel, and local box terminal and control panel terminal.
THEY BRIEFLY SHOW:
1. The junction box number 2. The termination at the junction box 3. The cable no entering the junction box 4. The core no emanating from junction box
5. The local panel number 6. The control panel terminal number
20% free space is considered in the junction box and control panel terminal, while wiring for future use.
1. P & ID 2. Instrument list 3. Machinery & package data sheets
It is subject to changes depending upon the revisions of Loop drawings, Interlock diagrams, and Instrument layouts.
15. HOOKUP DRAWINGS:
This drawing is prepared for all instruments except few inline instruments such as magnetic flowmeter and other instruments where fittings are not required. This drawing is also called as installation drawings.
1. Installation of the instruments 2. Preparing the MTO.
INPUTS:
1.Piping and instrumentation diagram 2.Instrument list 3.Piping classification and classes. 4.Process data sheet/line list.
1.Installation standard.
2.Mounting style. 3.Indicates the piping tubing and fittings. 4.Details about tubes, fittings and their specifications. 5.Vent valves, drain valves, condensate pots, snubbers, siphon are indicated. 6.Scope of piping, eqpt and instrumentation clearly marked.
CO-ORDINATION BETWEEN OTHER DEPARTMENTS:
PIPING:
The preliminary drawing is given for comments.
The issued for construction drawing is given for information.
BASIC GUIDELINES FOR PREPARING THE HOOK-UP DRAWING:
For gas service the transmitter should be located above the tapping point, and for liquid service it should be below the tapping point. For ease of maintenance, calibration of the instrument and to avoid flashing of liquid, drain valves shall be provided.
3.
Long hook-ups with slopes shall be provided for high temperature applications.
Condensate pots should be provided with DP level transmitters for condensable.
16. ANALYSER ROOM & SHELTER LAYOUT:
This drawing indicates the placement of various analysers inside the analyser room.
To install the analyser inside the analyser room, taking into consideration the space restrictions and maintenance purposes.
1.Overall plot plan 2.Preliminary instrument list.
1. Location of the various analysers inside the analyser room.
The preliminary basic design document is given for comments to
1. Civil 2. Piping.
17. ANALYSER MECHANICAL DRAWINGS:
These drawings indicate the various instruments, accessories associated with the analyzer and the interconnection between them.
INPUTS TO THE DRAWING:
1. Project instrument specifications. 2. Analyzer room/shelter layout. 3. Instrument layout.
Sample conditioning system
1. Sample probes 2. Coolers 3. Pressure reducers 4. Filters
5. Flow meters 6. Valves. 7. Dehumidifiers. 8. Calibration gas.
Preliminary document comments-piping Information-process
Final document (IFC) _information-piping
VENDOR DRAWINGS: The analyzer mechanical drawings can be performed by the vendor also provided all the inputs are given to the vendor.
18. MATERIAL TAKE-OFF:
It is a document for the identification and procurement of bulk items such as tubes, fittings, nuts, bolts, cable glands, junction boxes etc.,
1. Hook-up drawings tubes, fittings, nuts, bolts 2. Instrument layouts 3. Instrument support details. 4. Definition of control room system 5. Level instrument design. 6. Jb wiring diagrams 7. Study of analyzer connection. 8. Instrument main cable routing.
The MTO is generally performed in two stages: (a) 1st take-off (b) 2nd take-off
During the first stage the bulk items are identified and their quantity is indicated and given to the procurement department. The second take-off is generally more accurate than first take-off and the bulk items are updated or revised and given to the procurement department. The items which are left out in the first take-off are included in the second take-off.
The first take-off and second take-off is given to the purchase for information and inspection & expediting for action.
19. MR & DATA SHEETS:
The material requisition also abbreviated as MR dictates the scope of the vendor for instruments to be purchased/procured. Initially the MR requests bid from the vendors. This MR is called MR for inquiry. Following MR for inquiry, technical bid analysis and commercial bid analysis are carried out. After selection of the vendor the MR for order is issued.
THIS DOCUMENT PREDOMINANTLY HAS 3 ATTACHMENTS:
1 Instrument data sheet 2 Standard specifications 3 Quality assurance plan
How ever the number of attachments may vary for DCS, PLC systems, analyser and analyser shelters where the system engineering and architecture drawings are also included. The MR usually requests for one or more of these from the vendor System design, detailed design, manufacture, expediting and inspection, material supply, spare parts all congruent with the product.
The MR utilizes:
P & I diagrams Project instrument specification Piping classes Process data sheets
Conventionally in the inquiry stage it is issued to the purchasing dept, and in the purchasing stage to construction, purchasing and inspection department.
20. SYSTEM ENGINEERING DRAWINGS & DOCUMENTS:
These drawings are prepared after the finalisation of the system vendor and given to the vendor for the configuration of the system such as PLC, DCS & SCADA.
P & ID Cause & effect chart. Process licensor specifications / write-up.
REFERENCE DOCUMENTS:
1. Control & safety system architecture. 2. Control & safety system block diagram.
These drawings give the various details needed for the engineering of the system. Some of the drawings / documents which come under this category are
1. Graphic displays 2. Control configuration details. 3. Operating, trend, alarm group definition 4. Report definition.
5. Sequential functions 6. Special graphics. 7. Advanced control drawings 8. Advanced process control specification 9. DCS specification for operating displays 10. Configuration criteria and parameter definition specification.
Process: The preliminary document and detail design document is given for comments. The final document is given for information.
Construction: The final document is given for information
Inspection & expediting: Final document is given for action.
Importance of the document:
These drawings only decide the configuration of the system. They are prepared taking into consideration the plant operators ease of operation.
21. CAUSE & EFFECT CHART:
The cause and effect chart indicates the various causes and its effects in a plant and it is used for defining the plant safety and shutdown system.
1. Customer / licensor technical specification. 2. P & ID
DETAILS:
This document lists the various causes and effects taking into consideration the plant safety and process conditions. It also gives the action to be taken such as
1. Trip the motor 2. Open the valve.
Preliminary document - comments to
1. Process 2. M & p
Detail design document information to
1. Process 2. M & p
This document is the main input for preparing the interlock logic diagrams, which is used for developing the plant safety and shutdown system.
22. ELECTRICAL & INSTRUMENT INTERFACE:
This document gives details about the signal flow between PLC, DCS, control room panels, local control panels and MCC.
1. P & ID 2. Instrument list.
This document is made for some of the motor signals which are connected to the control room
1. Motor run indication 2. Faults 3. Motor start / stop indication. 4. Local/remote indication.
THE OTHER DETAILS GIVEN IN THE DOCUMENT ARE
1. Location of interposing relay panels, marshalling panels 2. Motor / pump number. 3. Cable routing from interface module to the marshalling panel in the control room. 4. Termination details of interface modules & marshalling panels. 5. Cable type and size.
Electrical:
The preliminary document and the basic design document are given for comments. The final document is given for information.
This document supplies the necessary details regarding panels, number of relays, cable quantity etc. This drawing is also used for loop checking, input to the DCS vendor and gives details any motor / pump which is to be included in the ESD system.
23. QUALITY CONTROL SHEETS:
The quality control sheets are prepared in order to comply with the ISO requirement and to maintain the quality of the deliverables. The quality control sheets have two sections. They are
SECTION I: INPUT DOCUMENT CHECKLIST
1. This section contains the list of inputs required for the preparation of a particular deliverable.
2. The input document status is indicated.
3. A check has to be made whether the deliverable is prepared only with the specified input documents with their corresponding status.
4.
Remarks have to be given if any deviation from the checklist occurs.
SECTION II:
1. The second section contains various other checklists which the prepared document has to comply.
2. This checklists ensures whether the document has been prepared taking into consideration reference inputs, crosschecks with other department inputs etc.,
24. REVIEW OF DRAWINGS:
As per the requirement of our ISO quality policy and work procedures all documents prepared by the instrumentation department & those transmitted to the instrumentation department have to be reviewed. How ever the documents developed in-house are reviewed using quality control sheets with integral checklists
THE DOCUMENTS DEVELOPED BY OTHER ENGINEERING DEPARTMENTS LIKE:
1. Plot plan 2. Control room drawings 3. Instrument vendor drawings 4. Which serve as inputs/reference to us
5. Are reviewed using separate checklists.
The check list contains the guide lines for the review of the drawings.
Check list cross checks
Dimensions Presence of all mandatory details Scope demarcation Proper power supply termination Presence of all mandatory details Status of documents And the remarks
Comments are marked on the drawings taking into consideration these check lists, and are sent back to the originating departments to incorporate the comments.
25. DRAFTING GUIDELINES:
26. QAP FOR INSTRUMENTS:
OBJECTIVE OF QAP
To meet the statutory, regulatory requirements, and at the same time to maintain quality of the products purchased / procured
CONTENTS OF QAP
1. Approved quality plan of vendor 2. Quantum of inspection work 3. Applicable reference documents for inspection 4. Inspection record format 5. Scope of inspection at vendor site such as:
Visual inspection Dimensional check Material inspection Hydrostatic test Air pressure test Ball test Hardness test Dye penetrant test X-ray test Calibration of instruments used for Inspection.
APPLICABLE CERTIFICATE ENCLOSURES
Weather proof Explosion proof from [fm/ul/baseefa/cmrs/cmri/others]
The quality assurance plan (QAP) envisages the various time tested and proven techniques that have to be strictly adhered to, during the inspection and expediting stage.
27. PID SYMBOLS:
28. CO-ORDINATION WITH PROCESS DEPARTMENT:
DOCUMENTS FROM PROCESS DEPARTMENT:
1. Area classification drawings 2. PDS for reactors, columns 3. PDS for heat exchangers, tanks, heaters 4. PDS for drums, spheres 5. PDS for control valves, safety valves, analyzers, levels, flow, temperature instruments 6. Fluid list
7. P & id 8. Line list
COMMENTS:
The P & ID and the PDS for instruments are the two documents given for comments.
INFORMATION:
The area classification drawings are useful in the instrument selection for the hazardous area. They are also useful in selecting the type of junction-box.
The line list gives information about the line operating pressure and temperature and hence it is useful in the instrument design.
The PDS for reactors, columns, heaters, drums, spheres gives the process conditions for the particular equipment and hence they aid in the instrument selection and design.
DOCUMENTS TO PROCESS DEPARTMENT FROM I & C:
1. Project instrument specifications 2. Instrument list 3. Level instrument design 4. Interlock logic diagrams 5. System engineering drawings / documents 6. Cause & effect chart. The instrument list & interlock logic diagrams are given to the process for cross-checking. The system engineering drawings and documents contains details related to the process such as:
1. Process control specification 2. Control configurations 3. Advanced control drawings 4. Specification for operating displays.
Hence these documents are given to the process department.
29. CO-ORDINATION WITH PIPING DEPARTMENT:
DOCUMENTS FROM PIPING TO I & C:
1. Overall plot plan 2. Unit plot plan & elevation 3. Detailed piping studies 4. General arrangement drawing 5. Isometric sketches 6. Thermal tracing & jacketed line system 7. Piping classification & classes
COMMENTS:
1. The plot plan, unit plot plan. GAD, isometric sketches given for comments.
2. The control room size, analyser room size etc are checked with the plot plan and comments are marked and special requirements are also marked if any.
3. The gad and isometric sketches are checked for proper elevation of instruments, taking into consideration the maintenance of instruments.
INFORMATION:
1. The following documents are for information
(a) Detailed piping studies (b) piping classification & classes (c) Gad(final drawing) (d) Isometric sketches (final)
The piping classification and classes are used in preparing hook-up drawings.
The gad is used for analyser room layout, hook-up drawings.
DOCUMENTS TO THE PIPING DEPARTMENT FROM I & C:
1. Instrument cable routing and cross section 2. Level instrument design 3. Hook-up drawings 4. Analyzer room / shelter layout 5. Analyzer mechanical drawings
The main cable routing drawing is sent to piping to review the tray routing and to avoid any clashes. The level instrument design has a direct impact on the piping layout and hence to avoid any fouling with other pipelines it is sent to piping department to check the nozzle position, instrument connection. The hook-up drawings clearly indicate the scope of piping and instrumentation and the piping comments on the fittings, tubes etc.
30. CO-ORDINATION WITH M & T DEPARTMENT:
The data sheets for pressure vessels, heat exchangers, tank etc are transmitted to instrumentation dept as input documents in two stages
Issue for design Final issue
for comments for information
This document is used for drafting level instrument diagrams. The data sheets for material requisition for heaters are transmitted to instrumentation dept again in two stages
Issue for inquiry
for comments
Issue for procurement for information
31. CO-ORDINATION WITH M & P DEPARTMENT:
DOCUMENTS FROM M & P DEPARTMENT
1. Project specifications 2. Data sheets and MR for machinery group i 3. Data sheets and MR for machinery group ii 4. Data sheets and MR for package units i, ii, iii
COMMENTS:
The above documents are checked for instrumentation scope. The data sheets & MR for machineries such as pumps, compressors, and agitators are checked for proper instruments and comments are marked if any. The same procedure is also followed for packages also. The instrumentation scope of packages is checked and commented if any.
INFORMATION:
These documents in the issued for purchase status are sent for information. The data sheets & MR for machinery and package are useful in the preparation of interlock logic diagrams.
DOCUMENTS TO M & P FROM I & C:
1. Project instrument specifications 2. Cause & effect chart.
32. CO-ORDINATION WITH CIVIL & STRUCTURAL DEPT:
33. CO-ORDINATION WITH ELECTRICAL DEPT:
THE ELECTRICAL LOAD SUMMARY AND POWER BALANCE DRAWINGS ARE TRANSMITTED TO THE INSTRUMENTATION DEPARTMENT AS REFERENCE AND INPUT DOCUMENTS FOR DRAFTING THE POWER SUPPLY DISTRIBUTION DIAGRAMS WIRING DIAGRAMS
MAIN CABLE ROUTING
INSTRUMENTATION
Agree on control philosophy and provide necessary interfaces between the control system and electrical panels Furnish necessary alarm /indication points in electrical panels to be reproduced in the control system Obtain power requirement for instrument panels (both AC supply & DC supply) so as to size the UPS system and DC system. Co-ordinate the cable routes for electrical & instrument cables so that they are generally laid in the same corridor Marshalling details for the interface cables between control system and electrical system
34. ORIFICE PLATES:
PRINCIPLE:
Orifice plate is a thin flat plate with a hole which is placed in the path of the flow. The pressure difference caused by the orifice is measured with a DP measuring instrument. The square root of the differential pressure is proportional to the volumetric flow rate.
TYPES:
1.Concentric square edged orifice:
Applicable only for clean fluids, viscous fluids and with fluid with reynolds number > 8000.
2.Eccentric segmental type:
For dirty fluids, two-phase fluids. Line size is limited from 100mm-350mm.
3. Quadrant edge (or) quarter circle orifice:
Used for very low red- high viscous fluids. Maximum line size is 7 750mm. Limitations: d 15 mm, 0.245 0.6
4. Conical entrance orifice:
Used for high viscous fluids.
Limitations: pipe bore 25mm till 760mm, 0.1 0.316, reno 25-600,000
TYPE OF TAPPINGS:
1. Flange tappings: They are tappings at a distance of 25.41 mm on either sides of the faces of orifice plate. Limitations: pipe bore 40mm till 760mm. 0.15-0.75 Used along with concentric, eccentric. Not recommended below 40mm.
2. Corner taps: Pressure is measured at the corner between orifice plate and pipe wall.most suitable for pipe sizes less than 50mm. Limitations: pipe bore 25mm till 1000mm. Orifice bore 12.5mm till 800mm 0.23-0.8, reno: 50,0001,00,00,000
3. D & d/2 (or) radius taps: Not recommended for metering high viscous liquids, critical flows. Considered where an orifice plate installation between existing flanges. Limitations: pipe bore 200mm-760mm. D: 12.5mm-570mm 0.2-0.75
STANDARDS:
Bs 1042 Api rp 550
INSTALLATION:
1.Position: Practically, horizontal position is the most convenient and desirable for most gas measurements.
2. Alignment: Meter tubes should be carefully aligned with the upstream and downstream piping. No offset is allowed at these joints.
3. Location of tapping: Liquids- within an angle of 45 above or below the horizontal Dry gases- between the horizontal & vertical upwards. Moist gases- between and angle of 30 above horizontal and vertically upwards. Steam- horizontal only.
4. The sharp edge of the orifice must face upstream and the beveled edge downstream.
5. Both plate & gaskets should be placed so that the center of the orifice is at the center of the bore of the orifice holding device.
Orifice metering problems:
1. Wet gas measurement. 2. Pulsating flow. 3. Orifice plate bending 4. Outdoor environmental problems.
ACCURACY: 1.4 - 2.2 % 0.75 %
Uncalibrated Calibrated
PRESSURE LOSS:
Medium to high.
ADVANTAGES:
1. Simple construction. 2. Proven performance. 3. Economic
LIMITATIONS:
1. Pressure loss 2. Rangeability ( 3 : 1 ) 3. Less accurate 4. Piping requirements.
35. VENTURI FLOW ELEMENTS:
PRINCIPLE:
The venturi tube is a flow measuring element using differential pressure measurement. The venturi is a tube of varying cross-section which causes a differential pressure to be created proportional to the flow. The flow stream first passes through a converging section and a throat and finally diverges.
ACCURACY: Uncalibrated 1.7 % Calibrated 0.75 %
STANDARDS:
API RP 550 SECTION I BS 1042
SELECTION OF VENTURI TUBES:
The venturi tubes are selected where better pressure recovery is desired than orifice plated. Venturi tubes can also be installed in rectangular ducts where other meters are difficult to install. Measurement of dirty fluids and non-viscous fluids is possible with venturi tubes.
PRESSURE TAPPINGS:
1. Type of tapping:
Single (or) multiple tapping
2. UPSTREAM TAPPING:
The upstream tapping is located in the cylindrical entrance section at a distance of 0.5d upstream of the conical section within 0.05d. The diameter of the holes should be lesser than or equal to 0.1d.
3. DOWNSTREAM TAPPING:
The downstream pressure holes are located in the throat at a distance of 0.5d of the conical section within 0.05d. The diameter of the holes should be lesser than or equal to 0.13d.
4. MINIMUM LENGTH OF PRESSURE HOLES:
The diameter of a pressure hole or the width of a slot shall remain same for a distance of not less than two diameters before expanding in to the pressure pipe of annular chamber.
DEFECTS:
1. Inlet cone angle of convergence incorrect 2. Outlet cone angle of divergence incorrect. 3. Radius between cone and throat incorrect 4. Increasing roughness.
SPECIFICATIONS: Inlet cone angle: 21 1 Outlet divergent angle: 7- 15 Length of the throat: 1d where d is the diameter of the throat. Diameter of the throat: should be greater than 0.8 inch (or) 0.224d whichever is larger and not greater than 0.742d.
1. 2. 3. 4.
APPLICATION:
1. Liquids (clean and dirty fluids). 2. Gas / steam in rectangular ducts.
Maximum pressure:
400 bar
Maximum temperature 500 c
Line size range: 4-32 inches
Pressure drop: Relatively low
Price: Expensive
Advantages: 1. Low pressure loss 2. Accurate
Limitations: 1. Size 2. Rangeability ( 3 : 1 ) 3. Cost.
36. FLOW NOZZLES:
TYPES:
Std-single ported Multi opening ,averaging Area avg for ducts
Material of construction: brass, steel, stainless steel
ADVANTAGES: Low cost Low permanent pressure loss
Can be installed in existing operating lines
LIMITATIONS: 1. Low accuracy 2. Low rangeability 3. Stagnation pressure or impact pressure is sum of static pressure and dynamic pressure Pt=p+pv - Pt total pr which can be sensed by a fixed probe provided the fluid stagnates at the sensing point in an isentropic manner - P the static pressure of the fluid whether in motion or in rest - Pv dynamic pressure equivalent to the kinetic energy of the fluid considered as a continuum 4. Velocity vp ~ (pt-p) ^ 0.5
STATIC PRESSURE MEASUREMENT:
Thro taps in wall from static probes inserted inot the fluid streams Small apertures properly located on an areodynamic body immersed in the flowing fluid. Aerodynamic probe is an bluff body inserted into the flowing liquid with pressure sensing holes thro out the body.the probe is oriented so that the sensed pressure is a measure of static pressure.
SINGLE PORTED PITOT TUBE:
Give increased magnitude of pressure signals. Pipe length of 25d upstream between the disturbances Pitot tubes single point velocity measurement. Measures the average flow velocity .if the flow measured is not the avg. Velocity then substantial error results.
MULTI OPENING PITOT TUBES:
By avg the flow velocities at four fixed points changes in the velocity profile will be detected . Flow coefficient within 2% between reynolds numbers 50,000 to 1,000,000. Industrial liquid flows reynolds no less than 50,000. Adv can be installed on operating pressurized pipelines,hot tappings and ability to remove sensor without shut down. Pressure diff produced is not large. Purged pitot tubes present.
38. VORTEX FLOW METERS:
PRINCIPLE:
The phemenon of vortex shedding is the working principle of vortex flowmeter. As a fluid passes a bluff body it generates small vortices that are shed alternately along and behind each side of the bluff body. These vortices cause areas of fluctuating pressure that are detected by a sensor. The frequency of vortex generation is directly proportional to fluid velocity.
ACCURACY: 0.5% - 1% of full scale
INSTALLATION:
1. Installation direction: vertical installation requires that the pipe always be filled with liquid.
2. Upstream & downstream pipe lengths:
Valve installed in the upstream: 20 d Downstream :5d
Reducer or expander pipe: Upstream reducer: 5 d Upstream expander: 10d Downstream : 5 d
3. Pulsating pressure: When pulsating pressure caused by a pump exist, install the valve on the upstream of the flowmeter.
4. Cavitation: Downstream should not be open to air.
5. Full flow should be maintained for accurate measurement. Gas bubbles should be avoided in liquid flow.
6. Bypass arrangement can be provided for maintenance purposes.
7. Pipeline should be supported for shock and vibration.
Flow ranges:
Water : 2-10,000 gpm Air : 3-12,000 scfm
Steam : 11-113,6000 kg/hr
Materials of construction:
Stainless steel, wetted body is kynar, sensor is hastelloy c.
DETECTORS USED:
1. Heated thermistor 2. Piezoelectric 3. Ultrasonic 4. Capacitance
SERVICE: Gas, steam and clean liquids.
ADVANTAGES: 1. High rangeability( 10:1 ) 2. No moving parts 3. No ports or crevices to clog and degrade performance. 4. Low maintenance requirements
LIMITATIONS:
1. Can be used for only clean liquids 2. Minimum reynolds number required is 10,000 3. Expensive. 4. Line size is limited upto 12 inches.
39. TARGET FLOW METER:
PRINCIPLE:
Measures flow inferentially by measuring force developed at a disc-shaped target suspended in flow path. parts target,diaphragm seal,force bar,flapper nozzle assembly.
OPERATION: It is a fluid flow measuring transducer which generates an output signal directly proportional to the force applied on a target suspended in the fluid stream . Flow is measured as the square root of this force Combines in a single unit an annular orifice and a force balance transducer. Output signal is either electric or pneumatic signal proportional to flow. Less sensitve to change in reynolds no can be zeroed only under zero flow condition.
INSTALLATION:
The target flow meter can be installed in either horizontal or vertical lines. It should be located where it is accessible from grade ,a platform, or a ladder. Since it is line mounted it should be priented with the directional arrow.
40. MAGNETIC FLOWMETER:
PRINCIPLE: Faradays law of electromagnetic induction: When a conductor (process fluid)moves at right angle through a magnetic field , it induces a voltage proportional to the velocity of conductor e = blv e is the emf in volts b is magnetic flux density weber per metre square
l is distance between the electrodes v is average velocity of the fluid When b & l are constants e is proportional to v.
Flow rate = q q=av
a=ii/4 d^2 q= ii/4 d^2 * e/(b*l)
Thus if the diameter of the conductor, magnetic field intensity,emf induced and distance between the electrodes is known one can calculate flow rate.
TYPES: 1.Integral 2.Remote 3.Wafer 4.Flanged
PARTS OF ELECTROMAGNETIC FLOWMETER: Magnetic coil: provides the necessary magnetic field.
Lining material: provides chemical resistance and abrasion resistance Electrodes
Grounding electrode: These provide a reliable ground path when the process fluid is in direct contact with the pipewall when the process fluid conductivity is more than 100 micro Siemens per cm
Grounding rings: These provide positive ground in low conductivity process fluids or cathodic protection situation.must be used in upstream and downstream. Lining protectors in flanged flow tubes it protects the leading edges of the lining from damage during installation and lining wear at the upstream edge of the flow tube. Converter 2 conduit connections
Installation: Perfect alignment is required between flowmeter and piping to avoid zero shifts. Must run full of liquid. Fluid must always make contact with electrodes. Can be installed in any position- vertical, Horizontal, at any angle. In case of Vertical mounting-flow from bottom to top Horizontal mountingelectrode axis should not be in vertical plane. For abrasive slurries vertical mounting with upward flow and large straight length is recommended. Install the valve downstream and as far as possible to prevent turbulence to meter.
For elements with turbulent effects straight length requirements are
Element Expander,valves Tee,90 bend
Upstream 10d 5d
Downstream 2d 2d
Pass or add feed chemicals on down streamside to prevent non-uniform conductivity distribution In case of phase separation install meter vertically In vertical or sloped lines 1 flow must be upwards 2 shut off valves ahead of flowmeter. In case of underground installations use submerged type flowmeter. Welding protrusions may cause turbulent flow. Proper electrical and grounding is mandatory Grounding electrode must be at the bottom and must be connected to the third wire ground of the power input.
Material of construction: Housing: welded steel, cast steel Lining material: PTFE, PFA, polyurethane, ceramic, neoprene, natural, ETFE tefzelrubber Electrode/earth ring material: stainless steel, hastealloy C, Titanium, platinum-iridium, tantalum
Features: 1. Volumetric flow measurement 2. Flow not affected by temperature,pressure,viscosity,density. 3. Negligible pressure loss 4. Output signal linearly proportional to input 5. Flow span 0.1m/s to 5m/s 6. For slurries 1m/s to 3m/s 7. Accurcy higher at high flow rates 8. Can measure low flow rates from 3.175 mm to 3.04 m 9. No moving parts 10. Reverse flow measurement possible
Power supply
115vac/230vac
Power consumption 15 watts approx. Pulsed dc excitation Dual frequency excitation
Applications 1. Measurement of abrasive and erosive slurries 2.Can be effectively used for liquids with conductivity equalto 20 microsiemens per cm 3.Rangeability 100: 1
Accuracy: + 5%
Cost: moderate to expensive
Limitations: - Can measure only conductive liquids - Heavy meters - Electrical installation must be done carefully
In case of magnetic liquids, the magnetic field is disturbed, and requires compensation. Reverse flow measurement not possible.
Accessories: - Converter - Transmitter - In remote types
41. ULTRASONIC FLOWMETER:
PRINCIPLE
DIFFERENCE IN PROPAGATION TIMES. THE FLOW IS MEASURED BY MEASURING THE TIME TAKEN FOR AN ULTRA SONIC ENERGY PULSE TO TRAVERSE A PIPESECTION BOTH WITH AND AGAINST THE FLOW. TYPES TRANSIT TIME DIFFERENCE SYSTEM
TWO TRANSDUCERS MOUNTED ON THE PIPELINE SERVE AS BOTH ULTRASONIC SIGNAL GENERATORS AND RECEIVERS.WHEN MOUNTED ON A PIPE , THEY ARE IN COMMUNICATION WITH EACH OTHER IN OPERATION EACH TRANSDUCER FUNCTIONS AS A TRANSMITTER GENERATING A NUMBER OF ACOUSTIC PULSES,THEN AS A RECIEVER FOR AN IDENTICAL NUMBER OF PULSES.THE TIME DIFFERENCE BETWEEN TRANSMISSION AND RECEPTION OF THE ULTRASONIC SIGNALS MEASURED IN BOTH DIRECTIONS.WHEN THE LIQUID IN THE PIPE IS NOT FLOWING THE UPSTREAM TIME IS EQUAL TO DOWNSTREAM TIME. WHEN LIQUID IS FLOWING THE TRANSIT DOWNSTREAM TIME IS LESS THAN TRANSIT UPSTRREAM TIME.THE DIFFERENCE IN THE UPSTREAM AND DOWNSTREAM TRANSIT TIMES IS PROPORTIONAL TO THE VELOCITY OF THE FLOWING FLUIDS AND ITS SIGN INDICATES THE DIRECTION OF FLOW.PIPES SMALLER THAN 30 INCHES USE SINGLE BOUNCE METHOD FOR PIPES LARGERTHAN 30 INCHES ACROSS PIPE METHOD
DOPPLER FREQUENCY SHIFT SYSTEM

TWO TRANSDUCERS MOUNTED ACROSS A PIPE LINE SERVE AS TRANSMITTER AND RECEIVER. THE TRANSMITTER INJECTS A BEAM OF US ENERGY THROUGH THE PIPEWALL AND THEN REFRACTS IT INTO THE LIQUID AT AN ANGLE .IF THE LIQUID CONTAINS SCATTERING PARTICLES A REFLECTING BEAM WILL ENTER THE RECIEVER .THE APPARENT FREQUENCY OF THE REFLECTED SIGNAL WILL BE DOPPLER SHIFTED .SINCE THE FLUID PARTICLES MOVE AT THE FLOW VELOCITY THE DOPPLER SHIFT DIRECTLY DETERMINES THE FLOW VELOCITY AS A FUNCTION OF FREQUENCY SHIFT EQUATION
INSTALLATIONS
INLINE AXIAL OFFSET TILTED DIAMETER SPOOLPIECE
INSTALLATION CRITERIA
THE PIPE MUST BE FULL ALWAYS. IN CASE OF PARTIALLY FILLED PIPES THE TRANSDUCER MUST BE MOUNTED BELOW THE LIQUID IN THE PIPE. MINIMUM STRAIGHT LENGTH REQUIRED FROM VALVES, ELBOWS,TEES,PUMPS..ETC IS TYPICALLY 10D TO 20D UPSTREAM AND 5D DOWNSTREAM. THEFLOW MUST BE FAST ENOUGH TO CARRY THE SOLIDS AND PARTICLES .MINIMUM FLOW VELOCITY IS (.75 TO 1.8 M/S) PIPE MATERIAL MUST BE SONICALLY CONDUCTIVE.
STANDARDS
API RP 550 PART I INSTALLATION OF FLOW METERS.
APPLICATIONS
CLEAN LIUIDS WITH LITTLE OR NO SOLIDS OR BUBBLES OR GASES (TRANSIT TYPE METER) SLURRY (DOPPLER FLOW MEASUREMENT)
FEATURES
LINEAR SCALE LOW PRESSURE LOSS REVERSE FLOW MEASUREMENT
LIMITATIONS
LIQUID AND GAS MIXTURE PIPE MUST BE SONICALLY CONDUCIVE CANNOT BE USED FOR HIGH TEMPERATURE FLUID POWER SUPPLY REQUIREMENTS ACCURACY + 1%
COST APPROVALS
MODERATELY EXPENSIVE FLUID CONTROL RESEARCH INSTITUTE
42. CORIOLIS MASS FLOW METER:
CLASS MASS FLOW MEASUREMENT TYPES DESCRIPTION A CORIOLIS FLOW METER CONSISTS OF TWO OSCILLATING PARALLEL MEASURING PIPES WITH FLUID FLOWING THROUGH THEM.
PARTS
MEASURING PIPES ELCTRODYNAMIC SENSORS (COIL AND MAGNET)FOR MEASURING TIME OR PHASE DIFFERENCE BETWEENT THE TWO TUBES.
PRINCIPLE
TWO PARALLEL TUBES ARE EXCITED TO THEIR RESONANCE FREQUENCY. TWO SENSORS LOCATED NEAR THE INLET AND THE OUTLET SIDES DETECT THE DEFLECTION OF THESE TUBES .AT ZERO FLOW ,THE TUBES OSCILLATION IS SYMMETRICAL (BOTH SENSORS DETECT IDENTICAL DEFLECTION =NO PHASE DIFERENCE) BECAUSE OF THE CORIOLIS FORCE AS PART OF THE MASS FLOW ,THE OSCILLATION IS DECELERATED AT THE INLET SIDE AND ACCELERATED AT THE OUTLET SIDE =PHASE DIFFERENCE. THIS PHASE DIFFERENCE IS PROPORTIONAL TO MASS FLOW. CONTROLLED GENERATION OF COROLIS FORCES THE CORIOLIS FORCES OCCUR WHEN BOTH TRANSLATIONAL AND ROTATIONAL (REVOLVING) MOVEMENT OCCUR SIMULTANEOUSLY. WHEN FLUID FLOWS THROUGH THE CORIOLIS TUBE BECAUSE OF SIMULTANEOUS TRANSLATIONAL (DUE TO MOVEMENT OF FLUID) AND ROTATIONAL (OSCILLATIONS INDUCED EXTERNALLY) CORIOLIS FORCES ARE PRODUCED IN THE TWO TUBES . THE TWO TUBES OSCILLATE IN ANTIPHASE . CORIOLIS FORCES ARE PRODUCED IN THE TWO TUBES THE AMPLITUDE OF THE CORIOLIS FORCE DEPENDS ON THE MOVING MASS AND VELOCITY IN THE SYSTEM AND THEREFORE THE MASS FLOW.
ACCURACY +0.2% INSTALLATION

SENSOR SHOULD REMAIN FULL OF PROCESS FLUID ALWAYS GAS AND LIQUID MIXTURES SHOULD BE AVOIDED. NO SPECIAL PRECAUTIONS FOR TURBULENCE CREATING FITTINGS AS LONG AS NO CAVITATION OCCURS.
ORIENTATION VERTICAL
FLOW DIRECTION UPWARDS.ENTRAINED SOLIDS,SINK DOWN AND GASES RISE AWAY FROM THE MEASURIG PIPE ,SO THAT THE MEASURING PIPES ARE COMPLETELY DRAINED AND ARE PROTECTED FROM THE BUILD-UP OF SOLIDS. HORIZONTAL THE TRANSMITTER HOUSING MUST BE EITHER ABOVE OR BELOW THE PIPING,TO PREVENT GAS BUBBLES COLLECTION AND SOLIDS ENTRAPMENT IN THE CURVED PIPES. WALL AND POST MOUNTING THE SENSOR MUST BE MOUNTED IN THE PIPING WITH SUPPORTS. MUST NOT BE INSTALLED AT THEHIGHEST POINT OF PIPING . MUST NOT BE INSTALLED DIRECTLY UPSTREAM IN A VERTICALPIPELINE BEFORE A FREE PIPE OUTLET.
STANDARDS APPLICATIONS
CUSTODY TRANSFER APPLICATIONS LIMITATONS CANNOT MEASURE STEAM AND GASES EXPENSIVE ONLY LIQUIDS WITH DENSITY RANGE ABOVE 500 KG/METRE CUBE FLUID PRESSURE SHOULD NOT DROP BELOW THE VAPOR PRESSURE . SIZE UPTO 6 INCHES ONLY.NOT AVAILABLE FOR LARGE PIPELINES COST EXPENSIVE
MATERIAL OF CONSTRUCTION
STAINLESS STEEL,HASTEALLOY,TITANIUM,NISPAN C AS STANDARD TANTULUM,TEFZEL LINED AS SPECIAL. COMMERCIALLY AVAILABLE CORIOLIS METER PROMASS APPROVALS POWER SUPPLY REQUIREMENTS 12VA
FEATURES
CAN MEASURE NEWTONIAN, NONNEWTONIAN FLUIDS , SLURRIES , COMPRESSED GAS AND CRYOGENIC SERVICES. IT CAN MEASURE MASS FLOW RATE,VOLUMETRIC FLOW RATE,TEMPERATURE,FLUID DENSITY ALL FROM ONE INSTRUMENT LINEAR SCALE NO STRAIGHT LENGTH REQUIREMENTS NO OBSTRUCTIONS NO MOVING PARTS MINIMUM PRESSURE LOSS. MEASURES REVERSE FLOW ELECTROMAGNETIC SENSORS USE MAGNET MOUNTED ON ONE TUBE AND COIL ON THE OTHER TUBE.TUBE VIBRATES THE MAGNET AND COIL CHANGE THEIR POSITION WITH RESPECT TO ONE ANOTHERWHICH CAUSES A CHANGE IN THE MAGNETIC FIELD IN THE COIL..VOLTAGE O/P FROM THE COIL IS DIRECTLY PROPORTIONAL TO RATE OF CHANGE OF MAGFIELD IN COIL AND REFLECTS THE SINUSOIDAL MOTION OF THE TUBE.THE SIGNAL FROM 2 FLOW DETCTORS MOUNTED ON EITHER SIDE OF THE DRIVER ARE SENT TO ELECTRONICS.BOTH DETECTORS OP AN ELECTRICAL SIGNALS WHICH VARIES SINUSOIDALLY BUT THERE IS A SLIGHT TIME OR PHASE DIFF BETWEEN THE TWO SIGNALS WHICH RESULTS FROM THE DEFLECTION OF THE TUBE IN RESPONSE TO CORIOLIS FORCES.SINE WAVES FROM FLOW DETECTORS ARE COMPARED TO DETERMINE THE TIME DIFFERENCEOR PHASE DIFF.TUBE FREQUENCY IS ALSO MEASUREDDATA R USED TO MEASURE MASS FLOW RATE,VOLUMETRIC FLOWRATE =MASS Q/DENSITY.FREQUENCY OF VIBRATION PROPORTIONAL TO DENSITY.
43. THERMAL MASS FLOW METER:
PRINCIPLE: THE WORKING OF THERMAL MASS FLOW METER IS BASED ON THE THERMODYNAMIC PRINCIPLE. A POWER SUPPLY DIRECTS HEAT TO THE MIDPOINT OF THE SENSOR TUBE CARRYING A CONSTANT PERCENTAGE OF FLOW.
ON THE SAME TUBE, TWO TEMPERATURE ELEMENTS ARE PLACED UPSTREAM AND DOWNSTREAM AT EQUAL DISTANCE. AT ZERO FLOW, HEAT REACHING EACH TEMPERATURE ELEMENT IS EQUAL. WITH INCREASING FLOW, THE FLOW STREAM CARRIES HEAT AWAY FROM UPSTREAM TEMPERATURE ELEMENT AND INCREASING AMOUNT FROM THE DOWNSTREAM ELEMENT. THIS TEMPERATURE DIFFERENCE IS PROPORTIONAL TO MASS FLOW RATE. ACCURACY:
1 % - 2 % OF THE FULL SCALE
APPLICATION:
1. 2. 3. 4. AIR GAS LIQUIDS SLURRIES.
DESIGN TEMPERATURE:
(150 175) C
DESIGN PRESSURE:
300 bars
STRAIGHT LENGTH REQUIREMENTS:

UPSTREAM: 5D DOWNSTREAM: 3D
POWER CONSUMPTION: 1 TO 10 WATTS DEPENDING UPON THE MODEL. OUTPUT SIGNAL:

1. 2. 3. ( 0 5) V dc (4 20) mA (0 20) mA
PRESSURE DROP:
AVERAGE
FLOW RANGE:
0 10,000 Kg/h
LIMITATIONS:
1. 2. 3. COST CABLE REQUIREMENTS. SETTLING TIME.
44. TURBINE FLOW METER:
VOLUMETRIC FLOW MEASUREMENT, FRESH AND CLEAN WATER SERVICES MEASURES FLOW BY GENERATING AN AC SIGNAL IN DIRECT RESPONSE TO THE PASSAGE OF THE STEAM OR GAS. AS EACH TURBINE BLADE ROTATES PAST THE PICKUP COIL THE MAGNETIC FLUX LINES ARE BROKEN AND A SMALL VOLTAGE PULSE IS GENERATED TURBINE SPINS IN DIRECT PROPORTION TO FLOW ACCURATE MEASUREMENT IS POSSIBLE PARTS METERBODY-SS316,ROTOR-SS,SHAFT-SS302,BEARINGS-SAPPHIRE,SS,BEARING-316SS ,TUNGSTEN CARBIDE HOUSING PICKOFF GENERATES FREQUENCY PROPORTIONAL TO FLOW RATE INSTALLATION STRAIGHT RUN REQUIREMENTS COMPONENTS UPSTREAM DOWNSTREAM NORMAL 9D 5D BEND IN SAME PLANE 14
AS VISCOSITY INCREASES THE VISCOUS DRAG ALSO INCREASES RESULTING IN SLOWING OF THE ROTOR FOR A GIVEN FLUID VELOCITY.THUS INCREASING VISCOSITY WILL REDUCE METERS COEFFICIENT,LINEAR RANGE TURNDOWNAND INCREASE THE PR DROP THRO THE METER K NO OF CYCLES PER UNIT VOLUME TYPES PARITY TURBINE FLANGED,NPT THREADED CONNECTIONS,TUBED PRIMARY OP IS HIGH RESOLUTION SIGNAL THAT IS AMPLIFIED AND SHAPED BY AN INTEGRAL AMP MOUNTED DIRECTLY ON THE METER..THIS WAVE PULSE CAN BE FED DIRECTLY TO TOTALIZING COUNTERS,DIGITAL READOUTS OR CONTROL EQUIPMENT ML TURBINE METER ADV OF PD METER AND TURBINE METER. VISCOSITY COMPENSATING SHROUD AROUND THE ROTOR STANDARDS MEASUREMENT OF HYDROCARBONS USING TURBINE FLOW METER API 2534 MECHANICAL DISPLACEMENT METER PROVERS API 2531 VISCOSITY INCREASES THE MINIMUM FLOW RATE REQUIRED TO MAINTAIN A SPECIFIC DEGREE OF ACCURACY IS INCREASED VISCOSITY INCREASES THE MAX FLOW DECRESES WITH MAX ALLOWABLE PR DROP. BACK PRESSURE MUST BE HIGH TO PREVENT CAVITATION, REGARDLESS OF MAX FLOW RATE BP = (METERPRESSURE DROP AT MAX FLOW*2)+(VAPOR PRESSURE AT MAX TEMP* 1.25) BACK PRESSURE REQUIRED 3 INCH TO 30 INCH APPLICATION BLENDING,CUSTODY TRANSFER CONDUIT CONNECTION FOR ELCTRICAL CABLE,TRANSMITTER TYPE 2/3 WIRE,BALLBEARING FOR GAS ,JOURNAL BEARING FOR LIQUIDS RELUCTANCE COILPICK UP PERMANENT MAGNET PRODUCES A SMALL CONCENTRATED POINT FIELD.TURBINE ROTOR BLADES ARE MADE OF PARAMAGNETIC MATL .AS THE BLADE APPROACHES THE FIELD THE BLADES MAGNETIC PROPERTIES DEFLECT THE MAGNETIC FIELD.THE DEFLECTION CAUSES A VOLTAGE TO BE GENERATED IN THE COIL AS THE BLADE PASSES THRO THAT POINT THE VOLTAGE DECAYS ONLY TO BE BUILT BACKUP IN THE OPPOSITE POLARITY AS THE DEPARTING BLADE DEFLECTS THE MAGNETIC FIELDI THE OPP DIRECTION.EACH BLADE PRODUCES A SEPARATE AND DISTINCT VOLTAGEPULSE AS IT PASSES THRO THAT POINT.EACH BLADE SWEEPS A DISCRETE VOLUME OF FLUID EACH ELECT PULSE REPRESENTS THE SAME DISCRETE VOL OF FLUID (ONE PULSE PER BLADE0 INDUCTANCE METHOD PERMANENT MAG EMBEDDED IN ROTOR.AS MAGNET ROTATE S PAST THE PICKUP COIL POSITION IT GENERATES A VOLTAGE PULSE FOR EVERY COMPLETE REVOLUTION OF THE ROTOR.(ONE PULSE PER REVOLUTION) GAS TURBINES LOW DRIVING TORQUES.
VOLUMETRIC FLOW MEASUREMENT, FRESH AND CLEAN WATER SERVICES MEASURES FLOW BY GENERATING AN AC SIGNAL IN DIRECT RESPONSE TO THE PASSAGE OF THE STEAM OR GAS. AS EACH TURBINE BLADE ROTATES PAST THE PICKUP COIL THE MAGNETIC FLUX LINES ARE BROKEN AND A SMALL VOLTAGE PULSE IS GENERATED TURBINE SPINS IN DIRECT PROPORTION TO FLOW ACCURATE MEASUREMENT IS POSSIBLE PARTS METERBODY-SS316,ROTOR-SS,SHAFT-SS302,BEARINGS-SAPPHIRE,SS,BEARING-316SS ,TUNGSTEN CARBIDE HOUSING PICKOFF GENERATES FREQUENCY PROPORTIONAL TO FLOW RATE INSTALLATION STRAIGHT RUN REQUIREMENTS COMPONENTS UPSTREAM DOWNSTREAM NORMAL 9D 5D BEND IN SAME PLANE 14
AS VISCOSITY INCREASES THE VISCOUS DRAG ALSO INCREASES RESULTING IN SLOWING OF THE ROTOR FOR A GIVEN FLUID VELOCITY.THUS INCREASING VISCOSITY WILL REDUCE METERS COEFFICIENT,LINEAR RANGE TURNDOWNAND INCREASE THE PR DROP THRO THE METER K NO OF CYCLES PER UNIT VOLUME TYPES PARITY TURBINE FLANGED,NPT THREADED CONNECTIONS,TUBED PRIMARY OP IS HIGH RESOLUTION SIGNAL THAT IS AMPLIFIED AND SHAPED BY AN INTEGRAL AMP MOUNTED DIRECTLY ON THE METER..THIS WAVE PULSE CAN BE FED DIRECTLY TO TOTALIZING COUNTERS,DIGITAL READOUTS OR CONTROL EQUIPMENT ML TURBINE METER ADV OF PD METER AND TURBINE METER. VISCOSITY COMPENSATING SHROUD AROUND THE ROTOR STANDARDS MEASUREMENT OF HYDROCARBONS USING TURBINE FLOW METER API 2534 MECHANICAL DISPLACEMENT METER PROVERS API 2531 VISCOSITY INCREASES THE MINIMUM FLOW RATE REQUIRED TO MAINTAIN A SPECIFIC DEGREE OF ACCURACY IS INCREASED VISCOSITY INCREASES THE MAX FLOW DECRESES WITH MAX ALLOWABLE PR DROP. BACK PRESSURE MUST BE HIGH TO PREVENT CAVITATION, REGARDLESS OF MAX FLOW RATE BP = (METERPRESSURE DROP AT MAX FLOW*2)+(VAPOR PRESSURE AT MAX TEMP* 1.25) BACK PRESSURE REQUIRED 3 INCH TO 30 INCH APPLICATION BLENDING,CUSTODY TRANSFER CONDUIT CONNECTION FOR ELCTRICAL CABLE,TRANSMITTER TYPE 2/3 WIRE,BALLBEARING FOR GAS ,JOURNAL BEARING FOR LIQUIDS RELUCTANCE COILPICK UP PERMANENT MAGNET PRODUCES A SMALL CONCENTRATED POINT FIELD.TURBINE ROTOR BLADES ARE MADE OF PARAMAGNETIC MATL .AS THE BLADE APPROACHES THE FIELD THE BLADES MAGNETIC PROPERTIES DEFLECT THE MAGNETIC FIELD.THE DEFLECTION CAUSES A VOLTAGE TO BE GENERATED IN THE COIL AS THE BLADE PASSES THRO THAT POINT THE VOLTAGE DECAYS ONLY TO BE BUILT BACKUP IN THE OPPOSITE POLARITY AS THE DEPARTING BLADE DEFLECTS THE MAGNETIC FIELDI THE OPP DIRECTION.EACH BLADE PRODUCES A SEPARATE AND DISTINCT VOLTAGEPULSE AS IT PASSES THRO THAT POINT.EACH BLADE SWEEPS A DISCRETE VOLUME OF FLUID EACH ELECT PULSE REPRESENTS THE SAME DISCRETE VOL OF FLUID (ONE PULSE PER BLADE0 INDUCTANCE METHOD PERMANENT MAG EMBEDDED IN ROTOR.AS MAGNET ROTATE S PAST THE PICKUP COIL POSITION IT GENERATES A VOLTAGE PULSE FOR EVERY COMPLETE REVOLUTION OF THE ROTOR.(ONE PULSE PER REVOLUTION) GAS TURBINES LOW DRIVING TORQUES.
45. POSITIVE DISPLACEMENT FLOW METER:
PRINCIPLE:
THIS METER MEASURES FLOW BY ISOLATING, COUNTING AND TOTALIZING SEGMENTS OF KNOWN VOLUME AS THE FLOW PASSES THROUGH THE BODY. THEY ARE MECHANICAL METERS WITH ONE OR MORE MOVING PARTS, LOCATED IN THE FLOW STREAM PHYSICALLY SEPARATED THE FLUID INTO INCREMENTS. THE ACCURACY OF THESE INSTRUMENTS IS VERY HIGH. AS LINE SIZE INCREASES THE ACCURACY ALSO INCREASES.
TYPES: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. NUTATING DISCMETER OSCILLATING PISTON RETRACTING VANE ROTATING LOBE / OVAL GEAR SLIDING VANE / ROTARY VANE VISCOUS HELIX.
ACCURACY:
0.3 % - 1 % SELECTION OF THE FLOWMETER: THE POSITIVE DISPLACEMENT FLOWMETER IS SELECTED BASED ON THE FOLLOWING CONDITIONS 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. FOR CLEAN LIQUIDS VISCOUS LIQUIDS FLOW TOTALIZER IS REQUIRED HIGHER RANGEABILITY VERY LOW PRESSURE DROP
SELECTING DIFFERENT PD METERS: 1. NUTATING DISC: ACCURACY (1-2) %. MAX FLOW 160 GPM USED FOR WATER SERVICES 2. OSCILLATING PISTON: FOR CLEAN, VISCOUS & CORROSIVE FLUIDS. ACCURACY 1 % MAXIMUM METER SIZE 2
3. RETRACTING VANE : FOR HIGHLY VISCOUS LIQUIDS AND SLURRIES LINE SIZE: 1 4 TEMPERATURE 400 C PRESSURE 500 PSI
4. OVAL GEAR:
LOW PRESSURE LOSS FLOW RANGE : 8 17,500 GPM ACCURACY: 0.5 % TEMPERATURE: 400 C PRESSURE: 1200 PSI LINE SIZE : 1 24 FOR GASOLINE, CRUDE OIL & VISCOUS PARTICLES FLOW RANGE : UPTO 17500 GPM LOW PRESSURE LOSS ACCURACY : 1 %
5. SLIDING VANE:
LIMITATIONS: BULK AND HEAVY IN LARGER LINES. 6. VISCOUS HELIX : LINE SIZE : UPTO 10 INCHES HIGH PRESSURE DROP HIGH RANGEABILITY 100 : 1 FOR HIGHLY VISCOUS AND SLURRIES
FILTERING: IT IS NECESSARY TO FILTER THE PROCESS FLUID BEFORE IT ENTERS THE FLOWMETERS. A US MESH SIZE 30 IS SUFFICIENT FOR THIS PURPOSE. MATERIAL OF CONSTRUCTION: SS 316 CAN BE USED FOR OUTER HOUSING, MAIN BODY, ROTATING ELEMENT AND SHAFT. STRAIGHT LENGTH REQUIREMENTS: NIL LINE SIZE: 0.5 24 INCHES PRESSURE LOSS: MEDIUM ( FOR LIQUIDS ) LOW ( FOR GASES)
END CONNECTION & RATING: THE END CONNECTION OR RATING MAY BE FLANGED OR THREADED DEPENDING UPON THE METER SIZE. ADVANTAGES: 1. GOOD ACCURACY 2. HIGH RANGEABILITY
3. CAN BE USED FOR VISCOUS SERVICES 4. NO STRAIGHT LENGTH REQUIREMENTS. LIMITATIONS: 1. 2. 3. 4. WEAR OF PARTS ONLY FOR CLEAN LIQUIDS MAINTENANCE IS REQUIRED FOR MOVING PARTS EXPENSIVE IN LARGE SIZES.
46. ROTAMETERS:
CLASS VARIABLE AREA METERS
TYPES
GLASS BOROSILICATE CANNOT BE USED FOR MEASURING OPAQUE AND TRANSLUCENT FLUIDS. METAL PURGE STEAM JACKETED PARTS MEASURING GLASS TUBE ,FLOAT
DESCRIPTION
IT CONSISTS OF A VERTICAL TAPERED METERING TUBE AND A FLOAT THAT IS FREE TO MOVE UP AND DOWN IN THE TUBE. THE METERING TUBE IS MOUNTED VERTICALLY WITH THE SMALL END AT THE BOTTOM .THE FLUID TO BE MEASURED ENTERS AT THE BOTTOM END OF THE TUBE, PASSES UPWARD AROUND THE FLOAT AND OUT AT THE TOP.
PRINCIPLE
ARCHIMEDES PRINCIPLE NO FLOW FLOAT RESTS AT BOTTOM OF THE METERING TUBE, WHERE THE MAXIMUM DIAMETER OF THE FLOAT IS EQUAL TO THE DIAMETER OF THE BORE. WHEN FLUID ENTERS THE METERING TUBE THE BUOYANT EFFECT OF THE FLUID LIGHTENS IT.BUT IT HAS A GREATER DENSITY THAN THE FLUID AND HENCE THE BUOYANT EFFECT CANNOT RAISE IT. A ANNULAR OPENING IS CREATED BETWEEN THE FLOAT AND THE METER TUBE.AS THE FLOW RATE INCREASES THE PRESSURE DROP ACROSS THE FLOAT INCREASES AND RAISES THE FLOAT TO INCREASE THE ANNULAR AREA UNTIL THE UPWARD HYDRAULIC FORCES AND THE BUOYANT FORCES ACTING ON IT ARE BALANCED BY THE WEIGHT OF THE FLOAT.THE FLOAT MOVES UP AND DOWN IN THE TUBE IN PROPORTION TO THE FLOW RATE AND IN THE ANNULAR AREA BETWEEN THE FLOAT AND THE TUBE.IT REACHES A STABLE POSITION IN THE TUBE WHEN THE FORCES ARE IN EQUILIBRIUM.AS THE AREA INCREASES THE PRESSURE DROP ACROSS THE FLOAT INCREASES.WHEN THE FLOAT IS IN DYNAMIC EQUILIBRIUM THE PRESSURE DROP ACROSS THE FLOAT PLUS THE BUOYANCY EFFECT BALANCES THE WEIGHT OF THE FLOAT.INCREASE IN THE FLOW RATE CAUSES THE FLOAT TO GO HIGHER , A DECREASE IN THE FLOW RATE CAUSES THE FLOAT TO DROP TO LOWER POSITION. THUS EVERY POSITION OF THE FLOAT CORRESPONDS TO ONE PARTICULAR FLOWRATE FOR A GIVEN DENSITY AND VISCOSITY. BY DIRECTLY OBSERVING THE POSITION OF THE FLOAT ONE CAN DETERMINE FLOWRATE.
INSTALLATION
ROTAMETER IS INSTALLED IN VERTICAL POSITION ONLY WITH THE SMALL END AT THE BOTTOM. NO STRAIGHT LINE REQUIREMENTS. ALL GAS TUBE ROTAMETERS MUST HAVE AN BYPASS LINE.
PRINCIPLE
STANDARDS
ISA RP 16.1 ISA RP 16.2 ISA RP 16.3 ISA RP 16.4 ISA RP 16.5 ISA RP 16.6 THREAD CONNECTIONS ANSI B2.1 FLANGED CONNECTIONS ANSI B16.5 GROOVES OF RING TYPE JOINT FLANGES ANSI 16.20
APPLICATIONS
SMALL FLOWS SMALL ACCURACY
ACCURACY +2% RANGEABILITY

1:10
LIMITATIONS
HIGH VISCOUS FLUIDS ,ABRASIVE & SLURRY ,LOW TEMPERATURE FLUIDS CANNOT BE MEASURED SUSPENDED SOLIDS ABSENT
FEATURES
NO PIPING LENGTH REQUIRED NO POWER SUPPLY NEEDED
47. DP FLOW MEASUREMENT:
PRINCIPLE:
THE DP TRANSMITTER IS GENERALLY USED ALONG WITH ORIFICE PLATES, VNETURI TUBES, AND PITOT TUBES FOR MEASURING THE DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE, WHICH IS A MEASURE OF FLOW. THE DP PRODUCED IS APPLIED TO A CAPACITANCE ARRANGEMENT, WHICH PRODUCES A CORRESPONDING CURRENT OUTPUT PROPORTIONAL TO THE FLOW.
ACCURACY:
0.25 %
TYPES:
1. ORDINARY TYPE: FOR SERVICES LIKE WATER, AIR STEAM AND NON-CORROSIVE APPLICATIONS. 2. DIAPHRAGM SEAL TYPE: FOR CORROSIVE APPLICATIONS.
MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION:
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. BODY MATERIAL: SS 316, HASTELLOY C, MONEL ELEMENT: SS 316, SS316L, MONEL, TANTALUM, HASTELLOY C-276 WETTED PART MATERIAL : SS 316 SENSOR HOUSING: CAST AUSTENITIC SS CAPSULE FILL FLUID: SILICONE OIL BODY BOLTING: HIGH STRENGTH ALLOY STEEL.
POWER SUPPLY:
24V DC
MOUNTING:
1. 2. 3. 4. YOKE MOUNTING PIPE MOUNTING PANEL MOUNTING SURFACE MOUNTING / WALL MOUNTING.
LOCATION:
THE TRANSMITTER IS LOCATED AT A CONVENIENT LOCATION IN A PLATFORM OR AT A GRADE FOR EASY ACCESS AND MAINTENANCE.
LIMITATIONS:
1. RANGEABILITY LIMITED.
48. DP LEVEL MEASUREMENT:
49. RADAR LEVEL MEASUREMENT:
50. ULTRASONIC LEVEL MEASUREMENT:
PRINCIPLE: THE ULTRASONIC LEVEL TRANSMITTER IS BASED ON TIME-OF-FLIGHT MEASUREMENT. THE ULTRASONIC PULSE EMITTER SENDS ULTRASONIC PULSES IN THE DIRECTION OF THE PRODUCT SURFACE THAT PARTIALLY REFLECTS. THE TIME TAKEN FOR THE PULSE TO HIT THE SURFACE AND COME BACK IS MEASURED AND THIS IS THE INDICATION OF THE PRODUCT LEVEL.
ACCURACY: ( 0.25 2 ) % OF FULL SCALE STANDARD: API RP 550 PART I SECTION 2 NATURE OF ULTRASONICS: THE SOUND IS AFFECTED BY (1) (2) (3) (4) TEMPERATURE REFLECTION PROPOGATION ABSORPTION
SINCE THE ULTRASONIC WAVES IS AFFECTED BY THE TEMPERATURE INSIDE THE VESSEL / TANK, TEMPERATURE COMPENSATION IS NECESSARY. LIQUIDS AND SOLIDS WITH LARGE AND HARD PARTICLES ARE GOOD REFLECTORS. LOOSE DIRT HAVE POOR REFLECTING CHARACTERISTICS. INSTALLATION: (1) THE MOUNTING IS ALWAYS FROM THE TOP. IF TOP MOUNTING IS NOT POSSIBLE AND THERE IS NO LIMITATION ON BLOCKING DISTANCE THEN SIDE MOUNTING MAY BE CONSIDERED. (2) THE SENSOR SHOULD BE MOUNTED SUCH THAT THE DISTANCE BETWEEN IT AND THE MAXIMUM PRODUCT LEVEL EXCEEDS THE BLOCKING DISTANCE. (3) IF THE MAXIMUM LEVEL TO BE MEASURED FALLS WITHIN THE BLOCKING DISTANCE THE TRANSMITTER MUST BE MOUNTED ON A NOZZLE. (4) NO CONDENSATE OR BUILD-UP SHOULD FORM IN THE NOZZLE. (5) THE SENSOR SHOULD BE POSITIONED SO THAT NO INTERNAL FITTINGS & FILLING CURTAIN ARE IN DETECTION ZONE. MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION: WETTED PARTS : SS316,MONEL, HASTELLOY B & C SPECIAL COATING: PVC, KYNAR, TEFLON, and PVDF. HOUSING: DIE CAST ALUMINIUM. MOUNTING ACCESSORIES: GALVANISED STEEL, SS PROCESS CONNECTION: IF THE SENSOR IS TO BE MOUNTED ON A NOZZLE, FLANGED VERSION SHALL BE CONSIDERED. IF SIDE MOUNTING IS POSSIBLE THEN SCREWED CONNECTION CAN BE CONSIDERED. OPTIMUM CONDITIONS: (1) LOWER EDGE OF THE SENSOR IS BELOW THE SILO ROOF.
(2) DETECTION ZONE DOES NOT INCLUDE ANY INTERNAL FIXTURES OR THE FILLING CURTAIN. (3) SURFACE OF THE SOLID IS HARD & COARSE GRAINED. (4) SURFACE OF THE LIQUID IS CALM AND NO VAPOUR IS FORMED. (5) OPERATION IS UNDER NORMAL ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE. LESS THAN OPTIMUM CONDITIONS REDUCE THE MEASURING RANGE OF THE SENSORS. POWER SUPPLY & CONSUMPTION: AC: 230 V DC: 18 36 V ADVANTAGES: (1) ABSENCE OF MOVING PARTS (2) NON-CONTACT MEASUREMENT (3) HIGHLY ACCURATE. LIMITATIONS: (1) CANNOT BE USED FOR FOAM, SOUND-ABSORBING PARTICLES. (2) SLOPING SURFACES LIMITS ITS USE. (3) ACCURACY IS DEPENDENT ON REFLECTIVE PROPERTIES CONSUMPTION < 4 VA CONSUMPTION < 2.5 W
51. CAPACITANCE TYPE LEVEL MEASUREMENT:
PRINCIPLE: THE BASIC PRINCIPLE OF CAPACITANCE IS USED. THE CAPACITANCE PROBE IS INSERTED INTO THE VESSEL WHOSE LEVEL IS TO BE MEASURED AND IT FORMS AS ONE PLATE OF THE CAPACITOR AND THE TANK WALL FORMS THE OTHER PLATE. THE DISTANCE BETWEEN THE PLATES AND THE AREA OF THE PLATES IS CONSTANT AND VARIATION IN CAPACITANCE IS CAUSED DUE TO VARIATION THE LIQUID LEVEL. PROBE TYPES: 1. 2. BARE (OR) UNINSULATED PROBES INSULATED PROBES.
ACCURACY: ( 1 2 ) % OF THE SPAN SELECTION OF PROBES: 1. BARE PROBES CAN BE USED ON DRY, NONCONDUCTIVE MATERIALS.
2. FOR ALL LEVEL MEASUREMENTS OF CONDUCTIVE FLUID OR OF SOLIDS WHICH CAN BE MOIST, INSULATED PROBES MUST BE USED. 3. ADHERENCE OF THE PROCESS MATERIAL TO THE PROBE SHOULD BE CONSIDERED WHILE SELECTING THE PROBE. PROBE SIZING: THE LEVEL PROBE CAPACITANCE DIFFERENCE C > 10pf . GENERALLY NARROW SPAN REDUCES ACCURACY. THE RATIO OF ( TC / C ) SHOULD BE BETWEEN 4 & 0.25 WHERE TC IS THE CAPACITANCE MEASURED WHEN THE TANK IS EMPTY. MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION: NON-CORROSIVE: CARBON STEEL CORROSIVE : SS, HASTELLOY B, HASTELLOY C INSULATION COATING: TEFLON ( OR ) KYNAR. STANDARD: API RP 550 PART I SECTION 2.
INSTALLATION: 1. FOR POINT SENSING, CAPACITANCE PROBES SHOULD BE HORIZONTALLY INSTALLED. 2. 3. CONTINUOUS LEVEL DETECTORS ARE INSTALLED VERTICALLY. IF FREQUENT MAINTENANCE OF PROBES IS REQUIRED THEN EXTERNAL CHAMBER TYPE INSTALLATIONS ARE PREFERED. FOR NONCONDUCTIVE FLUIDS UNINSULATED PROBES CAN BE USED. THE PROBE MUST BE VERTICAL AND MUST NOT CONTACT VESSEL WALL OR INTERNALS. IF THE SPAN IS VERY HIGH THEN PROBE IS TO BE SUPPORTED AND INSULATION OF THE PROBE IS TO BE ENSURED. NON-CONTACT TYPE CAN BE USED IF THE PROCESS FLUID IS VERY HOT OR IT MAY COAT THE PROBE. THE FILLING STREAM SHOULD NOT BE DIRECTED ON THE PROBE. IF MORE THAN ONE PROBE IS MOUNTED IN A TANK / VESSEL THEN A MINIMUM DISTANCE OF 0.5 METERS MUST BE ALLOWE TO AVOID MUTUAL INTERFERENCE.
4. 5.
6.
7.
8. 9.
ADVANTAGES: 1. 2. NON-CONTACT MEASUREMENT IS POSSIBLE APPLICABLE FOR ALL TYPES OF SOLIDS EXCEPT SUSPENDED SOLIDS.
3.
INEXPENSIVE.
LIMITATIONS: 1. 2. INTERFERENCE BETWEEN CONDUCTIVE LAYERS AND DETECTION OF FOAM IS A PROBLEM. COATING OF PROCESS MATERIAL.
52. VIBRATION FORK TYPE LEVEL MEASUREMENT:
PRINCIPLE:
THE VIBRATION TYPE ELEMENTS OPERATE BY KEEPING A VIBRATING PROBE WHICH IS VIBRATING AT ITS NATURAL FREQUENCY OR IN OSCILLATION AND TRIGGERING A RELAY WHEN THE PROCESS MATERIAL IN THE TANK REACHES THE VIBRATING ELEMENT AND DAMPENS OUT THE VIBRATION.
TYPES: 1. 2. 3. REED PROBE FORK
THE OPERATING PRINCIPLE OF THE ABOVE THREE TYPES ARE THE SAME AND THEY DIFFER ONLY IN THEIR FREQUENCY OF VIBRATION. APPLICATIONS: LIQUID, SLURRY AND SOLID LEVEL SWITCHES. TUNING FORK TYPE: THE FORK IS OSCILLATED AT ITS RESONANT FREQUENCY BY A PIEZOELECTRIC CRYSTAL LOCATED NEAR THE HEAD OF THE FORK. ANOTHER CRYSTAL DETECTS THE VIBRATION / DAMPENING OF THE FORK. IN ITS NORMAL OPERATING CONDITION IT GENERATES AN OUTPUT VOLTAGE DEPENDING UPON THE STATE OF VIBRATION. WHEN THE PROCESS MATERIAL TOUCHES THE VIBRATING FORK ITS FREQUENCY OF OSCILLATION CHANGES AND THIS CHANGES IS DETECTED AND AN CORRESPONDING CONTACT CLOSURES IS PROVIDED. MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION: ALUMINIUM, SS, STEEL, HASTELLOY C INSTALLATION: 1. 2. 3. 4. SIDE MOUNTING IS DONE TO MONITOR THE MINIMUM LEVEL. MOUNTING IN A PIPE AS DRY RUN PROTECTION FOR THE PUMP. TOP MOUNTING TO MONITOR THE MAXIMUM LEVEL. IF BUILD-UP OCCURS THEN SUFFICIENT DISTANCE TO THE TANK OR PIPE WALL MUST BE MAINTAINED. THE END OF THE VIBRATING FORK SHOULD NOT TOUCH THE TANK OR PIPE WALL NOR THE SEDIMENT.
5.
6. 7.
THE FORK SHOULD NOT COME IN CONTACT WITH THE ANY OF THE INTERNAL FITTINGS. INFLOWING LIQUID SHOULD NOT FLOW DIRECTLY ONTO THE FORK.
ADVANTAGES: 1. 2. WIDE RANGE MATERIAL BUILD UP HAS ONLY LIMITED EFFECT.
LIMITATIONS: 1. SWITCH SETTING CANNOT BE CHANGED WITHOUT CHANGING THE LENGTH OT THE MOUNTING OF THE SWITCH.
53. BUBBLER TYPE LEVEL MEASUREMENT:
Bubbler Air or fluid at pressure is blown through a dip tube into the tank whose level is to be measured.When the pressure of the fluid entering the dip tube is greater than the hydrostatic head of the process fluid in the tank the air will bubble out at the bottom of the dip tube.This Pressure in dip tube is measured by pressure gauges.as the liquid level changes the air pressure in the dip pipe also changes .The air pressure in the dip tube changes as liquid level changes and thus is a measurement of level. Applications Usually local indicator on open tanks containing corrosive ,slurry, or viscous process fluids. Used in pressure tanks upto the pressure of the air supply. Constructional features Dip pipe larger in diameter ( 2inch to 50 mm) to minimise the pressure drop as air flows through it. Two separate connections should be made to this pipe one for the regulated air supply and the other for the level indicating pressure gauge . Pipe tip about 3inch ( 75 mm ) above the bottom of the tank to keep it from clogging by sediment. Dip pipe must match the corrosive nature of the process. The purge supply pressure should be atleast 10 psi higher than the highest hydrostatic pressure to be gauged. Puge flow rate is kept small of the order of 500cc/min to prevent significant pressure drop Usually the purge media is air or inert gas although liquids can also be used.. Accessories If process material can plug the dip tube either due to loss of purge gas or because due to the nature of the fluid aerator selector switch is installed. Advantages Simple,ease of location of readout device to any convenient location, Limitations High installation cost due to increased labor costs. Problems due to loss of air supply,the failure of pressure regulator, plugging of dip pipe,air filter,rotameter. When purged with liquids they accumulate with process. If hundred of water purge points this can result in dilution. For tanks that operate under pressure or vaccum ,the installation of a bubbler indicator become slightly more complex because the liquid because the liquid level measurement is a function of the difference between the two bubbler pressures.
Installation If any small dia mettallic tubing or plastic tubing of any diameter is used , If tank is agitated , tubes requires continuous supports. If top entry dip pipe interferes with agitation/equipment/purge media is water the pipe can be installed in the side of the vessel,below the min level in the tank. The transmission line to slope towards the tank so that if the purge is lost and process vapors enter the transmission tube ,the condensate will drain back into the vessel. If the read out device is below the tank level condensate trap can be installed. Operating pressure usually atmospheric. Op temp only to pipe material.
Moc any pipe matl. Inaccuracy depends on readability of pressure indicator usually +-0.5% to 2% of full scale Range unlimited.
54. NUCLEONIC TYPE LEVEL MEASUREMENT:
PRINCIPLE: THE NUCLEAR LEVEL SENSORS MEASURES LEVEL BY THE RADIATION ATTENUATION CAUSED BY THE LIQUID LEVEL. THIS CHANGE IN THE INTENSITY OF RADIATION IS DETECTED BY A DETECTOR AND IT PRODUCES A CORRESPONDING OUTPUT PROPORTIONAL TO THE LEVEL. APPLICATION:
NON-CONTACT MEASUREMENT OF LIQUIDS AND SOLIDS. ALSO USED FOR INFLAMMABLE, POISONOUS OR AGGRESSIVE BULK MATERIALS AND LIQUIDS.
ACCURACY: SWITCHES 6mm CONTINUOUS 1 % of span RADIATION SORUCES: 1. 2. 3. 4. COBALT 60 CESIUM 137 AMERICUM 241 RADIUM 226
DETECTORS: 1. G-M TUBE 2. IONIZATION CHAMBER 3. SCINTILLATION DETECTOR. SAFETY CONSIDERATIONS: THE FOLLOWING SAFETY CONSIDERATIONS SHOULD BE TAKEN CARE WHILE HANDLING NUCLEAR SOURCES. 1. THE NUCLEAR SOURCE SHOULD BE STORED ONLY IN DOUBLE-WALLED SS CAPSULE.
2. THE CAPSULE IS CONTAINED IN A SOURCE HOLDER THAT IS DESIGNED TO ALLOW THE RADIATION TRAVEL IN ONE DIRECTION AND IS BLOCKED BY A LEAD SHIELS IN ALL OTHER DIRECTIONS. 3. SOURCE STRENGTHS OF LESS THAN 100 mCi ARE CONSIDERED SATISFACTORY. 4. THE YEARLY DOSAGE SHOULD BE BELOW 5 rems DESIRABLY, AND IN NO CASE SHOULD EXCEED 12 rems. STANDARD: API RP 550 PART I SECTION 2 INSTALLATION: 1. THE INSTALLATION CAN BE ARRANGED SO THAT THE ELEVATION OF BOTH THE DETECTOR AND SOURCE CAN BE CHANGED EASILY. 2. WHEN IMPACTS OR VIBRATION ARE EXPECTED, THE MEASURING SYSTEM SHOULD NOT BE ATTACHED TO THE VESSEL. 3. IF THE AMBIENT TEMPERATURE EXCEEDS + 60 C A DETECTOR WITH A WATER JACKET MUST BE USED. 4. DETECTOR CAN BE DIRECTLY CLAMPED TO THE VESSEL OR TO A SEPARATE MOUNTING. 5. THE SOURCE CONTAINER MUST BE MOUNTED A LITTLE HIGHER THAN THE MAXIMUM LEVEL TO BE MEASURED. 6. FOR LARGE MEASURING RANGE, TWO OR MORE SOURCE CONTAINERS REQUIRED. 7. WHILE INSTALLING THE SOURCE, CARE SHOULD BE TAKEN IN THE RADIATION DIRECTION AND PROPER SHIELDS SHOULD BE ARRANGED.
APPROVALS: FROM BHABHA ATOMIC RESEARCH CENTRE (BARC) POWER SUPPLY:
24V DC, 30V DC
POWER CONSUMPTION: 3W 15 W DEPENDING ON THE MODEL & APPLICATION. ADVANTAGES: 1. 2. 3. 4. NON-CONTACT & NON-INVASIVE METHOD HIGH SENSITIVITY HIGH ACCURACY HANDLE VARIOUS RANGE OF PROCESS MATERIALS.
LIMITATIONS: 1. SAFETY CONSIDERATIONS. 2. APPROVALS. 3. HIGH COST.
55. FLOAT AND TAPE LEVEL MEASUREMENT:
56. DISPLACER TYPE LEVEL MEASUREMENT:
Archimedes principle A body wholly or partially immersed in the fluid is buoyed up by a force equal to the weight of fluid displaced A displacer heavier than process fluid is suspended from spring.When liquid level is below displacer the scale shows the full weight of the displacer.as the level rises the apparent weight of the displacer decreases,thereby providing a linear and proportional relationship between spring tension and level. Types can detect liquid-liquid interface,liquid-vapour interface ,if level is constant density changes. 1 Magnetically coupled switch 2 torque tube 3 diaphragm 4 force bar 5 spring balance 6 flexible disc and flexible shaft design Different in seal design. Advantages Max differential 50 ft (15m) Level settings and spans are easily adjusted by moving the displacer to a new elevation on the cable Difference between float switch and displacer switch Float switch Displacer switch Float moves with the surface Displacer is partially or totally immersed Switching and installation considerations same Construction
Disp l=level variation/buoyant force proportional to level which is transferred outside through a torque tube/force bar.displacer is heavier than liquid.when liquid contacts the displacer a buoyancy force is produced,which causes effective wt of displacer to change.this causes the spring to retract slightly to a new equilibrium position. Torque tube transducers Uses torsion spring to support the displacer.by using a hollow torsion tube it is possible to support Sizing-wt change of the displacer per level increment Proportional band controller-refers to response sensitivity of the controller and it determines the percentage change in output signal in response to a 1% change in level. A 100% apparent proportional band setting means that the level in the tank has to cover the displacer completely to generate a full o/p signal and the level has to drop to the bottom of the displacer inorder to generate the min o/p. Liquid-liquid interface measurement buoyant force is generated only by the density difference between the 2 fluids. Sealed chamber,flanged chamber,top mount (single/dual/three) Chamber & process connection material cs a106b,316/316lss,304/304lss Low temp carbonsteel a333,chrome moly steel,a335 p-11,hastealloy c,alloy 20,monel 400,chrome moly steel,a335 p-5
57. LEVEL GAUGES:
Three types Reflex Transparent Bicolour Principle Reflex The liquid level is distinguished by the brightness of the reflex glass in water. When the liquid is in contact with the glass the incidental light is refracted inside the gauge and absorbed . In the steam space the incidental light is reflected against the glass grooves and the glass appears very bright.
58. LEVEL SWITCHES:
PRINCIPLE:
LEVEL SWITCHES ARE USED FOR POINT DETECTION OF LEVEL. THEY OPERATE A RELAY OR GIVE A SUITABLE OUTPUT WHEN THE LEVEL CROSSES OR FALLS BELOW A PRESET VALUE.
TYPES: (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) FLOAT / DISPLACER OPERATED LEVEL SWITCHES CONDUCTIVITY LEVEL SWITCHES FIELD EFFECT LEVEL SWITCHES ULTRASONIC LEVEL SWITCHES MICROWAVE LEVEL SWITCHES TUNING FORK TYPE SWITCHES CAPACITANCE SWITCHES
FLOAT OPERATED SWITCHES:
THE FLOAT LEVEL SWITCHES HAVE A FLOAT, WHICH FOLLOWS THE LIQUID LEVEL. THE MOTION OF THE FLOAT IS TRANSMITTED VIA A ROD OR BY MAGNETIC COUPLING MEANS AND THE SWITCHING ACTION IS OBTAINED. THERE ARE VARIOUS CONFIGURATIONS OF FLOAT SWITCHES, THEY ARE
(1) PNEUMATIC FLOAT SWITCH (2) MAGNETICALLY COUPLED (3) FLOAT & GUIDE TUBE FLOAT MATERIALS: BRASS, SS, MONEL, HASTELLOY, POLYSULFONE, POLYPROPYLENE INACCURACY: 1 in ( 25 mm ) ADVANTAGES: 1. 2. LOW COST SIMPLE CONSTRUCTION
LIMITATIONS: 1. NOT APPLICABLE FOR SOLIDS.
CONDUCTIVITY LEVEL SWITCHES:
THE CONDUCTIVITY SWITCHES ARE USED FOR CONDUCTIVE FLUIDS OR SLURRIES WITH DIELECTRIC CONSTANTS OF 20 OR ABOVE.
THE PROCES FLUID ITSELF IS USED TO CLOSE AND ELECTRIC CIRCUIT WHEN THE LIQUID LEVEL RISES TO CONTACT THE LEVEL PROBE. A CONDUCTIVE PATH IS ESTABLISHED WHEN THE LIQUID CONTACTS THE PROBE AND ACTIVATES A RELAY. MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION: PROBES: 316SS, HASTELLOY, TITANIUM, TANTALUM, and MONEL. HOUSING: CORROSION RESISTANT PLASTIC (OR) ALUMINIUM. ACCURACY: 3mm ADVANTAGES: (1) LOW COST (2) SIMPLE DESIGN (3) NO MOVING PARTS LIMITATIONS: (1) CHANCES OF SPARKING (2) LIMITED TO CONDUCTIVE & NON-COATING PROCESSES. FIELD EFFECT SWITCHES: THESE TYPES OF SWITCHES CREATES A FIELD BETWEEN A METALLIC CAP AND METAL IN THE TANK OR IN THE PROBE GLAND AND HOUSING. WHEN THE PRODUCT
BREAKS THE FIELD LINES, HIGH-FREQUENCY CURRENT INCREASES AND THE RELAY IS OPERATED. ULTRASONIC LEVEL SWITCHES: 1. DAMPENED VIBRATION TYPE:
THE VIBRATION DAMPENING PRINCIPLE IS EMPLOYED IN THIS TYPE. AS LONG AS THE SENSOR IS IN THE VAPOR SPACE OF THE TANK, IT VIBRATES AT ITS RESONANT FREQUENCY BUT IT IS DAMPENED OUT WHEN THE PROCESS MATERIAL CONTACTS IT. 2. ABSORPTION TYPE:
IN THIS TYPE TRANSMITTER AND RECEIVER ARE MOUNTED IN THE SAME CRYSTAL WHERE THE TRANSMITTER CONTINUOUSLY EMITS PULSES AND THE RECEIVER RECEIVES IT. WHEN THE LIQUID LEVEL ENTERS BETWEEN THE TRANSMITTER AND CRYSTAL THE PULSES GETS ATTENUATED AND THE RECEIVER GIVES THE CORRESPONDING OUTPUT. ADVANTAGES: 1. 2. NON-INVASIVE OPTION AVAILABLE. CAN BE USED FOR LIQUIDS AND SOLIDS.
LIMITATION: 1. HIGH COST MICROWAVE LEVEL SWITCHES: APPLICATION: THEY ARE SUITABLE FOR HARD-TO-HANDLE SOLIDS, SOLIDS, INTEFACES. PRINCIPLE: THEY DETECT THE POINT LEVEL BY THE MICROWAVE REFLECTION & ABSORPTION PRINCIPLE. A TRANSMITTER & RECEIVER IS MOUNTED DIAMETRICALLY OPPOSITE TO EACH OTHER ON THE VESSEL. AS LONG AS THE PRODUCT LEVEL IS BELOW THE LINE OF THE MICROWAVE BEAM, THE RECEIVER RECEIVES THE WAVE AND WHEN THE PRODUCT LEVEL RISES AND INTERRUPTS THE BEAM THE RECEIVER DETECTS IT AND PRODUCES A SWITCHING ACTION. INSTALLATION: (1) THE INSTALLATION POINT SHOULD BE VIBRATION FREE (2) EMITTER & RECEIVER SHOULD BE IN ONE PLANE WITH PARALLEL SURFACES FACING EACH OTHER (3) DUE TO SPACE CONSIDERATIONS IF THE TRANSMITTER & RECEIVER CANNOT BE MOUNTED OPPOSITE EACH OTHER, THEN SMOOTH METAL REFLECTING MIRRORS CAN BE USED. ADVANTAGES: (1) NON-INVASIVE (2) FOR HARD-TO-HANDLE APPLICATIONS. LIMITATIONS: (1) COST GENERAL INSTALLATION:
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5)
THE FILLING STREAM SHOULD NOT BE DIRECTED ON THE SWITCH. INSTALLAION PLACE SHOULD BE FREE OF VIBRATION. SIDE MOUNTING CAN BE USED FOR MAXIMUM & MINIMUM LEVEL DETECTION. THE ELEMENT SHOULD NOT COME IN TO CONTACT WITH ANY INTERNAL FITTINGS. MATERIAL BUILD-UP & COATING SHOULD BE TAKEN INTO CONSIDERATION WHILE INSTALLING THE LEVEL SWITCH.
59. PRESSURE GAUGES:
PRESSURE GAUGES ARE USED FOR LOCAL INDICATION OF PRESSURE. THEY INDICATE PRESSURE WITH A NOMINAL ACCURACY AND FAIRLY GOOD REPEATABILITY.
SENSORS: 1. BOUDON GAUGES FOR MEDIUM TO HIGH PRESSURES. C-TYPE SPIRAL HELICAL BELLOWS FOR INTERMEDIATE TO LOW PRESSURES DIAPHAGM- LOW PRESSURE.
2. 3.
INACCURACY: 0.25 % OF FULL SCALE TEST GAUGES 0.5 %OF FULL SCALE - INDUSTRIAL GAUGES 1 % OF FULL SCALE - UTILITY GAUGES STANDARDS: API RP 550 PART I SECTION IV ASME B 40.1 MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION: 1. BOURDON TUBES: PHOSPHOR BRONZE SS316 MONEL BERRYLLIUM COPPER 2. DIAPHRAGM: BUNA-N,KEL-F,TEFLON SS316 HASTELLOY B OR C INCONEL 600 MONEL K500 TITANIUM TANTALUM 3. CASE: DIE-CAST ALUMINIUM SS PHENOL
4.
DIALS & POINTERS: STEEL, BRASS ALUMINIUM SOLID PLASTIC
INSTALLATION & MOUNTING: 1. MOUNTING STYLES: FLUSH MOUNTING DIRECT (OR) STEM MOUNTING PANEL MOUNTING THE PROCESS CONNECTION OF SIZE OR MAY BE LOCATED IN BACK OR BOTTOM.
2.
3.
GAUGE SAVER: IT IS TO BE PROVIDED WHEN THE MAXIMUM PRESSURE EXPECTED IS TO HAVE SURGES MORE THAN THAT OF DESIGN PRESSURE AND NOWMAL OPERATING OPERATING PRESSURE IS LOW. 4. CHEMICAL SEALS:
SEALS ARE PROVIDED TO KEEP THE POISONOUS, NOXIUS OR CORROSIVE PROCESS MATERIALS FROM ENTERING THE GAUGE. IT IS ALSO REQUIRED FOR FLUIDS CONTAINING SUSPENDED SOLIDS.
FILL FLUID: 70%GLYCERIN, 30% WATER, SILICONE OIL. 5. SNUBBER:
SNUBBERS OTHERWISE CALLED PULSATION DAMPENERS ARE USED TO DAMPEN OUT THE PULSATING PRESSURE. 6. SYPHON:
THEY ARE PROVIDED FOR HIGH TEMPERATURE SERVICES AND STEAM SERVICES WHERE THE CONDENSATION OF THE PROCESS FLUID IS EXPECTED. 7. BLOW-OUT DISK MAY BE PROVIDED TO RELEASE THE INTERNAL PRESSURE FOR SAFETY. 8. LIQUID FILLING INSIDE THE CASE CAN BE DONE FOR SEVERE VIBRATION AND TO AVOID CONDENSATION.
FILL FLUID: GLYCERINE 9. FOR PULSATING SERVICES AS WELL AS FOR INACCESSIBLE PLACES CAPILLARY EXTENSION CAN BE PROVIDED. 10. RECOMMENDED GRADUATED SCALE IS 270. LESSER OR GREATER THAN THIS MAY BE USED FOR SPECIAL APPLICATIONS. LIMITATIONS: 1. ONLY FOR LOCAL INDICATION.
60. DRAFT GAUGES:
61. ABSOLUTE AND GAUGE PRESSURE TRANSMITTERS:
62. PRESSURE SWITCHES:
pressure switches energize or deenergize circuits as a function of relationship between pressure and a predetemined setpoint.
Principle The pressure applied to the transducer is converted into a motion /or a force to actuate an electrical switch at a predetermined point . switch senses a rising or
falling process pressure and actuates at the setpoint . As the process pressure changes it deactuates at a pressure. Difference between the setpoint ant the reactuation point is called the differential band or dead band Adjustable deadband or fixed deadband Adjustable deadband the set and reset point can be adjusted. The maximum difference between set and reset point is the full range of the switch. Minimum difference based on the manufacturer. Fixed deadband the setpoint is adjustable. The reset point cannot be adjusted Tolerance is the repeatable accuracy of the re actuation point Pressure actuation point should in the middle third of the operating range.
Accuracy + 0.5% They consist of a Sensing element Electrical switching assembly pressure sensing element is usually an elastic element suitably designed to detect absolute/compound/gauge/differential pressure . Based on pressure sensed they close or open a contact electrical switching assembly types snap acting / mechanical microswitches / mercury switches as the process pressure changes, the electrical switching assembly opens the normally closed contact and the and the common side of the switch is closed to the normally open contact .
63. TEMPERATURE GAUGES:
TEMPERATURE GAUGES MAY BE OF BIMETALLIC TYPE OR FILLED SYSTEM ELEMENTS. THEY ARE USED FOR LOCAL INDICATION OF TEMPERATURE.
BIMETALLIC THERMOMETERS: PRINCIPLE: WHEN TWO METALS HAVING DIFFERENT TEMPERATURE CO-EFFICIENT ARE JOINED TOGETHER, AS THE TEMPERATURE VARIES THE METALS CHANGE THEIR VOLUME AND THIS CHANGE IS PROPORTIONAL TO TEMPERATURE. ACCURACY:
( 1 2 ) % OF SPAN ELEMENT: LOW EXPANDING INVAR ( 64 % Fe, 36 % Ni ) AND HIGH-EXPANDING Ni-Fe ALLOY WITH Cr, Mn ADDED. THE BIMETAL ELEMENT IS SURROUNDED BY A PROTECTING TUBE OR WELL. CONNECTION: BACK OR BOTTOM DEPENDING ON OPERATOR VISIBILITY OF THE DIAL FACE. DIAL SIZE: 150 MM DEFAULT LESS THAN 150 MM ALSO AVAILABLE. ADVANTAGES: 1. 2. 3. 4. LESS SUBJECT TO BREAKAGE EASIER TO READ LOW COST SIMPLICITY
LIMITATIONS: 1. 2. 3. OVERALL ACCURACY NOT AS GOOD AS GLASS STEM TEMPERATURE RANGE LIMITED CONFINED TO LOCAL MEASUREMENT.
FILLED SYSTEM ELEMENTS: FILLED SYSTEM ELEMENTS ARE CLASSIFIED INTO THREE TYPES 1. 2. 3. LIQUID FILLED VAPOR SYSTEMS GAS FILLED
AS THE TEMPERATURE VARIES THE FILLED MEDIUM (LIQUID, GAS, VAPOR) EXERTS A PRESSURE ON THE PRESSURE SENSING ELEMENT AND ITS DEFLECTION IS PROPORTIONAL TO THE TEMPERATURE. SAMA( SCIENTIFIC APPPARATUS MAKERS ASSOCIATION) CLASSIFICATION: CLASS I: THEY ARE COMPLETELY FILLED WITH A LIQUID ( OTHER THAN MERCURY) AND OPERATE ON THE PRINCIPLE OF LIQUID EXPANSION WITH INCREASE OF TEMPERATURE. CLASS II:
THESE TYPE OF ELEMENTS ARE FILLED WITH VAPOR AND THEY ARE FURTHER SUBDIVIDED BASED ON THE VAPOR PRESENCE IN THE HOT END, COLD END .
CLASS III:
THEY ARE FILLED WITH A GAS AND THE PRESSURE IS PROPORTIONAL TO THE TEMPERATURE WITH THE VOLUME REMAINING CONSTANT. NITROGEN IS USED AS THE FILLING GAS BECAUSE IT IS INERT AND INEXPENSIVE.
CLASS V: CLASS V SYSTEMS ARE SIMILAR TO CLASS I EXCEPT THEY ARE FILLED WITH MERCURY. MERCURY PROVIDES RAPID RESPONSE AND ACCURACY. COMPENSATION: FULL COMPENSATION:
IF THE AMBIENT TEMPERATURE EFFECTS ARE COMPENSATED FOR BOTH IN THE CAPILLARY AND IN THE READOUT INSTRUMENT IT IS CALLED FULLY COMPENSATED.
CASE COMPENSATION:
IF THE CASE AND CAPILLARY IS AT THE SAME AMBIENT TEMPERATURE AND LENGTH OF THE CAPILLARY IS SHORT, CAPILLARY IS UNCOMPENSATED AND CASE IS ONLY COMPENSATED.
ADVANTAGES: 1. 2. 3. RUGGED & SIMPLE INEXPENSIVE ACCEPTABLE SENSITIVITY & ACCURACY.
LIMITATIONS: 1. 2. SLOW SPEED OF RESPONSE BULKY BULBS.
63. RESISTANCE TEMPERATURE DETECTORS:
64. THERMOCOUPLES:
65. SKIN TEMPERATURE ELEMENTS:
66. TEMPERATURE SWITCHES:
67. DENSITY MEASUREMENT:
conventional displacer chain balanced float electromagnetically suspended float angular position of displacer float density is the weight of a fixed volume. density is the mass of a fixed volume. Relative density is the ratio of the density of a gas to that of the air at the same temperature , pressure and dryness Relative density equals the ratio of molecular weights of the gas and the air The density of an ideal gas can be calculated from its specific gravity (molecular weight )temperature and pressure because equal numbers of moles of gas occupy equal volumes. Gas densitometers Operate at atmospheric conditions and measure specific gravity relative to air Displacement type densitometers Archimedes principle states that the buoyant float on a float is a function only of the fluid density surrounding the float.
68. PARAMAGNETIC OXYGEN ANALYSER:
69. ELECTROCHEMICAL CELL OXYGEN ANALYSER:
electrochemical sensors in hydrochromatograph, the chromatographic column separates the water from the sample and an electrolytic cell generates the electrolysis current,which is proportional to quantity of water.this technique makes it possible to detect the moisture content of unsaturated hydrocarbons that could polymerize and plug the electrolytic cell. in galvanic and polarographic cells th electrolytic gel is separated from the process stream only by a membrane and eliminates need for a sample system. the electrochemical reaction in the electrolyte is either spontaneous or is caused by the polarizing voltage, and the resulting current flow is an indication of composition. the analytical sensors that detect the electrical potential generated in response to the presence of dissolved ionized solids included ph,conductivity,and ionselective probes.
principle of their operation is basd on nerst equation
70. IR GAS ANALYSER:
PRINCIPLE OF INFRARED ANALYSIS
INFRARED ABSORPTION OR REFLECTION IS A TECHNIQUE FOR CONTINUOUS ANALYSIS OF A PROCESS. THE IR REGION OF THE ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM COVERS WAVELENGTH FROM .8 TO 1000 MICROMETER (12,500 TO 10 . THE REGION OF THE IR MOSTLY USED BY THE PROCESS ANALYSERS IS BROKEN INTO TWO PARTS THE NEAR IR ( 12,500 TO 4000 CM 1) AND THE MID IR (4000 TO 650 CM-1) IR RADIATION INTERACTS WITH ALL MOLECULES ( EXCEPT THE HOMONUCLEAR DIATOMIC OXYGEN (O2) , NITROGEN (N2), HYDROGEN (H2), CHLORINE(CL2), ) BY EXCITING MOLECULAR VIBRATIONS AND ROTATIONS.THE OSCILLATING ELECTRIC FIELD OF THE IR WAVES INTERACTS WITH THE ELECTRIC DIPOLE OF THE MOLECULE , AND WHEN THE IR FREQUENCY MATCHES THE NATURAL FREQUENCY OF THE MOLECULE , SOME OF THE IR POWER IS ABSORBED . THE PATTERN OF WAVELENGTHS , OR FREQUENCIES ABSORBED IDENTIFIES THE MOLECULE S IN THE SAMPLE. THE STRENGTH OF ABSORPTION AT PARTICULATR FREQUENCIES IS A MEASURE OF THEIR CONCENTRATION. LAB IR CONCERNED WITH QUALITATIVE ANALYSIS. PROCESS IR IS CONCERNED WITH QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS. BEER Lamberts LAW IT RELATES THE AMOUNT OF LIGHT ABSORBED TO SAMPLES CONCENTRATION AND PATH LENGTH. A=abc=LOG 10 Io/I A=ABSORBANCE I= IR POWER REACHING DETECTOR WITH SAMPLE IN BEAM PATH. Io=IR POWER REACHING DETECTOR WITH NO SAMPLE IN BEAM PATH . a = ABSORPTION COEFFICIENT OF PURE COMPONENT OF INTEREST AT ANALYTICAL WAVELENGTH;THE UNITS DEPEND ON THOSE CHOSEN FOR b & c b = SAMPLE PATH LENGTH. C= CONCENTRATION OF SAMPLE COMPONENT. THE LAW STATES THAT CONCENTRATION IS DIRECTLY PROPORTIONAL TO ABSORBANCE AT A GIVEN WAVELENGTH AND PATHLENGTH AND A SPECIFIED TEMPERATURE AND PRESSURE. DESIGNS SINGLE BEAM CONFIGURATION DUAL BEAM CONFIGURATION SINGLE BEAM ANALYSER THEY ARE PROVIDED WITH TWO OPTICAL FILTERS ONE FOR THE SAMPLE AND THE OTHER AS A REFERENCE.THE REFERENCE FILTER IS SELECTED IN A REGION (USUALLY AROUND 3.9 MICRONS) WHERE THE COMPONENTS OF INTEREST ARE NOT ABSORBING,WHILE THE MMEASURING FILLLTER IS CHOSEN TO BE ABSORBING IN THE SPECTRAL REGION OF INTEREST. AS THE CHOPPER ALTERNATIVELY SPINS ON EFILTER OR THE OTHER INTO THE OPTICAL PATH ,THE DIFFERENCE OR RATIO IN THE ENERGIES RECEIVED AT THE DETECTOR WILL BE A FUNCTION OF THE CONCENNTRATION OF THE COMPONENT OF INTEREST. LESS EXPENSIVE POWER VARIATIONS CAUSE CHANGES IN SOURCE INTENSITY. TEMPERATURE CHANGES (CHANGING THE SENSITIVITY OF DETECTORS OR SHIFTING THE SPECTRAL REGIONS OF FILTERS.) CANC AUSE ZERO AND SPAN DRIFT AND NECCESSIATE FREQUENT REZEROING.
UAL BEAM ANALYSER IN THE DUAL BEAM CONFIGURATION THE IR RADIATION IS ALLOWED BY THE CHOPPPER TO PPASS ALTERNATELY THROUGH THE SAMPLE AND THE REFERENNCE TUBE . THE REFERENCE TUBE PROVIDES A TRUE ZERO REFERENCE , AS IT IS FILLED WITH NONABSORBING GASES. A NARROW BANDPASS OPTICAL IS PLACED IN FRONT OF THE DETECTOR TO LIMIT THE IR ENERGY IT RECEIVES TO THE WAVELENGTH WHICH IS A CHARACTERISTIC
71. UV GAS ANALYSER:
72. GAS CHROMATOGRAPH:
Chromatography
The physical method of seperation that is based on the differences in solubility (or adsorption) of substances between a mobile and stationary phase Types Gas liquid chromatography Elution method using a gaseous mobile phase and a liquid stationary phase Gas solid chromatography Elution method using a gaseous mobile phase and a solid stationary phase GC The sample is vaporized as a narrow plug,injected into a carrier gas (the mobile phase ) and forced to flow through a small diameter tube containing the stationary liquid phase. The liquid phase may take the form of a thin film suspended on the walls of the tubing or it may be distributed over a solid support that is then packed into the tubing .separation takes places primarily because of the differences in the solubility of the sample components in the stationary phase.thus the column retains some of the components longer than others,and consequently they pass through the column at varying speeds .the stationary phase has been selected so as to maximise these solubility differences complete seperation occurs with the least soluble component coming through first and then followed by the next soluble one .the degree of seperation is a function of the above mentioned solubiltiy differences and also the efficiency of the column that is its ability to produce very narrow peaks.
Basic elements of a process gas chromatograph Analyzer Columns Sample valves injection of the sample Sample injection valve the primary function of this valve is to inject a sharply defined fixed volume of the sample into the carrier gas stream so that it can be carried into the column for separation. Column switching valves column switching Detectors All enclosed in a thermostatted oven. Air bath type Explosion proof bell enclosure
Valves
Rotary-sliding plate-diaphragm mechanical valves Sample valve designed to deliver a sample off constant volume. Avoid liquid sample injection by vaporising the sample before presentation to the sample valve.
Columns Packed columns 1//8 inch od ( 2mm id)) ss tubing Capillary columns Limitatons Analysis cycle time chromatographic & sample handling point Thermal conductivity detector Flame ionizatioon detector Thermal conductivity detector Flame ionisation detector Flame photometric detectors Carrier gas flow control Controller
Installation
Additional support services such as compressed gases,refrigated or heated runs of sample lines,an analyzer sheltermust be provided Pgc is usually mounted in an environmentally controlled walk in analyser shelter
General Tag no Instrument type P&id number Service description Location Line no Service data min/normal/max Temp @ sample point Pressure @ sample point Pressure @ sample return fluid state at sample pt dew pt @ sample point p true vapour pr @ sample point t molecular wt @ sample point density at t and p viscosity solids in sample corrosive polymerisation sample system data sample pre conditioning enclosure type area classification sample conditioning location enclosure type area classification mounting style sample take off probe sample connection size/rating return connection location return connection size/rating sample line length (to)
return line length(from0 max allowed sample time tracing (insulated) transmit data power supply area classification enclosure type location mounting style transmitter signal calibration (automatic) local display composition of stream to be analyzed component unit min max normal max measuring range
73. MOISTURE ANALYSER:
radiant energy sensors operates on either absorption or reflection principles .if radiations at different wavelengths is passed through a process material the amount of absorption is an indicator of sample identity or composition . the output of these analyzers is frequently nonlinear because beers law of radiation absorption is logarithmic a = abc=in io/i A=ABSORBANCE a= molar absorption b= sample path length c= sample concentration Io,I =radiation density entering and leaving sample Microwave analyzer appears both in absorption and reflection modes.
Application measurement of moisture in solids without requiring physical contact with the sample
neutron or gamma radiation the absorption or backscatter of neutron can be correlated to compostion in binary systems. neutrons measure moisture of solids in processes in which hydrogen is present only in the free water and is not bonded to the othre molecules. gamma rays can penetrate metallic walls thus giving compositon data without contacting the process media.
74. TURBIDITY ANALYSER:
Turbidity sensors Work with visible light , either in the absorption mode or the reflectance mode (nephelometry), light scattering mode . absorption mode detects the sum of all light absorbing effects including color variations reflectance mode nephelometry measures only the conc of suspended solids ultraviolet analyzers more sensitive than ir
75. PH ANALYSER:
Flow through, immersion,insertion type
Reference electrodes silver/silver chloride type with kcl as internal electrolyte Soild state electrolyte 9paste or gel ) are preferred for standard applications to avoid refilling or pressuring of internal electrolyte. Two in one or three in one electrodes is accepted where the effect of streaming potential has to be reduced to a minimum or where compact systems are required. Automatic electrode cleaning system (us,mechanical,chemical washing)
76. CONDUCTIVITY ANALYSER:
Conductivity analyzers These analyzers measure the ionic concentration of electrolyte samples. they are designed to measure the electrical resistance (or its reciprocal the conductance ) in a volume element of the electrolyte. care must be taken to minimize the solution electrode interfacial effects. The units of conductance, the reciprocal of ohm, is siemens It measures the mobility or velocity of ions under an imposed electric field. Its magnitude also depends on the number and hence the concentration of ions present. different ions have dissimilar mobilities measured cell response is usually useful only if the desired analyte is the sole or the major contributor. Mobilities are effected by temperature and the total concentration of all ions in the solution. Mobility of ions and hence conductance increases with temperature and also with dilution. Applied electric field e/d Current density i/A is the sum of the individual charge carriers in the field and therefore the conductivity L is given by L = (a/d) sigma z c t Cell constant Convenient to measure the ratio d/a geometrically for each cell but since it is constant for any given cell it may assigned a value theta in 1/cm termed the cell constant. The cell constant is readily determined using the expression theta = k/l where k is the specific conductivityand l the conductance is measured using the Selection The measuring cell constant and the frequency applied by the transmitter shall selected on the basis of the specific application to minimize the polarization error. Electrodless (inductive systems0 could also be used for applications above 1 ms/cm 77. SILICA ANALYSER:
IT IS AN ONLINE INSTRUMENT USING THE SILICOMOLYBDATE /HETEROPOLY BLUE METHOD OF ANALYSIS FOR COLORIMETRIC MEASUREMENT OF SILICA AT A WAVELENGTH OF 810 NM. HACH MEASUREMENT RANGE IS 0.00 TO 5000 MICROGRAMS/LITRE AS REACTIVE SILICA ACCURACY IS + 1 MICROGRAMS/LITRE MINIMUM DETECTION LIMIT .5 MICROGRAMS /LITRE WORKING THE SAMPLE PRESSURE TO THE ANALYSER IS 5 + 3 PSIG .A TWO WAY PINCH VALVE CONTROLS SAMPLE FLOW TO THE MEASUREMETN CELL .AT THE BEGINNING OF EACH ANALYSIS CYCLE THE MEASUREMENT CELL IS FLUSHED THOROUGHLY WITH FRESH SAMPLE .PRESSURIZED REAGENTS ARE ADDED IN A CONTROLLED SEEQUENCE THROUGH THE USE OF SOLENOID VALVES .INTIALLY A SAMPLE BLANK ABSORBANCE READING TAKEN FOR EACH SAMPLE TO PROVIDE A ZERO REFERENCE IS COMPARED TO THE FINAL ABSORBANCE READING TO CALCULATE SAMPLE SILICA CONCENTRATION . METHOD OF ANALYSIS
THE HETEROPOLY BLUE METHOD IS USED TO MEASURE MOLYBDATE REACTIVE SILICA IN WATER .MOLYBDATE 3 REAGENT , AN ACIDIC MOLYBDATE SOLUTION IS ADDED TO THE SAMPLE TO REACT WITH ANY SILICA AND PHOSPHATE PRESENT TO FRM MOLBDOSILICIC AND MOLYBDOPHOSPHORIC ACIDS. AFTER A DELAY FOR MIXING AND REACTION CITRICACID/SURFACTANT REAGENT IS ADDED TO MAKE THE MOLYBDOPHOSPHORRIC ACID AND MINIMIZE AIR BUBBLE FORMATION ON THE MEASUREMENT CELL WALLS.A REFERENCE ABSORBANCE MEASUREMENT IS TAKEN AT THIS POINT TO PROVIDE A ZERO REFERENCE MEASUREMETN FOR EACH SAMPLE . THE AMINO ACID F REAGENT IS ADDED TO MAKE THE MOLYBDOSILICIC ACID TO A INTENSELY BLUE COLORED SOLUTION .LIGHT ABSORBANE THROUGH THIS SOLUTION IS MEASURED AT 810 NM AND COMPARED TO THE REFERENCE MMEASUREMENT .SILICA CONCENTRATION IS CALCULATED BASED ON THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THE TWO MEASUREMENTS AND IS DISPLAYED DIRECTLY IN MICROGRAM/LITRE. POWER REQUIREMENTS 115/230 V AC ,50/60 HZ SWITCH SELECTABLLE.
78. PARTICULATE DENSITY ANALYSER:
79. DISSOLVED OXYGEN ANALYSER:
80. INSITU OXYGEN ANALYSER:
81. CONTROL VALVES:
Introduction: This is a valve with actuator for moving the closure member to any position (say 0 to 100%) in response and in proportion to an external signal. Major parts are: Valve Body, Bonnet, Actuator, Plug, Stem, Seat.
Types: Globe valve, Butterfly valve, Ball valve, Gate valve, Saunders valve. Globe valves can be: Single Seated, Double Seated, Bellow Seal, Split Body, Low flow, Angle valve, Three way.
Inherent Flow Characteristics: 1. Quick Opening: Small increment in stem position, large amount of flow. 2. Linear: Equal increments in stem travel produces equal increments in flow at constant DP. 3. Equal Percentage: Equal increments in stem travel produces equal percent change in previous flow.
Sizing: General Requirements for sizing: 1. Upstream Pressure 2. Downstream Pressure 3. Maximum flow/Minimum flow 4. Density/Specific Gravity 5. Vapour Pressure
Flow Co-efficient (CV): It is defined as the number of US gallons per minute of water at 60deg F flowing through the control valve when one psi pressure drop is maintained across the valve.
Standards: 1. ANSI/FCI 70.2 Seat Leakage Test 2. API 609 3. API 6D _ Butterfly valves _ Fire safe Ball valves
4. ANSI/ISA 70.1 _ Control valve sizing 5. ANSI/ISA 75.03_ Face to Face dimensional details 6. ANSI/ISA 75.19_ Hydro Test
Installation: Control valves need to operate properly. Without whose proper operation we cannot achieve high yields, quality products, maximum profits and energy conservation. Guidelines to be followed during installation: 1. Be sure pipeline is clean 2. Inspect the control valve 3. Use good piping practices

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1.

PROJECT INSTRUMENTATION SPECIFICATION

THE INPUT DOCUMENTS ARE:

*- DEPENDS ON PROJECT STANDARDS

5.INSTRUMENT MAIN CABLE ROUTING & CROSS SECTION

CO-ORDINATION WITH OTHER DEPARTMENTS:

Preliminary document - comments to

- 1.Civil - 2.electrical - 3.piping

- 1.civil - 2.electrical - 3.piping

Importance of the document:

PURPOSE OF THE DOCUMENT:

1.Instrument plot plan 2.Control room layout.

DETAILS IN THE DOCUMENT:

IMPORTANCE OF THE DOCUMENT:

7.CONTROL PANEL/CONSOLE/DESK ARRANGEMENT, SUPPORTS & GROUNDING DETAILS.

THE INPUT AND REFERENCE DOCUMENTS ARE:

8. LEVEL INSTRUMENT DESIGN

THIS DOCUMENT IS THE BASIC INPUT FOR THE FOLLOWING ACTIVITIES:

GUIDELINES FOR PREPARATION OF DESIGN LEVEL INSTRUMENT DRAWINGS

9.CONTROL ROOM & TECHNICAL ROOM LAYOUTS

THIS DOCUMENT SHOWS:

a. System engineering b. System architecture drawings

10. LOCAL PANEL DRAWINGS:

INPUTS TO THE DOCUMENT:

DETAILS IN THE DRAWING:

CO-ORDINATION WITH OTHER DEPARTMENTS:

IMPORTANCE OF THE DOCUMENT:

11. INSTRUMENT POWER SUPPLY DISTRIBUTION DIAGRAMS:

12. LOOP DIAGRAMS:

These comprehensive diagrams provide the following information

13. INTERLOCK LOGIC DIAGRAM:

1.Plant safety and interlocks 2.Control logic for plant operation

THE INPUT AND REFERENCE DOCUMENTS ARE:

1. Project instrument specification 2. P & I Diagrams 3. Cause and effect chart

THE INTERLOCK LOGIC DIAGRAMS PROVIDE INSTRUMENTATION DESIGN FOR:

the final document acts as an input to the electrical department.

14. WIRING DIAGRAM:

1.Instrument wiring diagram 2.Panel wiring diagram

THEY BRIEFLY SHOW:

5. The local panel number 6. The control panel terminal number

THE INPUT AND REFERENCE DOCUMENTS ARE:

1. P & ID 2. Instrument list 3. Machinery & package data sheets

15. HOOKUP DRAWINGS:

PURPOSE OF THE DOCUMENT:

1. Installation of the instruments 2. Preparing the MTO.

DETAILS IN THE DRAWING:

CO-ORDINATION BETWEEN OTHER DEPARTMENTS:

The preliminary drawing is given for comments.

The issued for construction drawing is given for information.

BASIC GUIDELINES FOR PREPARING THE HOOK-UP DRAWING:

Condensate pots should be provided with DP level transmitters for condensable.

16. ANALYSER ROOM & SHELTER LAYOUT:

PURPOSE OF THE DOCUMENT:

INPUTS TO THE DOCUMENT:

1.Overall plot plan 2.Preliminary instrument list.

DETAILS IN THE DRAWING:

1. Location of the various analysers inside the analyser room.

CO-ORDINATION WITH OTHER DEPARTMENTS: