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Study of 19-year Satellite Sea Surface Temperature Variability along the West
Coast of India
K. Muni Krishna a
a
Department of Meteorology and Oceanography, Andhra University, Visakhapatnam, India

Online Publication Date: 01 January 2009

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 Marine Geodesy, 32: 77–88, 2009
Copyright © Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
ISSN: 0149-0419 print / 1521-060X online
DOI: 10.1080/01490410802662250

Study of 19-year Satellite Sea Surface Temperature

Variability along the West Coast of India

K. MUNI KRISHNA
Department of Meteorology and Oceanography, Andhra University,
Visakhapatnam, India

The seasonal and interannual variation of upwelling along the west coast of India
between 8◦ N and 24◦ N was studied for the period 1985 through 2003 using NOAA-
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AVHRR sea surface temperature data. The seasonal migration of pronounced upwelling,
which follows the seasonal shift of the winds in southwest monsoon period and northeast
monsoon, was confined. The temporal mean sea surface temperature images clearly
show the upwelling season, as does the seasonal sea surface temperature anomaly.
These dominate features of the upwelling system are also the most variable, with most
of the variance being explained by the seasonal cycle. Quasi-cyclic behavior of seas
surface temperature on interannual scales has also been observed.

Keywords Upwelling, advanced very high resolution radiometer (AVHRR), sea

surface temperature

Introduction
The west coast of India (WCI) forms the eastern boundary of the Arabian Sea basin. The
coast lies along almost a straight line at an angle of about 24◦ with the north. Off the
coast the bottom topography consists of a continental shelf which is about 60 km wide, a
continental slope where the depth increases from 200 m to 2000 m, followed by a region
of uniform depth of approximately 2000 m (Shetye 1984).
The sea surface temperature (hereafter SST) in the eastern Arabian Sea exhibits a
well-marked annual cycle (Hastenrath and Lamb 1979a) owing to a semiannual reversal of
trade winds. Channeling of northeasterly wind (gap winds) through the elevated barriers
on Sri Lanka and south India during October to March enhances turbulent heat loss and the
Gulf of Mannar and lowers SST by ∼1◦ C (Luis and Kawamura 2000, 2001). On the other
hand, prior to the onset of summer monsoon (May/June), upwelling lowers SST along the
west coast of India, and an equatorward coastal current advects this cold water south of
the Indian tip and promotes ∼1.8◦ C SST cooling (Luis and Kawamura 2002). However,
the evolution of seasonal SST patterns and the relationship between monsoon forcing and
SST along the west coast of India (WCI) is unclear.
Researchers have identified upwelling as a possible mechanism for SST cooling along
the WCI during southwest monsoon (June to September). Banse (1959, 1968) investigated
the WCI in context to the water properties and their effects on demersal fishes using a
hydrographic and sea level data and inferred that regular upwelling is a source of cold

Received 25 June 2008; accepted 21 November 2008.

Address correspondence to K. Muni Krishna, Department of Meteorology and Oceanography,
Andhra University, Visakhapatnam 530003, India. E-mail: kailasam15@yahoo.co.in
77
 78 K. Muni Krishna

water south 15◦ N from May to October. He concluded that upwelling is related to the
seasonal changes in water masses and to the basin-wide circulation of the Arabian Sea.
Sharma (1967) and Darbyshire (1967) studied the hydrography of the Kerala coast during
the whole year from 8◦ N to 12◦ N latitude indicating the presence of cold water (<22◦ C)
over the entire shelf but denied the role of wind induced upwelling for this phenomenon.
Johannessen et al. (1981) showed that the up-sloping of isotherms at the southern WCI
starts in March/April.
On the other hand, Shetye et al. (1990) carried out a case study of hydrography and
circulation off the WCI extending from 8◦ to 23◦ N during June to August 1987. Using
temperature and salinity sections, they inferred that upwelling induced SST cooling of
about 2.5◦ C occurs southwest of the Indian tip. Furthermore, they pointed out that the
upwelling and surface current intensity decreases northward along the shelf and concluded
that upwelling intensity is controlled by the strength of the alongshore wind. Similarly,
several other researchers studied the upwelling along the WCI using hydrographic and
satellite data (Anand et al. 1968; Varadachari et al. 1974; Sharma 1978; Shukla 1975;
Shetye 1984; Shetye et al. 1985; Lathipa and Murty 1985; Sastry and Ramesh Babu 1985;
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Ramesh Kumar et al. 1986; Antony and Unnikrishnan 1992; Unnikrishnan and Antony
1989; Longhurst and Wooster 1990; Maheswaran 2000; Luis and Kawamura 2003).
Though the above studies have related upwelling to the SST variability along the WCI,
a complete description on the SST patterns that evolve due to upwelling or coastal currents
forced by monsoons is not available. The purpose of this work is to address seasonal and
interannual SST variability along the west coast of India, extending from 8◦ N to 24◦ N
(Figure 1), using a 19-year advanced very high resolution radiometer (AVHRR) SST data
set.

Data and Methodology

SST maps with 9-km spatial resolution were derived from measurements made by the
advanced very high resolution radiometer onboard the National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration (NOAA) polar orbiting satellites for the period January 1985 to December
2003 (Kilpatrick et al. 2001). Statistical measure of the AVHRR SST relative to drifting
buoys shows consistent biases (buoy minus satellite) and root mean square of −0.1 and
0.5–0.7◦ C, respectively (McClain et al. 1985; Sreejith and Shenoi 2002).

Spatial Variability of SST Statistics

Descriptive statistical images (mean SST, standard deviation) were calculated across time
from the weekly SST composite images to show the mean spatial pattern for the whole
time series and areas of greatest variance, as well as the seasonal and interannual spatial
variability. These images were examined to identify important oceanographic features, as
well as large scale patterns of seasonal and interannual variability.

Temporal Variability of SST

The weekly composite images were averaged spatially to show temporal trends in SST.
Time series charts were constructed to show temporal variability in mean SST, both of a
seasonal and interannual nature. The resulting mean SST time series was subjected to a
 Satellite SST Variability along the West Coast of India 79
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Figure 1. Location of the study area.

49-point moving average smoothing routine (modified from Chatfield 1989) to emphasize
interannual variability.
Standardized SST anomalies were calculated to show unsmoothed seasonal and
interannual variability on a weekly time scale. Interannual variability was shown by
standardizing data with respect to the week of the year (1–48), thereby eliminating seasonal
variability (see Eq. 1a). Seasonal variability was shown by standardizing with respect to
the year (1981–1991), thereby eliminating interannual variability (see Equation 1b)
−
rj − rweek
Xjweek = (1)
σweek

−
r − ryear
Xjyear = (2)
σyear

where Xjweek and Xjyear are the SST anomalies standardized with respect to the week and
− −
the year, respectively, rj is the weekly mean SST value, rweek and ryear are the weekly
 80 K. Muni Krishna

and annual means, respectively, and σweek and σyear are the weekly and annual standard
deviations, respectively.

Results and Discussion

Seasonal Sea Surface Temperature Fluctuations

The seasonal migration of the upwelling belt is clearly visible in Figure 2. This figure
shows the 12 monthly mean images. The SST cooling is further enhanced by ∼1.5◦ C on
the shallow shelf north of 20◦ N during January to February (Figure 2). The SST cooling
during this period is due to the winter cooling effect along the coast. This result is identical
to hypothesis of Prasanna Kumar and Prasad (1996). A complete different scenario evolves
during the transition months. While low SSTs gradually disappear from the northern part
of the WCI, a warm SST pool occupies the domain south of 16◦ N. In March, along the
southwest coast of India, SSTs are warmer than they are in January, and the spatial extent
of upwelling is reduced.
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The above study shows that the average seasonal variation of upwelling is strong in
summer at the southern part and strong winter cooling in the northern part of the west
coast of India. In the Arabian Sea, the southwest monsoon first appears at Kerala coast in
last week of May and expands over the entire west coast in July and August. Therefore,
upwelling starts at the southern tip of the west coast by end May/early June and propagates
northwards with time. It is found that the SST along the southwest coast dropped more than
1◦ C in June and July, 1.5◦ C in August and September from the 19-year average monthly
SST.
Under the influence of the energetic southwest monsoon, SST cooling (27◦ C) is
initiated along the Trivendrum coast. The southwest coast upwelling is composed of cold
water (<26◦ C) at its core. It usually becomes visible in the Trivendrum region during the
last week of May and continues to move north until August or September. It then begins to
recede. During this period, the coldest water extends in a narrow finger close to the coast
of Cochin, Calicut and Mangalore. In September, upwelling is weaker than in August but
still strong extending to or beyond the shelf edge.
Southwesterlies enter in mid May, and coastal upwelling also starts at Trivendrum
during the same period. It is displayed clearly in Figure 2, which represents the upwelling
during the SW monsoon (June to September). Following the onset of the monsoon winds,
the warm coastal water will replace by the subsurface cold water and flow northwards up
to 15◦ N. During July and August, strong upwelling features are observed near the tip of the
Indian subcontinent and along the southwest coast of India.
Temperature gradients showed an east-west orientation, north of the front implying
coastal upwelling (CU) to be present. During the south west monsoon (August) the tropical
front had reached its northernmost position as was shown by a strong longshore sea surface
temperature gradient at 15◦ N (Figure 2). South of this front, temperature gradients showed
a north-south orientation. These temperature gradients can be used to study upwelling
patterns. By taking long-term averages of temperature anomalies between coastal and
oceanic water a clear picture can be obtained of the seasonality of upwelling. South of
15◦ N upwelling occurs during the summer months.
In October, upwelling is greatly reduced in both spatial extent and intensity. In
November, warm water covers the whole coast area of southwest coast of India. With
the withdrawal of southwest monsoon, warm SST patches (∼29◦ C) emerge during
October–November with a conspicuous tongue-like feature emerging from Veraval.
 Satellite SST Variability along the West Coast of India 81
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Figure 2. 19-years of monthly mean sea surface temperature images along the west coast of India.
 82 K. Muni Krishna
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Figure 3. Charts showing the spatially averaged seasonal SST for each week of the AVHRR time
series for each subsystem along the west coast of India.
 Satellite SST Variability along the West Coast of India 83
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Figure 4. Monthly variations in coastal temperature anomalies (difference between coastal and
mid-ocean temperature) at different latitudes along the West coast of India. Shaded areas indicate
strong coastal upwelling. The seasonal movement of the upwelling front between 8.5◦ and 14.5◦ is
clearly visible. Two distinct patterns of strongest upwelling can be seen: 1) 8.5◦ –9.5◦ N—upwelling
June through September 2) 9.5◦ –13.5◦ N & 19.5◦ –21.5◦ N—upwelling April through October and Jan
through June. Sea surface temperature (AVHRR) data cover the period from 1985 to 2003.

Climatology maps, on the other hand, also show a broad patch of 28◦ C extending to
about 66◦ E from the west coast of India. By November, while warm water intrusion from
the south enhances SST south of 15◦ N, cooling is observed north of 19◦ N.
During the NE monsoon, continental winds cool the surface of the northern part of the
WCI (16◦ N–24◦ N). This cool dry continental air from the northeasterly winds intensifies
evaporation, leading to surface cooling of a cold tongue of surface water, with SST between
23.5◦ and 26◦ C. East and south of this cold tongue, the SST gradually increases, with the
warmest water (>28◦ C) found near the southwest coast of India. The cold SST in the
northern part during the winter monsoon is a result of evaporative cooling from the flow of
cold continental air.
High degree of SST cooling along the northern part of the WCI (north of 18◦ N), while
warm SST evolve in the south with the intrusion of warm equatorial water during winter
monsoon. (To focus on key areas along the WCI, temporal variability is analyzed in the next
subsection.) In this period the northern part of the WCI continues to sustain high biological
productivity.
The spatially averaged seasonal SST anomalies were calculated for each station of
the southwest coast of India to provide a between-year comparison of variability in the
seasonal cycle, with annual trends removed (Figure 3). For the southwest coast subsystem,
 84 K. Muni Krishna
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Figure 5. Time series plots showing the spatial mean SST (blue line) for each week of the
AVHRR series and the 49-point moving average (black line), showing interannual variability for
each subsystem along the west coast of India.

SST anomalies show the first part of the (January to April) to be warmer and the second
part of the year (May to September) to be cooler and again third part of year (October
to December to be warmer along the southwest coast. For the northern part of the WCI,
SST anomalies show cooler during (November to February) and warmer during (June to
September).
 Satellite SST Variability along the West Coast of India 85
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Figure 6. Spatially averaged interannual SST anomaly for each week of AVHRR time series for
each subsystem along the west coast of India.
 86 K. Muni Krishna

The cooling from May to September is due to the strong CU along southwest coast of
India, while the later warming is due to the absence of CU and the influx of warm waters
from southward due to the development of strong warm pool. The cooling period from July
to September is caused by general cooling seen in the southwest coast of India subsystem
at this time of year.

Temporal Upwelling Variability

The above discussed seasonal upwelling fluctuations are derived from long-term averages.
However real-time upwelling events may show many different local and regional
fluctuations. This variability exerts a strong influence on the biological conditions and the
subsequent possibilities for marine species to reproduce and survive. Because upwelling is
such a powerful environmental phenomenon (in terms of nutrient input into the system),
the presence or absence, early or late start, short or long duration of upwelling seasons
or events gives rise to considerable differences in environmental conditions from year to
year and from place to place. This is the primary cause of the dynamical behavior of the
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biological resources.
The SST anomaly in southern region is more than −0.5◦ C during May to September
(Figure 3), while in northern region it is less than −0.5◦ C during February to May and
upwelling is therefore considered to be seasonal. Figure 4 give an impression of the seasonal
upwelling cycle through time. In the southern part of west coast of India, CU indices (based
on SST) show a much stronger seasonal pattern May to September and January to May at
the northern part (Figure 4).
The large negative upwelling indices are due to the effect of strong coastal upwelling,
and to differences between horizontal advection in the offshore region and that in the coastal
region. There is also the possibility of significant spatial differences in ocean-atmosphere
heat exchanges. A more rapid increase of indices near the coast during early summer
(8.5◦ N) represents the starting and intensity, off the coastal upwelling along the coast.

Interannual Variability
Figure 4 shows the mean SST images for each year, In general, 1986, 1989–94, and
1999–2000 were cool periods, and 1987–88, 1995–98, and 2001–03 were warm periods.
The stronger warm periods were coincide with El Niño events. The time series of spatial
means show SST oscillates between warm and cool periods (Figure 5). This pattern is also
clearly shown for subsystem in the charts of interannual variability in SST anomaly values
for the each week in the time series (Figure 6). The warming is more in the northern part
compared to southern part; this is because of coastal upwelling in the southern part of the
west coast of India.

Conclusions
The results of this study show the usefulness of remote sensing SST for investigating
seasonal and interannual variability of coastal upwelling along the west coast of India. In
addition, many of the features observed are interpretable in terms of physical processes
known to exist in the region and analysis of these data can aid understanding of the
underlying physical dynamics. Of particular interest are observations associated with the
coastal upwelling. Some of these corroborate previous observations, such as the northward
propagation of the upwelling and the frontal development, quasi-cyclic behavior of SST
 Satellite SST Variability along the West Coast of India 87

on interannual scales has also been observed. The 19-year mean spatial and temporal SST
indicate a high degree of SST cooling (2–4◦ C drop) along the Veraval and Kandla coasts
during winter. Summertime SST cooling (1–3◦ C drop) dominates the southwest coast of
India and the coastal upwelling activity in this region appears to be more vigorous during
the height of the southwest monsoon. During the transition period the southwest coast
gets warmer due to the intrusion of warm equatorial waters. The presence of warmer than
average temperatures throughout the region in 1997, coinciding with an El Niño event,
hints that global scale climate interactions may be forcing SST along the southwest coast
of India to some extent. However, the length of the time series used is insufficient to assert
this conclusion.

Acknowledgements
This research forms part of the author’s Ph.D. completed at the Andhra University and
funding thereof by the Indian Space Research Organization under RESPOND Program.
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I thank Jet Propulsion Laboratory providing AVHRR data set and also two anonymous
reviewers for their critical and valuable comments. I would like to thank William J. Emery
for valuable suggestions which greatly helped to improve the paper.

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