Centre for English Language Studies, University of Birmingham

Unit 2

UNIT 2: PRACTICAL DECISIONS IN SYLLABUS DESIGN

2.1 Aim

The aim of this unit is to consider some of the practical decisions, as well as the underlying theoretical assumptions, involved in planning, implementing and evaluating a syllabus.

2.2

Objectives

The objectives of the unit are as follows: To determine in practical terms what the purpose of a syllabus is; To consider the practical implications for syllabus design of the following factors: o Theories of Language and Language Learning o Information about the learners involved o The objectives and nature of the particular course o The wider educational context; To explore the steps taken in designing a syllabus, including: o Describing the course rationale o Deciding entry and exit levels o Determining instructional blocks o Choosing course content and syllabus framework.

2.3

Readings Richards, J.C. (2001) Curriculum Development in Language Teaching. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Chapter 6.

2.4

The syllabus in the classroom

In the previous unit, we defined syllabus in relation to curriculum, and highlighted some theoretical approaches to syllabus design. In this unit, the focus is on the practical steps to be taken in designing a syllabus, where a syllabus is a specification of the content of a course of instruction listing what will be taught and tested

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and the order in which they will appear in the course (Richards, 2001:2). The first step is perhaps to consider what exactly we want such a syllabus to achieve; in other words, what its purpose is.

Reflection/Discussion Task 1 Before reading on, try to list the possible purposes of having such a specification. What is a syllabus for?

Hutchinson and Waters (1987:83-84) list the following possible purposes: to break language down into manageable units and provide a practical basis for textbooks and instructional blocks; to thus provide teachers and learners with moral support; to reassure students and/or sponsors that a course has been well planned: its cosmetic role; to give both students and teachers an idea of where the course is going; to act as an implicit statement of the views held by the course designers regarding language and language learningtelling students not only what they are to learn but why; to guide the selection of materials, texts and exercises (perhaps, Hutchinson and Waters suggest, one the commonest uses); to ensure an element of uniformity across a school or educational system; to assess how successful a student has been during a course by providing a basis for testing.

Reflection/Discussion Task 2 As Hutchinson and Waters conclude, a syllabus has a multi-functional purpose. However, you may feel that some of their suggestions do not apply to your context. Try to identify which of the above underlie your syllabus, and decide if there are other purposes which your syllabus fulfils. Can you order them in terms of their relevance to the syllabus in your teaching context?

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Activity 1 Do you think it is important to be aware of the underlying purposes of your syllabus? If yes why? If no why not?

See Commentaries on Activities.

2.5

Influences on Syllabus Design

Despite our rather narrow view of the syllabus as a specification of content, it will nonetheless appear that practical decisions made in designing a syllabus cannot completely avoid the influence of methodology nor wider concerns related to the process of curriculum development. A number of factors implicitly or explicitly influence syllabus design, and it is useful for teachers to understand those which guide the syllabus they use. These factors fall into the following four broad categories:

theories of language, language learning and language useas suggested in the previous unit, decisions made in the process of designing a syllabus are based on value judgments guided by assumptions as to the nature of language itself, as well as how it is learnt and, in some cases, used.

information concerning the learners themselvesthe process of collecting information regarding learners background, as well as their language goals, preferred learning styles, and previous language learning experience, in order to inform course design is part of a process known as needs analysis, and is explored in greater depth in unit 4 of this module. The ways in which such information can inform syllabus design should be considered. Firstly, as Nunan (1988:13) explains, it can guide selection of content, and secondly, it can be used to group learners into classes; and thirdly, it allows the teacher to adapt the syllabus and methodology to suit the learners, while highlighting possible areas of conflict.

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the objectives and nature of the particular courseinformation collected regarding learners needs should feed into the instructional goals of a language course (Nunan, 1988:24-25). These goals, which may also be constrained by the length and scope of the programme, as well as by the wider educational system, must be taken into account when designing the syllabus.

the wider educational contextsyllabus designers must also incorporate the specifications and expectations of the educational and cultural context. Holliday (1994:195) argues that syllabus design, as with other aspects of language teaching, needs to be led by a deeper understanding of the social forces acting on the classroom and a culture-sensitive approach.

Other considerations may include: Common practiceteachers and designers practical experience in developing language courses; (Richards, 2001:152) Trendsapproaches to syllabus design which happen to be nationally or globally popular at any time. (ibid) and resources. (Stern, 2001:34)

Reflection/Discussion Task 3 Consider how the influences listed above may impact on the syllabus you use. Can you think of any other influences on syllabus design?

2.6

Steps in the Process of Designing a Syllabus

A number of steps need to be taken in the process of designing a syllabus. The factors outlined abovesuch as theories of language learning and the wider educational contextaffect the decisions made in this process. The steps or decisions include the following, as outlined by Richards (2001:145):

developing a course rationale describing entry and exit levels 4

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choosing course content sequencing course content planning course content (selecting syllabus framework and instructional blocks)

preparing scope and sequence plan

As Richards points out, these steps can occur simultaneously rather than in linear progression and can continually be revised throughout the process of designing a course.

2.6.1

Developing a course rationale

The development of a course rationale should, Richards (2001:146) suggests, be the starting point for syllabus design, in that preparing a course rationale can serve to guide subsequent decisions in course development, including those involved in designing the syllabus. A course rationale is a two- or three-paragraph description of the reasons for a course and its nature, written by those involved in planning and/or implementing it, and similar to those often found on the backs of coursebooks, or on the publishers website. It answers questions such as:

1. Who is this course for? 2. What is the course about? 3. What kind of teaching and learning will take place in the course?

It thus serves to justify the teaching and learning to students and other interested parties by providing an outline of the course philosophy.

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Activity 2 Look at the following examples of course rationales. Answer questions 1-3 above based on the rationales. What other questions do they answer?

1. Suitable for classroom use or self-study, this course teaches language learners how to use English in a commercial law environment. The book focuses on a variety of legal topics including contracts, company formation, debtor-creditor relationships and intellectual property rights. Using authentic texts to present and practise legal language, the course develops the four key skills of reading, writing, listening and speaking. In addition, this course is ideal preparation for the new Cambridge International Legal English Certificate (ILEC) and contains exam practice tasks, exam tips and a practice ILEC test supplied by Cambridge ESOL. The accompanying Teacher's Book guides teachers through the exercises in the book and adds a whole new communicative dimension to the course.

2. This course translates the theory of task-based learning into a practical and user-friendly coursebook, recognizing that the performance of regular spoken and written tasks is crucial to successful language acquisition. It combines elements of the task-based approach with a strong emphasis on vocabulary, alongside a comprehensive grammar and skills syllabus. The book provides material for 90-120 hours' teaching, according to how much extra material is used from the "Teacher's Resource Book". Each module features a real-life task to challenge and motivate students and language input before and during the tasks ensures that students perform with confidence and skill.

3. This coursebook is the perfect solution for short, intensive courses and can easily be extended into a longer course. The Students Book comes with a handy phrasebook covering essential words and expressions for everyday communication. 6
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Pick it up and start teaching the transparent methodology and independent lessons make it so easy to use You can teach students who have recently joined the class with ease as the language points are regularly revised and recycled

Get your students producing language in every lesson - each lesson finishes with a Get Talking or Get Writing section Make your lessons even more engaging and varied using the Teachers Resource book with photocopiable activities, a writing bank and tests all of which help extend the course.

See Commentaries on Activities.

Reflection/Discussion Task 4 Write a course rationale for the course on which you are teaching, have taught or plan to teach. Use the above rationales to guide you, if you wish.

2.6.2

Describing entry and exit levels

In order to develop a syllabus, it is of course necessary to gauge the learners language level on starting the course and their expected proficiency on finishing it (as well as for adapting materials or content during the course). Most commercial materials distinguish between elementary, intermediate, and advanced levels, while others also add pre-intermediate and upper-intermediate stages. Richards (2001:146) suggests these are too broad for detailed materials or syllabus design. Instead, he suggests using results from international proficiency tests such as IELTS or TOEFL, which identify different levels of proficiency in the form of band levels (or points on a proficiency scale). Specially designed tests can then be pegged to these descriptors. One example is the six proficiency reference levels which form part of the Common European Framework (Council of Europe 2001; Morrow 2004). The six bands, which serve to standardise language learning and assessment across Europe, are accompanied by 7
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detailed proficiency descriptions. Thus, although the bands relate to the broader traditional levelsA1 and A2 are basic (elementary and pre-intermediate) users, B1 and B2 are independent users (intermediate) and C1 and C2 are proficient or advanced, usersthey nevertheless provide more detail, flexibility, and greater subdivision than the earlier distinctions.

Reflection/Discussion Task 5 How are proficiency levels measured on your course and how does this feed into syllabus design?

2.6.3

Developing instructional blocks

A course tends to be mapped out in terms of instructional blocks. According to Richards, 2001:165), an instructional block is a self-contained learning sequence which has its own goals and objectives and that also reflects the overall objectives for the course and, although we could debate the extent to which each block can be described as self-contained, the definition is a useful one in syllabus design. Each block represents the instructional focus of the course and may be very specific (i.e., a single lesson) or more general (i.e. a unit of work consisting of several lessons). Planning this organisational sequence involves selecting appropriate blocks and deciding on the order in which they should be taught. The aims involved here are:

To make the course more teachable and learnable To provide progression in level of difficulty To create overall coherence.

Richards (2001:165) distinguishes between two common types of instructional block: modules and units (or schemes of work). Modules are generally longer and more independent than a unit, with their own objectives and assessment. Units comprise a number of lessons which lead towards one learning outcome, and are central to developing teaching materials and coursebooks. The coherence of a unit should be 8
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both horizontalthrough the structured sequence of activities that runs from beginning to end; and verticalthrough the appropriate sequence of the activities from the top to bottom of each page, which should culminate in order to bring the page to closure (Richards, 2001:166).

2.6.4

Selecting a syllabus framework

Having established a course rationale and entry and exit levels, the next step is to select the content of the syllabus, as well as the order in which it is presented or the syllabus framework. The content of most syllabuses has traditionally been perceived

as comprising a list of grammatical items, selected and ordered following criteria such as the difficulty of each item or structure. In other words, the syllabuses are organised around grammatical items, at their extreme comprising little more than a graded list of structures such as verb tenses, relative clauses and conditionals. Although grammatical or structural syllabuses are still commonly used in language classrooms today, the traditional grammatically-based syllabus has come under growing criticism and since the 1970s syllabus designers have begun to adopt other elements as the basis of syllabus design.

Reflection/Discussion Task 6 Before reading on, can you suggest any other elements used as a basis for organizing the syllabus?

Some of these other syllabus frameworks, or types, include the following:

The notional-functional syllabusorganised around notions (such as purpose; place; frequency; or quantity) or functions (Agreeing and disagreeing; or Talking about future plans);

The lexical syllabusthis is organised around lexical items (including: phrases with there is/are; questions with could I/could you);

The situational syllabuscomprising work on language needed in situations such as in the post office; or a restaurant;

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The topical syllabusthis is organised around topics such as the environment; the family; or jobs;

The skills-based syllabusthis may be particularly useful for academic purposes, for which learners focus primarily on skills such as note-taking, skimming and scanning, recognising topic sentences;

The task-based syllabusin which learners complete tasks, ranging from ranking activities to giving presentations.

It is important to realise that these syllabus frameworks originate in the Anglo-Saxon tradition of applied linguistics/EFL and therefore there may be implications as to their suitability for use in non-western cultures. We will look in more detail at each

syllabus type in the following units, and you will have the chance to consider the benefits and disadvantages of each in your teaching context, and the particular language theories they assume. For now, it is enough that you can recognise the different criteria on which a syllabus can be based.

Activity 3 Look at the following textbook content pages, and decide which type of syllabus you think they represent (grammatical, notional-functional, lexical, situational, topical, skills-based, or task-based). Book 1: Book 2: Book 3:

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Unit 2

Book 1

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Book 2

UNIT 45 Interests

COMMUNICATIVE AIMS Getting to know someone's interests. Electronic Mail.

GRAMMAR PRACTICE Like / don't like + -ing forms. Good at doing 1 not very good at doing. Abbreviations. In 1 on / at: days, months, years, times. Rules: do's and don'ts. Present passives: made in 1 produced in / bottled in. Superlatives: best / biggest. Past simple for narrative. Regular / irregular verbs. Sequence words.

VOCABULARY Leisure activities.

46 E-Mail

E-Mail terms.

47 Sales Talk

Making a sales pitch for a product. Talking about vacations.

Sales terms.

48 Flightseeing

Descriptions . Outdoor scenery. Apologies. Comparative descriptions.

49 Let's Make a Deal

Making a business deal. Could / couldn't, past ability. More vs. less vs. fewer. Comparatives: bigger / cheaper. Returning a rental car. Filling up at a gas station. Check in for a flight. Checking out of a hotel. Using credit cards. Being shown your room.

50 Gas Station

Why ...?Because ... You have to Gas station ... Abbreviations. What does this terms. mean? It means ... Money. Change. I'd like . . . I I can ... None 1 only 1 nearly / too (late). Past tense practice (did / was / were). Expressions with '11:1 hope you'll... 1 We'll miss you. A 1 an 1 some. Looking forward to / hope. Checking in. Checking out. Minibar items. Room facilities. Television facilities. Geographical facts. Statistics. Natural scenery. Introducti ons. Small talk. Instructions. Precautions. Computer commands.

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Checking In

52 Checking Out

53 Your Cabin

54 North to Alaska

Understanding facts and figures.

Length I area / size 1 number I height. Two times (the size of). Superlative form of adjectives.

55 Making Friends

Beginning a conversation. Becoming friends. Giving advice on computers.

So / so far / then. It tasks (salty). It looks (great).

56 Computer Problems

Should 1 shouldn't.

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Book 3

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Reflection/Discussion Task 7 Look again at the syllabus reflected in your coursebook. Can you identify the criteria by which your syllabus is organised?

2.5.4

Integrated syllabuses

If you had trouble identifying the criteria by which your syllabus is organised, this may be due to the extent to which it integrates other elements. As you will be aware from your own teaching experience, no course can focus solely on grammar, or lexis, or tasks to the exclusion of other language elements. Consequently, many syllabuses are integrated to some extent. As Richards (2001:164) points out, a syllabus framework reflects different priorities in teaching rather than absolute choices, and the question is which of these become the central focus in any syllabus. Other elements may be included at different levels of the syllabus; as Richards continues, designers need to distinguish between macro-level and micro-level units of a course. For example, a language course may be planned on a macro-level in terms of grammatical items to be covered, and then planned on a micro-level in terms of the speaking and writing tasks necessary for practising the grammar. However, it should

be noted that the term integrated should be used cautiously; many syllabuses may describe themselves as being integrated but the overriding element for organisation frequently tends to be grammar.

Reflection/Discussion Task 8 Think again about the syllabus that you follow in your teaching situation. To what extent is it integrated? What is its central focus?

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2.7

Summary

The choice of a particular syllabus framework reflects assumptions, as mentioned above, regarding the nature of language and language learning, as well as considerations such as the learners themselves, the objectives of the course in question, and the wider educational context. In turn, however, the syllabus framework chosen inevitably determines the language that is learnt, as well as the way in which it is taught. For example, as Widdowson (1987:65) suggests, the decision to follow a functional-notional syllabus tends to encourage activities which aim towards simulating real communication (Nunan, 1988:53). We will explore the implications of this in later units.

For now, what emerges is the extent to which the choice of a syllabus framework cannot be studied in isolation from underlying language theory, or from classroom practice. To return to the approach-design-procedure model outlined by Richards and Rodgers (2001:20-34), we can see this as one example of how the syllabus (at the level of design) becomes inextricably linked to both approach (through theory, beliefs and assumptions regarding language and learning) and procedure (by shaping classroom practice).

In this unit we have looked at the syllabus in more practical termsat the role it plays in the classroom, and at the factors that influence decisions made in the process of designing a syllabus. These decisions involve the selection of a syllabus framework: that is, whether the syllabus is organised around grammatical, lexical or other criteria. In the next units, we will look more closely at the development and effectiveness of some of these syllabus frameworks.

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2.8

Commentaries on activities

Commentary on Activity 1 As Hutchinson and Waters (1987:84-5) point out, we need to be aware of the underlying purposes of any syllabus in order to ensure it is used most appropriately. In particular, they point to some inherent dangers which may arise if a syllabus is misinterpreted:

if a syllabus has been designed to fulfil a cosmetic role; that is, to reassure sponsors that their money is being well-spent, it should not necessarily be used as a basis for materials selection or assessment;

a syllabus is an ideal: a statement of what will be taught and it should not be assumed that this is the same as what is eventually learnt;

syllabuses do not consider intangible factors such as motivation and personality; neither do they take into account individual differences.

Commentary on Activity 2 1. International Legal English (2006), by Krois-Lindner, A., published by Cambridge University Press.

This course is for law students, particularly those wishing to take the Cambridge International ILEC test, and presumably students who are already at an upperintermediate or advanced level in English. The course focuses on the use of English in a commercial law environment, including topics such as contracts, company formation, debtor-creditor relationships and intellectual property rights. In terms of the teaching and learning, the course emphasises authentic texts, and all four language skills, as well as the exam preparation aspect, and a communicative approach. It also mentions the support available, in the form of a teachers book, and that learners can use the book for self-study.

2.

Cutting Edge: A Practical Approach to Task Based Learning: Upperintermediate Students Book, by Cunningham, S. and P. Moor, published by Longman.

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Cutting Edge is designed for use by all students (as its emphasis on user-friendliness suggests) who want to do a general English course, perhaps of 3 or so hours a week over an academic year (as there is material for 90-120 hours). What is most striking about this rationale are the principles that guide the teaching and learning, as the book adopts a task-based methodology, and prioritises vocabulary over grammar or skills. The book suggests an active and lively, as well as learner-centred, approach (which would perhaps appeal more to younger students), with a focus on successful and confident performance. At the same time, the rationale is also keen to emphasise the support given to teachers and learners. Not only is the book user-friendly, but also practical and it has a teachers resource book.

3.

Language to Go (Upper Intermediate) (2002), by Clare, A. and J. Wilson, published by Longman.

This coursebook is presumably aimed at young adult learners on short summer courses, and for teachers who have little experience (or little time) perhaps those who spend the rest of the year teaching on very different kinds of courses. The rationale claims that the material is suitable for short intensive courses, and also that it is very easy to use. Pick it up and start teaching, it states, the transparent methodology and independent lessons make it easy to use as presumably so does the Teachers book with its photocopiable activities. The language focus is on everyday communication, and the syllabus is cyclical: language points are regularly revised and recycled.

Commentary on Activity 3 Book One: ONeill et al (1971) Kernel Lessons Intermediate follows a grammatical syllabus. Book Two: Vinney (1996) Basic Survival: International Communication for Professional People has a syllabus which is best described as situational. Book Three: Van Ek and Trim (1998) Threshold 1990 (reproduced in Richards, 2001:179) is a notional-functional syllabus.

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REFERENCES Council of Europe (2001) Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: learning, teaching, assessment: case studies. Strasburg: Council of Europe Language Policy Division. Holliday, A. (1994) Appropriate Methodology and Social Context. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Hutchinson, T. and Waters, A. (1987) English for Specific Purposes. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Morrow, K. (2004) Insights from the Common European Framework. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Nunan, D. (1988) Syllabus Design. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

ONeill, R., Kingsbury, R., and Yeadon, T. (1971) Kernel Lessons Intermediate. Longman. Richards, J. (2001) Curriculum Development in Language Teaching. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Richards, J. and Rodgers, T. (2001) Approaches and Methods In Language Teaching. Cambridge: Cambridge University. Stern H.H. (1992) Issues and Options in Language Teaching. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Van Ek, J. and J.L.M Trim (1998) Threshold 1990. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Vinney, P. (1996) Basic Survival: International Communication for Professional People. Macmillan Heinemann.

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