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1 Procesos de EOR en NFR Taller 2
1 Procesos de EOR en NFR Taller 2
1 Procesos de EOR en NFR Taller 2
EOR Processes and Reservoir Characterization in NFRs The Cantarell, Ku, Maloob, and Zaap Fields
Tayfun Babadagli, PhD, PEng
Professor of Petroleum Engineering University of Alberta Dept. of Civil and Env. Eng., School of Mining and Petroleum Edmonton, Alberta, CANADA
tayfun@ualberta.ca URL: www.ualberta.ca/~tayfun
OBJECTIVE
DAY-1: Reservoir Characterization for NFVR (Naturally Fractured Vuggy Reservoirs): What are the problems in NFVR characterization? What are the problems in NFR development (drilling, production, well and reservoir management, completion, modeling, data gathering, EOR) in relations to the characterization. Pore scale characterization of NFVR. Tools used for larger scale characterization: Cores, outcrops, logs, drilling data, well tests. Heterogeneity, permeability distributions. Use of different logs (resistivity, radioactive and sonic logs) in reservoir characterization. Estimation of porosity, porosity-permeability correlations, the use of NMR logs in permeability estimation. From geology to petrophysics, production data to wells tests reservoir characterization of NFVR. DAY-2: Reservoir Characterization for NFVR. Use of well test analysis in reservoir characterization. Basic principles, use of different well tests for reservoir characterization. Type curve and derivative analysis. Pitfalls in well test interpretations. Characterization of naturally fractured reservoirs through well testing.
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DAY-3: Use of fractal geometry and stochastic techniques in reservoir characterization. Definition of fractal dimension, self-similar and self-affine fractals. Analysis of logs using fractal techniques. Generation of representative static reservoir models. Concept of stochastic modeling. Fracture surface characterization. Fracture networks. Use of fractal geometry in characterization of fracture surfaces and networks. Use of pressure transient analysis and tracer tests in fracture network characterization and mapping fracture network permeability. Using production data in reservoir and fracture swarm characterization. Practical modeling of fracture network permeability. DAY-4: Selection of EOR process in NFVR: Immiscible, miscible, thermal, chemical techniques in NVFR. Heavy-oil vs. light oil. Laboratory analyses and field cases. Followed by a discussion period. DAY-5: EOR methods applicable to offshore NFVR with 28-38 API and water and gas production problems due to active aquifer and gas cap. Current and potential applications in RMNO fields. Field examples analog: The Yates, Bati Raman, Spraberry, Qarn Alam, Midale-Weyburn, Yibal, Ekofisk, North Sea fields etc. Followed by a discussion period.
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DISCUSSION ON Abkatun-Pol-Chuc, Caan: Selection of EOR process applicable to offshore NFVR with 28 API and water and gas production problems due to active aquifer. There is oil in the matrix surrounded by water or by gas. Dimensionless groups to characterize different EOR Processes in Abkatun-Pol-Chuc in order to select the appropriate EOR Process.
DISCUSSION ON Light oils: EOR process applicable to offshore NFVR with 28-38 API High Pressure (active aquifers) and High temperature in the reservoir. Cluster of small offshore reservoirs. Dimensionless groups to characterize different EOR Processes in order to select the appropriate EOR Process.
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Type of Fracture Reservoirs NFR Type Definition Example Amal, Libya Edison, California Wolf Springs, Montana Agha Jari, Iran Haft Kel, Iran Spraberry, Texas Kirkuk, Iraq Gachsaran, Iran Hassi Messaoud, Algeria
Type 1
Type 2
Type 3
Fractures assist permeability in an already producible reservoir Fractures provide no additional porosity or permeability but create significant reservoir heterogeneity (Barrier)
Type 4
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Common fracture styles, their displacements, and their orientations relative to principal stress orientations common in the Earths upper crust (after Narr et al. 2006).
Tayfun Babadagli, PhD, PEng PEMEX Workshop 9-13 November 2009 File-1
FRACTURE CLASSIFICATION
EXPERIMENTAL FRACTURES Shear Extension Tensile NATURAL FRACTURES Tectonic (due to surface forces) Regional (surface or body forces) Contractional (body forces) Surface related (body forces)
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TECTONIC FRACTURES
Nelson, 2001
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Nelson, 2001
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CONTRACTIONAL FRACTURES
Nelson, 2001
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CONTRACTIONAL FRACTURES
Nelson, 2001
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14
15
16
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Fractures provide permeability assist Fractures provide essential porosity and permeability
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FRACTURE PERMEABILITY
b 3l P q1 = 12 L
b p vf = 12 x
2
b2 Kf = 12
L L b
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FRACTURE PERMEABILITY
King, 1987
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PERCOLATION THEORY
P( p) ( p pc )
p > pc
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K ( p pc )
Tayfun Babadagli, PhD, PEng
Stauffer and Aharony (1994) proposed the following general scaling law between the conductivity (or permeability) and percolation threshold and exponent
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K = A p K ' 2 ( ' 3 )
Tayfun Babadagli, PhD, PEng
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CURRENT ISSUES
Fractal feature of fracture networks. Fractal geometry ~ network permeability.
Fractal dimension @ percolation of fracture network (experimental work).
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Selected percolation thresholds for various lattices. Site refers to site percolation and bond refers to bond percolation (after Stauffer and Aharony, 1994).
Lattice Honeycomb Square Triangular Diamond Simple Cube BCC FCC D = 4 hypercubic D = 5 hypercubic D = 6 hypercubic D = 7 hypercubic Site 0.6962 0.592746 0.5 0.43 0.3116 0.246 0.198 0.197 0.141 0.107 0.089 Bond 0.65271 0.5 0.34729 0.388 0.2488 0.1803 0.119 0.1601 0.1182 0.0942 0.0787
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Percolation probability Accessible fraction Backbone fraction Correlation length Effective conductivity Permeability of a percolation network.
P( p) ( p pc )
p p
X A ( p) ( p pc )
X B ( p) ( p pc ) B
p ( p) | p p c | v
g e ( p) ( p pc ) K ( p) ( p pc ) e
The exponents in the above scaling law are universal and their values are presented in the following slide.
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Exponent
D=2
D=3
5/36
0.41
B
v
0.47
1.05
4/3
0.88
1.3
2.0
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is fracture density, is fracture conductivity coefficient, is surface area, is dimensionless permeability and is dimensionless density. The extensive term represents the volumetric area of fractures, weighted by the individual fracture conductivities.
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K = A p K ' 2 ( ' 3 )
Ap
K '2
'3
A p
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Dual continuum and discrete fracture network concepts (after Dershowitz et al. 1998)
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K = R /(8 F )
( 4 D ) / D
2[ E s Ds ) + ( Dv Ev )]
K = C ' (l1 / l n )
3
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UNSWEPT AREA: Viscous fingering or capillary trapping (micro scale). Mobility ratio or channeling or heterogeneity (larger scales)
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12 cm
Water
3.5 cc
20 cm
6.5 cc
q=1 cc/min
14 cc
15 cc
Tayfun Babadagli, PhD, PEng PEMEX Workshop
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q=1 cc/min
q = 2.5 cc/min
3.5 cc
3.5 cc
7.5 cc
5 cc
17 cc
15 cc
24 cc
Tayfun Babadagli, PhD, PEng PEMEX Workshop
35 cc
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WHAT IS Sor (SWEPT ZONE) In water wet rock, residual oil is trapped in a pore. If the capillary forces are greater than the force of driving fluid, trapping occurs.
GRAIN
WATER
OIL BLOB
P1
Tayfun Babadagli, PhD, PEng
P2
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DARCY LAW
YOUNG-LAPLACE
q w L P1 = P = k
q w L 2 Cos > k r
v = injection velocity k = permeability
P2 = Pnw Pw = Pc =
2Cos r
q>
w = water viscosity ow = interfacial tension = contact angle r = pore size L = pore length q = injection rate
2 (Cos)r w L
v w N ca = ( Cos )
Tayfun Babadagli, PhD, PEng PEMEX Workshop 9-13 November 2009 File-1
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ow
viscous = capillary
w = water viscosity = contact angle r = pore size q = injection rate
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Immiscible
Miscible
From Stegemeir (Improved Oil Rec. by Surf. And Polymer Flooding, 1977)
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N ca =
k P v= L
v w
ow
viscous = capillary
P k N ca = L ow
In reservoir it is not practical to increase significantly the pressure differential between injection and production well over that of waterflood. Infill drilling feasibly reduce the interwell distance (L) by no more than a factor of two or four. The only way to reduce the Nca the four orders of magnitude required to reduce the ROS is to reduce the IFT.
Tayfun Babadagli, PhD, PEng PEMEX Workshop 9-13 November 2009 File-1
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BEREA SANDSTONE
75 m
N ca mod
w v w = ( S oi S or ) ow cos( ) o
0.4
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A field scale capillary number was defined for 5-spot pattern as follows: u : superficial water velocity k : absolute permeability korw : end-point water relative permeability P : injector-producer pressure drop A : pattern area d : injector producer distance rw : well radius
P d a
v w N ca = ( Cos )
uw =
o 10kk rw P d A w ln 0 . 619 r w
OIL
GRAIN OIL
GRAIN
OIL
GRAIN
WATER
WATER
WATER
WATER WET
OIL OIL
WATER WET
WATER WET
GRAIN
GRAIN
OIL
GRAIN
WATER
WATER
WATER
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NAPHTHENIC ACID
o
= 35
WATER
= 106
WATER
SANDSTONE
CALCITE
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There exists a few molecule thick zone at the interface between two immiscible fluids. At this zone, molecular attraction is different than inside.
van der Walls forces (F~ ( )/r7 ) and electrostatic forces (F~ ( )/r2 )
WATER
OIL
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IF > 0 IMMISCIBLE o-w = 10-30 dyne/cm @ 75 oF steam-w = 70 dyne/cm (Surface tension, ST) IFT < ST, pressure.
IF = 0 MISCIBLE
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CAPILLARY PRESSURE, PC
CAPILLARY TUBE
h
OIL
ForceUp = AT * 2 r
AT = OS WS = OW cos( )
ForceDown = gh( r 2 )
WATER
CAPILLARY PRESSURE, psi
DRAINAGE (nw-w)
2 cos( ) Pc = Pnw Pw = = hg r
Tayfun Babadagli, PhD, PEng PEMEX Workshop
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RELATIVE PERMEABILITY, kr
DARCY is no longer valid when two immiscible fluids flow in porous medium. In this case flow depends on saturation, viscosity ratio contact angle, capillary number and time. kro = ko/k, krg = kg/k, krw=kw/k
Water
Swi
50
S or
100
Swi
50
S or
100
WATER SATURATION, %
WATER SATURATION, %
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3
1-Sor 1
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ADVANTAGES - DISADVANTAGES
Volumetric-Reservoir Engineering Studies: Remaining after waterflood but no information about the oil distribution Chemical Tracers: Distribution Field ROS from Material Balance (% PV) 16 25 40 44 ROS from Tracer Test 12 12 29 12
Both low, no TOR. More wells between producers Oil in isolated pockets. Infill. Tertiary oil recovery (TOR) Oil in isolated pockets. Infill.
1 2 3 4
Data from: Determination of Residual Oil Saturation, D.C. Bond, C.R. Hocott, F.H. Poettmann (Editors), Interstate Oil Compact Comm., Oklahama City, OK, 1978 Tayfun Babadagli, PhD, PEng PEMEX Workshop 9-13 November 2009 File-1
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FLUID SATURATIONS by CORE ANALYSIS Vacuum distillation Distillation (water) -Extraction (oil) using solvents High temperature retorting (@atmospheric P and 1200 oF) M S o res = S o core Bo E 1 V 2
( )
( )
(S ) (S )
Bo E M V
o res o cores
Average waterflood residual oil in the reservoir (flooded region) Average waterflood residual oil from cores Formation Volume Factor of Oil Bleeding Factor = 1.1 Mobility Ratio Permeability Variation
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RESIDUAL OIL SOR (core, log, tracer) < SOR (Material Balance) SOR (PNC) = SOR (Resistivity logs) SOR (Single well tracer) < (SOR (logs)
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Residual Oil, %
30 25 20 15 10 5 0 Sample 1 Sample 2 Sample 3 Sample 4 Sample 5 Sample 6 Sample 7 Sample 8 Sample 9 Sample 10 Sample 11 Sample 12 Sample 13 Sample 14 Sample 15 Sample 16 Sample 17 Sample 18 Sample 19 Sample 20 Sample 21 Sample 22 Sample 23 Sample 24 Sample 25 Sample 26 Sample 27 Sample 28 Sample 29 Sample 31 Sample 32 Sample 33
Material Balance
Resistivityogs
PNC (Log-Inject-Log)
Core (pressure)
W OR-Rel. Perm.
Babadagli, T. SPE 93884, produced using the data from: Determination of Residual Oil Saturation, D.C. Bond, C.R. Hocott, F.H. Poettmann (Editors), Interstate Oil Compact Comm., Oklahoma City, OK, 1978 Tayfun Babadagli, PhD, PEng PEMEX Workshop 9-13 November 2009 File-1
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2.
3.
STEADY STATE
w qw L k rw = kAPw o qo L
k ro = kAPo
PoL
Poi
qwi qoi
Pwi
qwL qoL L
PWL
The experimental procedure is difficult and time consuming Calculation is simple End effect is a problem.
Tayfun Babadagli, PhD, PEng PEMEX Workshop 9-13 November 2009 File-1
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UNSTEADY STATE
Difficulty arises due to capillary end effect, viscous fingering and the effort required for the computations.
P1
P2
qwi L
qT = qwL + qoL
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CENTRIFUGE
A fast technique based on unsteady-state flow. Relative permeabilities are determined by mathematical models. Viscous fingering is avoided. Does it really represent the flow process in reservoir?
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Experiments
Waterflooding
GOGD
WAG
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IFT
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WETTABILITY
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Corey: Gas-oil measured at the presence of connate water Stone: Only kro is a function of both water and gas saturation Porous media is water-wet
Tayfun Babadagli, PhD, PEng PEMEX Workshop 9-13 November 2009 File-1
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Data acquisition ?????Reservoir simulation Dilemma: How to incorporate different (and limited) data sets and map the fracture network. NFR characterization is mainly based on the fracture sets seen in the logs and cores.
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CORES: Used to determine: Origin, geometry and occurrence of fractures Geomechanical modification Fracture orientation Fracture dip relative to core axis and to bedding, as well as relative orientation of fractures should be measured. Fracture aperture and height: Needed for fracture density, porosity, etc.
After Narr, Schechter, Thompson Naturally Fractured Reservoir Characterization SPE, 2006
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IMAGE LOGS Direct source of information. Two types; resistivity based and acoustic.
(a)Open fractures in resistivity image (dark sinusoids), (b) Core form the same well, (c) image of whole core After Narr, Schechter, Thompson
Tayfun Babadagli, PhD, PEng PEMEX Workshop Naturally Fractured Reservoir Characterization SPE, 69 2006 9-13 November 2009 File-1
After Narr, Schechter, Thompson Naturally Fractured Reservoir Characterization SPE, 2006
Open fractures: filled with conductive mud filtrate Closed fractures: filled with resistive mineralization Image logs are good for orientations. Aperture could also be computed. Apparent fracture height can be measured from image logs.
Tayfun Babadagli, PhD, PEng PEMEX Workshop 9-13 November 2009 File-1
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FRACTURE DENSITY Fracture surfaces area/unit volume Fracture surface area : computed form cores or image logs.
D Vr = hr 2
df =
A
i =1
nf
fi
Vr
h
i =1
nf
fi
Dhr
L2/L3 is reduced to 1/L. For a set of parallel fractures, L is equal to their average spacing (perpendicular distance between fractures). Fracture density provides fracture spacing
f =
a
i =1
nf
fi
A fi
Vr
a
i =1
nf
fi
h fi
Dhr
af is fracture aperture.
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Fracture Permeability
Wo2 kf = 12
3 wo kf = 12s
Muskat Eq.
Lambs Equation
k f = 4.54 *10 6 * w 3 * IF
k f = 2.77 *10 5 * w 3 * IF
If w is in cm (IF=# fractures/ft)
DIRECT PROPORTIONALITY!!!!
Tayfun Babadagli, PhD, PEng PEMEX Workshop 9-13 November 2009 File-1
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FRACTURE SPACING
Calculated in core and outcrops by counting the number of fractures encountered along a line of some given length perpendicular to the fracture set an dividing the length of measurement line. In more complex environments, the same is done along lines in specific dimensions.
Nelson, R.A. Geological Analysis of Naturally Fractured Reservoirs, Gulf Publ. 2001
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