Gogâltan, Florin: RITUAL ASPECTS OF THE BRONZE AGE TELL-SETTLEMENTS IN THE CARPATHIAN BASIN. Ephemeris Napocensis XXII (2012)

EPHEMERIS NAPOCENSIS
XXII 2012
ROMANIAN ACADEMY INSTITUTE OF ARCHAEOLOGY AND HISTORY OF ART CLUJ-NAPOCA

EDITORIAL BOARD Editor: Coriolan Horaiu Opreanu Members: Sorin Coci, Vlad-Andrei Lzrescu, Ioan Stanciu ADVISORY BOARD Alexandru Avram (Le Mans, France); Mihai Brbulescu (Rome, Italy); Alexander Bursche (Warsaw, Poland); Falko Daim (Mainz, Germany); Andreas Lippert (Vienna, Austria); Bernd Pffgen (Munich, Germany); Marius Porumb (Cluj-Napoca, Romania); Alexander Rubel (Iai, Romania); Peter Scherrer (Graz, Austria); Alexandru Vulpe (Bucharest, Romania).
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ACADEMIA ROMN INSTITUTUL DE ARHEOLOGIE I ISTORIA ARTEI
XXII 2012
EDITURA ACADEMIEI ROMNE
SOMMAIRE CONTENTS INHALT
STUDIES FLORIN GOGLTAN Ritual Aspects of the Bronze Age Tell-Settlements in the Carpathian Basin. A Methodological Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 ALEXANDRA GVAN Metallurgy and Bronze Age Tell-Settlements from Western Romania (I) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57 DVID PETRU Everyday Life in the Research Concerning the Roman Army in the Western European Part of the Empire and the Province of Dacia. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91 CORIOLAN HORAIU OPREANU From to Colonia Dacica Sarmizegetusa. A File of the Problem. . . . . . . . . 113 CLIN COSMA Ethnische und politische Gegebenheiten im Westen und Nordwesten Rumniens im 8.10. Jh. n.Chr. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
ARCHAEOLOGICAL AND EPIGRAPHICAL NOTES AUREL RUSTOIU Commentaria Archaeologica et Historica (I) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159 VITALIE BRC Some Remarks on Metal Cups with Zoomorphic Handles in the Sarmatian Environment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185 FLORIN FODOREAN Spa Vignettes in Tabula Peutingeriana. Travelling Ad Aquas: thermal Water Resources in Roman Dacia. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211 DAN AUGUSTIN DEAC Note on Apis Bull Representations in Roman Dacia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223 SILVIA MUSTA, SORIN COCI, VALENTIN VOIIAN Instrumentum Balnei from Roman Napoca. Two Iron Vessels Discovered on the Site from Victor Deleu Street. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235 IOAN STANCIU About the Use of the So-Called Clay Breadcakes in the Milieu of the Early Slav Settlements (6th7th Centuries). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
DAN BCUE-CRIAN Contributions to the Study of Elites and Power Centers in Transylvania during the second Half of the 9th first Half of the 10th Centuries. Proposal of Identification Criteria Based on archaeological Discoveries. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279 ADRIANA ISAC, ERWIN GLL, SZILRD GL A 12th Century Cemetery Fragment from Gilu (Cluj County) (Germ.: Julmarkt; Hung.: Gyalu). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301 ADRIAN ANDREI RUSU Stove Tiles with the Royal Coat of Arms of King Matthias I Corvinus. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313
REVIEWS IULIAN MOGA, Culte solare i lunare n Asia Mic n timpul Principatului/Solar and Lunar Cults in Asia Minor in the Age of the Principate, Editura Universitii Alexandru Ioan Cuza Iai (Iai 2011), 752 p.(Szab Csaba) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327 DAN GH. TEODOR, Un centru meteugresc din evul mediu timpuriu. Cercetrile arheologice de la Lozna-Botoani/An Artisan centre from the Early Middle Ages. The archaeological research from Lozna-Botoani, Bibliotheca Archaeologica Moldaviae XV, Academia Romn Filiala Iai, Institutul de Arheologie, Editura Istros (Brila 2011), 200 p.(including 118 figures), abstract and list of figures in French (Ioan Stanciu). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331 CLIN COSMA, Funerary Pottery in Transylvania of the 7th10th Centuries, Series Ethnic and Cultural Interferences in the 1st Millenium B.C. to the 1st Millenium AD. 18, Romanian Academy Institute of Archaeology and Art History ClujNapoca, Mega Publishing House (Cluj-Napoca 2011), 183 p., 49 plates (Aurel Dragot). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339
RESEARCH PROJECTS Crossing the Boundaries. Remodeling Cultural Identities at the End of Antiquity in Central and Eastern Europe. A Case Study (Coriolan H.Oprean, Vlad-Andrei Lzrescu) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343 Warriors and military retainers in Transylvania of the 7th9th centuries (Clin Cosma). . . . . . . . . . 349 Seeing the Unseen. Landscape Archaeology on the Northern Frontier of the Roman Empire at Porolissvm (Romania) (Coriolan H.Oprean, Vlad-Andrei Lzrescu) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 352
Abbreviations that can not be found in Bericht der Rmisch-Germanische Kommission. . . . . . 363 Guidelines for Ephemeris Napocensis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 366
STUDIES
RITUAL ASPECTS OF THE BRONZE AGE TELL-SETTLEMENTS IN THE CARPATHIAN BASIN. A METHODOLOGICAL APPROACH1
Florin Gogltan2
To Professor Gheorghe Lazarovici at his 70th anniversary
Abstract: When trying to find traces of spiritual manifestations in a settlement, certain discoveries must be taken into account such as: 1. cult structures (sanctuaries or other features with ritual function); 2.deviant burials (Sonderbestattungen); 3.ritual deposits of ceramics or metal artifacts; 4.artifacts with ritual function (idols, vessels with symbolic representations, altars etc.); 5.fireplaces with ritual function. Besides the already mentioned discoveries, one should take into consideration that there must have been other categories of objects or places in the settlement with special meanings. One may suppose the existence of wooden idols. Probably there also existed sacred trees, pillars and stones with supernatural powers. Keywords: Bronze Age, tell settlements, Carpathian Basin, ritual, religious life
This topic was the subject of my conference paper held at the 8th annual conference of the European Archaeologists Association on September 24th29th 2002, Thessaloniki, Greece, in the section The archaeology of beliefs and ritual practices (GOGLTAN 2002a, 215). The intent of the organizers to publish a conference volume was unfortunatly not realized. In the meantime, several books and articles dealing with the subject of Bronze Age rituals and the archaeology of religion have been published (MCCAULEY/LAWSON 2002; MLLER F. 2002; GRUENWALD 2003; METZNER-NEBELSICK 2003a, 99117; INSOLL 2004; BRADLEY 2005; KRISTIANSEN/LARSSON 2005, 142356; KYRIAKIDIS 2007; BARROWCLONGH/MALONE 2007; DAGATA/van de MOORTEL 2009; BERGGREN/NILSSON STUTZ 2010 etc.) as well as a number of publications focused on Bronze Age tells from the Carpathian Basin (GOGLTAN 2002b, 1145; DANI/ MTH/SZAB 2003, 93118; OLEXA 2003; GAAJ 2003, 2151; HNSEL/MEDOVI 2004, 83111; GOGLTAN 2005a, 161179; OSHEA ET AL. 2005, 81109; GOGLTAN 2005b, 1143; POROSZLAI/ VICZE 2005; FISCHL 2006; MOLNR/IMECS 2006, 2987; GOGLTAN 2006, 6174; MOLNR 2006, 75119; NMETI/MOLNR 2007; GOGLTAN 2008, 3956; BTORA ET AL. 2008, 97107; MOLNR 2008, 3360; FURMNEK/MARKOV 2008; DANI 2009, 1721; DAVID 2009, 563594; KULCSR 2009; ANDERS ET AL. 2010, 147160; GOGLTAN 2010, 1346; EARLE/KRISTIANSEN 2010; MOLNR 2011, 269330; KALICZ ET AL. 2011; GOGLTAN 2011, 934; BTORA ET AL. 2012, 111130 etc). Alexander von Humboldt Foundation (Bonn/Bad Godesberg, Germany) offered me the opportunity to research the topic of the Bronze Age tell settlements in the Carpathian Basin (under the direct lead of prof.B.Hnsel at Freie Universitt Berlin20012002) which also included the participation at the Thessaloniki symposium. I am indebted also to Anca Gogltan, Raluca Burlacu-Timofte, Mihaela Savu and Demjn Andrea who helped me with editing the present article. The bibliographical additions were possible with the financial support of the Sectoral Operational Programme for Human Development 20072013, co-financed by the European Social Fund, under the project number POSDRU/89/1.5/S/61104 with the title Social sciences and humanities in the context of global development development and implementation of postdoctoral research and a scholarship offered by MTA Domus Hungarica Scientiarum et Artium (Budapest 2012). 2 Institute of Archaeology and Art History ClujNapoca, Romanian Academy Cluj Branch, M.Koglniceanu str.1214, 400084, ClujNapoca, Cluj county, RO; e-mail: gogaltan@yahoo.com.
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Ephemeris Napocensis, XXII, 2012, p. 756
Florin Gogltan
Religion is as ancient as language3. Prehistoric, ancient or medieval people used to put all their faith and belief in supernatural forces to protect them in case of natural disasters or against other threats. These beliefs made the difference between those people of the past and todays, rational human beings. Who were these Gods, what were their names and in which ways were they adored? Mircea Eliade was right when he emphasized the opacity of the prehistoric sources concerning various aspects of spiritual life4. Without written sources, reconstruction of thereligious life is one of the hardest tasks for an archaeologist5. How close are we to what Colin Renfrew6 referred to as the ancient mind? Anthony Harding considered that it is impossible to enter into the psyche of prehistoric peoples or chart the psychological processes7. Many primitive societies did not make any difference between profane and sacred actions, between what was practical and symbolic. In that case, are we able to make the distinction between the domestic remains and the rests of a ritual banquet? Are the human, the animal figurines and the miniature vessels votive objects or simple toys? Was a fireplace, found outside the house, used for cooking everyday meals or was it destined also for burning offerings for the Gods?
Fig. 1. Bronze Age tells, tell-like and mound-like settlements in the Carpathian Basin. RAPPAPORT 1999, 16. ELIADE 1991, 1518. 5 In a debate on archaeologys methods and theory written 50 years ago, Christopher Hawkes established a scale of difficulties in archaeological researches: 1. To infer from the archaeological phenomena to the techniques producing them I take to be relatively easy...; 2. To infer to the subsistence-economies of the human groups concerned is fairly easy...; 3. To infer to the socio/political institutions of the groups, however, is considerably harder; 4. To infer to the religious institutions and spiritual life is the hardest inference of all (HAWKES 1954, 161162). Janet E.Levy held a similar position: The identification and interpretation of material remains as evidence of prehistoric ritual activity is one of the most complex and frustrating tasks for an archaeologist (LEVY 1981, 174). 6 This notion was defined in the context of the debate around the so-called cognitive archaeology (see: RENFREW 1994a, 312). In the same book C.Renfrew emphasized that any attempt to encompass the archaeology of mind must inevitably consider the archaeological approach towards religion (RENFREW 1994b, 47). 7 HARDING 2000, 308.
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Ritual Aspects of the Bronze Age Tell-Settlements in the Carpathian Basin
Along with the rites and funerary rituals8, the so-called natural sanctuaries (caves, cliffs, springs etc.)9, presented by Martin P.Nilsson in 1927 in The Minoan-Mycenaean Religion10, the sanctuaries located outside the settlements (peak-sanctuaries)11, the bronze hoards12 as well as the discoveries inside the settlements may offer more details to the research of the spiritual life13. It is very difficult to make a presentation of ritual aspects of the Bronze Age tell settlements in the Carpathian Basin. In order to reconstruct an overall image of the elements composing different rituals, I will begin with a survey of all the types of information available on this subject. An important issue, debated by scholars, was the notion of ritual itself, whether it should be interpreted as a sacred or as a profane practice. Similar questions were raised concerning sacrifices and votive offerings14. Beginning with the late 19th century, important contributions to the archaeological interpretation of such practices were offered by ethnographic studies about prehistoric communities, as well as by the historians of antique religions. In spite of the fact that an impressive literature was published around this subject15, of the existing theories only some are convincing. For example, William H.D.Rouse suggested that for the ancient Greeks a votive offering was whatever is given of freewill to a being conceived as superhuman16. Gerardus van der Leeuw developed the principle, now classic, of do ut des17. The practical purpose of an offering is the so-called do ut accipiam18. In one of the main writings referring to the sacrifice and its archaeological interpretation, Berta Stjernquist explained the implications of this concept in Europe: she understood those objects which were deposited with a religious purpose as Opferfund19. Both archaeologists and anthropologists have elaborated numerous and various definitions of ritual which have been literally accepted by some, and reformulated by others, without reaching a common view20. If anthropologists couldnt get to an agreement concerning the ritual as a consequence of the multitude of contradictory examples21, for archaeologists the
8 For example: ROBERTS/LEE/BINTLIFF 1989; STJERNQUIST 1994; BRANIGAN 1998; LICHTER 2001 etc. 9 New perspective by JANKUHN 1970; HGG/MARINATOS 1981; CARMICHAEL ET AL. 1994; SCHAUER 1996, 381416; BUSCH 2000; BIEHL/BERTEMES/MELLER 2001; CASTLEDEN 2001, 5963 etc. 10 NILSSON 1950, 5371. 11 RUTKOWSKI 1985, 345359; RUTKOWSKI 1986; CASTLEDEN 2001, 5359 etc. 12 The interpretation of the bronze deposits found in bogs as ritual gestures was already proposed by WORSAAE 1866, 313326. Out of the large number of works available on this matter I have selected those that may give an idea about how the debate developed over time: MLLER 1897; STJERNQUIST 1963, 564; JENSEN 1972, 115164; TORBRGGE 1972, 1146; v. BRUNN 1980, 91150; LEVY 1982; WILLROTH 1985, 361400; BRADLEY 1990; HANSEN 1994; SOROCEANU 1995, 1580; HNSEL A./HNSEL B. 1997; HARDING 2000, 361368; HANSEN 2000, 3162 etc. See also: OSBORNE 2004, 110; HANSEN 2005, 211230; SALA 2005; MARASZEK 2006; LUND/MELHEIM 2011, 441446 etc. 13 HILL 1995. Find a more recent perspective in BRADLEY 2005. 14 As in Latin, there is a difference between sacrificium and votum in the modern languages as well. For example, in English is used sacrifice and votive-offering, and in German Opfer and Weihungen. See also HANSEN 1994, 382 n. 95. 15 See also the Romanian translations for these writings: FRAZER 1890; MAUSS/HUBERT 1898, 29138; MAUSS/HUBERT 1903, 1146; van GENNEP 1909; DURKHEIM 1912 etc. For a brief presentation of the older anthropological literature see MORRIS 1987. More recent contributions are CARTER 2003; NEGEL 2005. 16 ROUSE 1998, 1 (first edition published in Cambridge in 1902, and the second one in New York in 1975). S.Hansen, talking about Votivopfer is using this definition (HANSEN 1994, 382). 17 van der LEEUW 1921, 241253. 18 BERTHOLET 1942, 1819. 19 STJERNQUIST 1963, 8 (Der Begriff Opferfund ist ganz allgemein eine Bezeichnung fr solche Fundgegenstnde, deren Niederlegung einen religisen Sinn und Zweck hatte). 20 BELL 1992, 1366; BELL 1997, 389. 21 One should take into account the opinion of Catherine Bell I have not proposed a new theory of ritual because I believe that a new theory of ritual, by definition, would do little to solve the real conundrums that the study of ritual
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problem was simpler. They agreed that ritual practices may be considered those acts fundamentally different from other daily activities22. It is difficult to interpret, from our contemporary perspective, which actions were non-functional, irrational, and symbolically valuable for prehistoric societies. Some specialists consider that interpreting the archaeological material, from a religious point of view, means crossing the borders of the research. There are others who dont have such restraints: for them a thorough knowledge of the relevant data coupled with the free exercise of the creative human gift for sympathetic imagination can together lead directly to valid insights into long-vanished belief systems23. With a characteristic English humor, Paul Bahn defined the ritual as an all-purpose explanation used where nothing else comes to mind24. In this case it may be debatable if the gesture of throwing a coin into the Fontana di Trevi in Rome or lighting a candle in a church represents a ritual or it is just a superstition for many of us.
Fig. 2. Tiszaug Kmnytet. A house of the Nagyrv culture (after CSNYI/STANCZIK 1992). has come up against. Instead, I have proposed a new framework within which to reconsider traditional questions about ritual. In this framework, ritual activities are restored to their rightful context, the multitude of ways of acting in a particular culture. This might be the reason why she insists on what she defines as ritualization: the production of ritualized acts can be described, in part, as that way of acting that sets itself off from other ways of acting by virtue of the way in which it does what it does (BELL 1992, 140). Lately her concept was adopted by some archaeologists (BRADLEY 2003, 1221). In a following work, she establishes six categories of ritual action: They are rites of passage, which are also called life-cycle rites; calendrical and commemorative rites; rites of exchange and communion; rites of affliction; rites of feasting, fasting, and festivals; and, finally, political rituals (BELL 1997, 94). 22 After LEVY 1981, 173 I understand religious ritual (often referred to simply as ritual in this paper) to be repeated, stereotyped (although not necessarily rigidly) behaviors directed toward a non-empirical, supernatural world. Such behaviors may involve individuals or groups, may consist of any number of physical and verbal activities, and may be directed at entities conceived of as beings, natural objects, essences, immanent forces etc. In Colin Renfrews opinion Ritual behavior is readily recognized in life through its formality, through the elements of repetition involved, and through its evidently purposive character it has to be seen to be done, whether publicly by a gathering of people, or privately in the presence of the deity (RENFREW 1985, 14). A more recent presentation of that debate may be found in BRCK 1999, 314344. Also important is her conclusion, according to which This equation of ritual with non-functional action is, I would argue, the single most important characteristic of both archaeological and anthropological approaches to ritual (BRCK 1999, 317). 23 RENFREW 1985, 1. 24 BAHN 1989, 62.
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More recently, post-processual and interpretative archaeology has paid more attention to symbolic meanings of the archaeological data. All sorts of arguments were given in order to prove that the whole existence of primitive societies must have been bound by rituals. The great majority of these studies didnt make a distinction between sacred and profane; they insisted on the social role of ritual practices that would permit the reproduction and renegotiation of the social order25. Therefore, it became customary to consider all human creations, starting with the artifacts from the waste pits to the administration of wider territories, as metaphoric representations of the social and cosmic order26. They insist on the fact that ritual had to be incorporated in all the aspects of daily life in prehistoric societies. This is why it is very difficult to reconstruct the pre and proto historical past because everything could be a reflection of our imagination27. Nevertheless, this opinion is not fully embraced by all post-processualists; some are aware of the danger of interpreting everything under the category of ritual. This being the case, it surely appears more and more obvious that human actions are both practical and symbolic. These two sides are not to be considered separately, as they can describe the same thing, and this is the reason why Joanna Brck referred to it as the coin of human action28. The late Roy Rappaport, former professor at the University of Ann Arbor/Michigan, came with a new anthropological interpretation of the matters of ritual and religion in 1999. Hedefined ritual as the performance of, more or less, invariant sequences of formal acts and utterances not entirely encoded by performers29. For this reason, he considered the ritual to be a basic activity of the society. However, he pointed out that ... as all ritual is not religions, notall religions acts are ritual30. Another important issue of the theoretical approach concerning ritual regarded the means by which archaeologists could trace such manifestations31. It is well-known that in the Ancient world the offerings accompanied by prayers were meant to connect humans with their deities32. Beyond archaeological proofs, literary sources support the idea that almost anything could have served as an offering33. This was proved by W.H.D. Rouse already in the beginning of the 20th century in his above-mentioned work34. More recently, a series of other contributions published in collective volumes35, synthesis concerning the archaic sanctuaries in Ionia36, the cult places for Hera37 as well as the votive depositions on the Acropolis of Athens, from the geometric and sub-geometric periods contributed to a better knowledge of the matter38.
BARRETT 1991, 19; GARWOOD 1991, 1032; BARRETT 1994, 7285 etc. PARKER PEARSON/RICHARDS 1994, 3872; HILL 1995, 96101. 27 A reply to the post-processualist criticism is made by RENFREW 1994a, 9. 28 BRCK 1999, 325. 29 RAPPAPORT 1999, 24. 30 RAPPAPORT 1999, 25. 31 Beyond the contributions of B.Stjernquist (STJERNQUIST 1963, 564) and H.Kirchner (KIRCHNER 1968, 379389), in the German archaeological school the position of C.Colpe is now classical. He proposed several means by which ritual deposits may be identified: Von dem Material, auf das zu achten ist, fallen Haus und Siedlungsgrundrisse aus, nur tragbare Gegenstnde und Tiere kommen in Frage. Wiederholung der Niederlegung drfte leicht festzustellen sein; die Auergewhnlichkeit kann sich an der Wahl der Gegenstnde (Kostbarkeit, Seltenheit in der Umgebung) bzw. Tiere (Bevorzugung einer Art, Altersstufe, eines Geschlechts) und dem Ort und der Art ihrer Niederlegung zeigen (Gruppierungen, die sich nicht zufllig ergeben; bestimmte Ttungsarten; Anordnung der Knochen unw.). Wiederholung und Auergewhnlichkeit der Niederlegung drfen wir unter dem Begriff der Ritualisierung zusammenfassen (COLPE 1970, 36). 32 van STRATEN 1981, 65. 33 van STRATEN 1981, 80. 34 ROUSE 1998. 35 van STRATEN 1992, 247284; SIMON 1997, 125143 etc. 36 SIMON 1986. 37 BAUMBACH 2004. 38 SCHOLL 2007, 42173.
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Whereas in the study of Antiquity one may correlate archaeological finds with written sources, in the case of Prehistory it is harder to determine which were the offerings for the Gods.
Fig. 3. Slacea Dealul Vida. The plan of megaron-temple (after CHIDIOAN/ORDENTLICH 1975).
Based on ethnographic observations, J.Levy discovered some general criteria defining rituals that, in my opinion, may be still considered valid: There are several generalizations about material remains of offering rituals which can be drawn from this survey: (1) You can expect ritual remains to be located in some special limited location, forbidden to or hidden from most of the population. (2) You can expect ritual remains to be a special subclass of the communitys material culture, characterized by restrictions of form, color, quality etc. (3) You can expect ritual remains to be arranged in special required patterns. (4) You can expect ritual remains to be associated with remains of food, such as ritual meals, slaughtering, and libations39. There are archaeologists, especially Germans, as well as other specialists anchored in the German literature, who are more concerned with methodology and less with a theoretical approach40. They adopted a more neutral point of view concerning the concept of communication with the Gods41. According to them, the offerings were Gifts to the Gods42 or Gaben an die Gtter43. For those deities, people were ready to sacrifice golden vessels and even humans44. Other methods of analysis focus on the order of offering the goods. Horst Kirchner proposed to arrange these practices according to the geographical space, the chronological and cultural horizon, the category of deposited goods, the place of the offering, the person
LEVY 1981, 176. The new generations of German specialists were also influenced by the debates from the Anglo-American literature. See: BERNBECK 1997; BERTEMES/BIEHL 2001, 1124; MLLER F. 2002; ZIPF 2003, 916; METZNER-NEBELSICK 2003a, 99117 etc. More recently TRACHSEL 2008, 15. 41 GLADIGOW 1984, 1943; BURKERT 1987, 4350. 42 GREGORY 1980, 626652; van STRATEN 1981, 65151; LINDERS/NORDQUIST 1987. 43 HNSEL/HNSEL 1997. 44 The Tn 316 tablet from Pylos cited at the end of this article is a well-known example. A discussion on this subject, starting with the representations on the frescoes from Knossos may be found in BOULOTIS 1987, 145155.
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making the sacrifice, the reason, the goal and the receiver of the offering45. According to Hermann Mller-Karpe, when dealing with the question of sacrifice and the cultic structures in Europe (without including the Mycenaean world), more important are the place, the way and the cathegories of offerings. As cultic places he took into consideration swamps, rivers, caves, hill and mountain tops, as well as settlements. He analysed several of the procedures in which offerings were deposited, such as sinking, burial and burning. The ritual deposited goods were represented by weapons, jewelry, tools, vessels with contents, animals respectively parts of animals and other cultic objects46. In the debate about spiritual life, it will also be useful to trace some general aspects concerning the problem of Bronze Age tell settlements in the Carpathian Basin. The artificial mounds began to draw the attention of specialists already in the beginning of the 18th century47. Starting with the second half of the 19th century, these settlements had been archaeologically investigated with the methods available at that time48. After publishing the first results of the excavations49, experts like Flris Rmer50, Luigi Pigorini51, Rudolf Virchow52, Johanna Mestorf53 and later Lajos Mrton54 and Vere Gordon Childe55 related the settlements of Tszeg, Nagyrv, Fzesabony, Pecica, Periam, etc, with the so-called terramare from Northern Italy. In an article written in 1937, Ferencz Tompa was the first one to associate the multilayered settlements in Hungary with those in the Near East, naming them with the general term of tells56. Several scholars, such as Pl Patay57, Nndor Kalicz58, Istvn Bna59, Jnos Makkay60, John Chapman61 etc., debated the problem of the tell settlements in the Carpathian Basin, but they didnt propose a definition. N.Kalicz and P Pl Raczky classified tells into genuine tell
45 KIRCHNER 1968, 386389: Geographischer Bereich, Zeitstellung und Kulturzugehrigkeit, Gegenstand des Opfers, Umstnde des Opfers, Spender des Opfers, Anlass des Opfers (des Opferns), Sinn des Opfers (des Opferns), Empfnger des Opfers. 46 MLLER-KARPE 1980, 682: An Deponierungspltzen kommen in Betracht: Moore, Gewsser, Hhlen, vor allem Spalthhlen, Anhhen, aber auch Siedlungen; an Behandlungsarten: Versenken, Vergraben oder Verbrennen; an rituell deponierten Gegenstnden: Waffen, Schmuck, Gerte, Gefe mit Inhalt, Tiere bzw. Teile von Tieren und ausgesprochene Kultobjekte.. 47 The earliest reliable information concerning the existence of some fortified elements that surrounded the artificial mounds is provided by Luigi Ferdinando Marsigli (16581730). He mentioned and sketched the defense system of the Feudvar tell that he had seen in 1693 in his work Danubius Pannonico-Mysicus (1726) (NEBEHAY 1981, 7588). See also GOGLTAN 2008, 4142, Fig.3/1. 48 KUBINYI 1861, 104113. 49 KUBINYI 1861, 104113 (Gomba Vrhegy); FOLTINY 1870, 442455 (Szihalom rpdvr = Fldvr) etc. 50 RMER 1878, 1838. 51 PIGORINI 1876, 230241. 52 VIRCHOW 1876, 243255. 53 MESTORF 1876. 54 MRTON 1910, 8687. 55 CHILDE 1929, 216, 263264 etc. 56 TOMPA 1937, Pl.39 Unsere Abb. zeigt das Hherwachsen des Tells durch Erneuerung der Huser an der gleichen Stelle. 57 PATAY 1938, 29, 32, 57 (Tell-frmig). 58 KALICZ 1965, 31 in geschichtete Siedlung (Schnitt-Tiefe von 50150 cm) mit Tell-Eigenschaften. 59 BNA 1975, 1617 Der Tell ist ein mehrschichtiger, aus dem Flachland emporragender Siedlungsrest. Damit die Schichten entsthehen, mssen sich nicht unbedingt mehrere Kulturen an derselben Stelle ansiedeln, doch kommt das wegen der gnstigen Lage oft vor. Die Tells stammen von Bewohnern, die sehaft waren, vornehmlich intensiv wirtschafteten und Mehrfelderwirtschaft betriben. Zu ihrer Entstehung ist also die Kenntnis der Mehrfelderwirtschaft notwendig. 60 MAKKAY 1982, 104106. 61 CHAPMAN 1989, 39 a physical and social expression of continuity with the ancestors, who once lived in the same place.
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settlements, and tell-like settlements62. Genuine tell settlements were described as having a stratigraphy of 34 m and a long period of living, while tell-like settlements were occupied for a shorter period of time and had a stratigraphy of maximum 1 to 2.5 m. This definition was adopted by other scholars as well63.
Fig. 4. Nin Myla (after GASAJ 1994).
Taking into consideration all these opinions and the existing realities in the Carpathian Basin, I include in the category of tells those multilayered settlements which have been created by accumulation of successive sequences of building and rebuilding of surface houses, created in the wattle and daub technique64. I established a catalogue of tell settlements based on this definition and on the principle that these multilayered settlements belong to a certain archaeological culture. According to the number of layers and their thickness, I proposed to divide them into tell settlements and tell-like settlements. Furthermore, I suggested to consider tells those sites with over 1 m stratigraphy and with 3 or more layers. The tell-like settlements represent those cases with at least two archaeological levels and a stratigraphy up to 1 m height. As for those settlements which werent archeologically researched but have the structure and materials similar to those usually present in tell settlements, I included them in another category: mound-like settlements65. Based on these criteria, I took into account 188 settlements, as shown on the map (Fig. 1). As it may be seen, they are concentrated in different areas of the Carpathian Basin: along the high terrace of the Danube, on the lower course of the Mure river, the lower plains of the Tisa, Cri, Barcu and Er rivers, the hilly area on the north-eastern part
KALICZ/RACZKY 1987, 15. MEIER-ARENDT 1991, 7785. 64 Terminological aspects were discussed in several articles: GOGLTAN 2002B, 1145; GOGLTAN 2003a, 224; GOGLTAN 2003b, 4593; GOGLTAN 2005a, 161 etc. 65 Recent additions appear in LINK 2006, 714. See the comments regarding my opinions and those of Thomas Link in HORVTH 2009, 159165.
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of Budapest (the hills of Gdl) and the foot of the Bkk mountains. Chronologically speaking, they are representative for a period of 1000 years, approximately between 2500 B.C. and 1500 B.C.66. What kind of information offered the Bronze Age tell settlements in the Carpathian Basin concerning spiritual life? Writing about the cult places in the Mycenaean settlements, Gabriele Albers divided them in five categories: 1. cult places inside homes (Kultsttten in Husern); 2. cult places with protective function in profane spaces (Kultausstattung mit religiser Schutzfunktion im Profanbereich)67; 3. shrine-gates (Torheiligtmer); 4. cult places in palaces (Kultsttten in Palsten); 5. public sanctuaries (Stadtheiligtmer)68. Discussing the Bronze Age rituals in Slovakia, Vclav Furmnek and Jozef Vladr referred to three aspects to be taken into consideration: 1. the so-called built sanctuary, 2. offerings with a ritual character and 3. cultic objects69. Considering the second point in the list of difficulties, Andrea Stapel established three major types of ritual offerings in settlements: ceramic deposits (Keramikdeposition), graves in settlements (Siedlungsbestattung) and the pits or other features with ritual significance (Opfergrube/-befund)70. When trying to find traces of spiritual manifestations in a settlement, certain discoveries must be taken into account such as: 1. cult structures (sanctuaries or other features with ritual function)71; 2. deviant burials (Sonderbestattungen); 3. ritual deposits of ceramics or metal artifacts; 4. artifacts with ritual function (idols, vessels with symbolic representations, altars etc.); 5. fireplaces with ritual function. Besides the already mentioned discoveries, one should take into consideration that there must have been other categories of objects or places in thesettlement with special meanings. One may suppose the existence of wooden idols, following the examples of Northern Europe, England or Ireland, where such items were discovered and
GOGLTAN 2005a, 161179. In which category may be included the placing of idols at the entrance in a house, on fireplaces, against the walls or in workshops etc. 68 ALBERS 1994, 78. See also the synthesis proposed by Helene Whittaker (WHITTAKER 1997). 69 FURMNEK/VLADR 1996, 497. 70 STAPEL 1999, 19. 71 Still a valid theory that establishes the characteristics of a cult place is the List of Correlates proposed by C.Renfrew. He argued that: 1. Ritual may take place in a spot with special, natural associations: e.g. a cave, a grove of trees, a spring, a mountain top. 2. Alternatively it may take place in a special building set apart from sacred function. 3. It may involve both conspicuous public display, and hidden exclusive mysteries, whose practice will be reflected in the architecture. 4. Worship will involve prayer and special movements gesture of adoration and these may be reflected in the iconography of decorations or images. 5. The ritual may employ devices for inducing religious experience, such as dance, music and drugs. 6. The structure and equipment used may employ a number of attention-focusing devices, reflected in the architecture and in the movable equipment. 7. The association with the omnipotent power(s) may be reflected in the use of a cult image of the power, or its an-iconic representation. 8. The chosen place will have special facilities for the practice of ritual, e.g. altars, benches, pools or basins of water, hearths, pits for libations. 9. The sacrifice of animals or humans may be practiced. 10. Food and drink may be brought, and possibly consumed as offerings, or burnt/poured away. 11. Other material objects may be brought and offered (votives). The act of offering may entail breakage. 12. Special portable equipment may be employed in the cult practice, e.g. special receptacles, lamps etc. 13. The sacred area is likely to be rich in repeated symbols (redundancy). 14. The symbols used will often relate from an iconographic point of view to the deities worshipped and their associated myth. In particular specific animal symbolism (of real or mythical animals) may be employed, particular animals relating to specific deities or powers. 15. The symbolism used may relate to that seen also in funerary rituals, and in other rites of passage. 16. Concepts of cleanliness and pollution may be reflected in the facilities and maintenance of sacred area. 17. Great investment of wealth may be reflected both in the equipment used and in the offerings made. 18. Great investment of wealth and resources may be reflected in the structure itself and its facilities (RENFREW 1985, 1920).
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were interpreted as being representations of certain deities72. Probably there also existed sacred trees, pillars73 and stones with supernatural powers74.
Fig. 5. PocsajLenyvr(after BNA 1992).
In the first category (cult structures) should be probably included a house from Tiszaug Kmnytet75. This has the exterior walls decorated with geometric motifs similar to those on the ceramics of the Nagyrv culture76 (Fig.2). The sacred symbolism of the decorations77, and the fact that these dont have any analogy in the Bronze Age of the Carpathian Basin78, might indicate that the building had a special function in the community. And if we cannot consider it to be a sanctuary, we may at least interpret it as the dwelling of an important member of thelocal community, a member who was perhaps in charge with religious practices. The detailed research of the tell in Slacea Dealul Vida led by Ivan Ordentlich between 19641969, made possible the discovery of a so-called megaron-temple in this area79. The building was placed in the Southern part of the settlement, at the periphery. However, it was not isolated from the community, as the only access into the fortification was in that area. The construction was rectangular with the dimensions of 8.80m5.20m, being oriented North-West-South-East (Fig. 3). It consisted of three rooms: a porch with one opened side, a small rectangular room and a large rectangular one. No archaeological material was discovered in the entrance area. The second room (the vestibule) had a square, clay platform, probably suspended. Near it were discovered compact pieces of coal along with small, broken pottery fragments. The third room, and the largest one, contained two clay altar pieces of a certain height above the floor, which presented traces of repeated burning.
More recently COLES 1990, 315333 with bibliography. EVANS 1901, 99204; NILSSON 1950, 262288; BRUNAUX 1993, 5765. 74 VLADR 1973, 294. Auf dem Opferplatz der Otomani-Kultur in Spisk tvrtok fand man drei massive, herzfrmig zugehauene Travertinsteine (FURMNEK/VELIAIK/VLADR 1999, 170). 75 CSNYI/STANCZIK 1992, 116, 118. 76 KALICZ-SCHREIBER 1990, 59107. 77 SCHREIBER 1984, 328; CSNYI 1992, 8384. 78 The decoration from a house in Feudvar is very different (HNSEL/MEDOVI 1991, Abb. 10). 79 ORDENTLICH 1972, 71, 83, Fig.56; CHIDIOAN/ORDENTLICH 1975, 1526.
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On them were found 9 clay pyramid-shaped loom-weights, 3 stone knives and 1 clay support (Pl.I). These were the only objects found in the third room. It is important to mention that the interior wall was decorated and some of its areas were painted in white.
Fig. 6. 1 Pecicaanul Mare(after Soroceanu 1991). 2 Feudvar (after HNSEL/MEDOVI 1991).
The researchers who discovered this building interpreted it as being a megarontemple80. There are more scholars like John M.Coles and A.F. Harding who acknowledged the special function of this building in their writing regarding the European Bronze Age81. Kurt Horedt82, Tibr Kovcs83 and more recently, Klavs Randsborg84 in his analysis about war and sacrifice in the prehistory of Europe considered it a megaron. Comparing it with the megara from the Mycenaean world, we may find some obvious similarities as well as certain differences such as the lack of columns in the porch and the absence of the fireplace in the central room (Pl.II). This may be probably explained by the fact that this building is older than those of the Mycenaean and Minoan worlds and it has a different geographical location and cultural background. It is also well known that there are certain differences among themegara themselves85.
80 Unfortunately, the first publication in an international language about this unusual Bronze Age building from the Carpathian Basin by Tiberiu Bader is not complete and contains errors (BADER 1990, 182183 Abb. 12). For example: the building is situated in the Southern part of the tell and not in im sdstlichen Teil as the author claims (BADER 1990, 182); the plan of the building is presented more simple than the original one (BADER 1990, Abb. 2); the archaeologists who excavated there, didnt ignore ob etwa das griechische Megaron hier als Vorbild gedient haben knnte (BADER 1990, 183). This hypothesis is reflected even in the title of Nicolae Chidioan and I.Ordentlichs article which refers to a megaron-temple. Their conclusion is that the entire assembly imitates megaron constructions which are specific for the Greek culture (CHIDIOAN/ORDENTLICH 1975, 20). 81 COLES/HARDING 1979, 8688, Fig.33. 82 HOREDT 1988, 155, Abb. 34. 83 KOVCS 1992, 77 ... das als Tempel oder Heiligtum fungiert haben drfte. 84 RANDSBORG 1995, 121, Fig.33. 85 DARCQUE 1990, 2131; JUNG 2000, 7577.
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Fig. 7. TszegLaposhalom(after BANNER/BNA/MRTON 1959).
We may also include in the category of cult structures a stone block (1.01m1.41m0.57m), discovered in the area of the acropolis at Spisk trvtok Myia hrka = Barimberg, which was considered by J.Vladr to be an Opferplatte. Its special significance may be proved by two incineration urns which contain the cremated remains of two children, together with numerous incinerated animal bones and the remains of the offerings deposited there86. It is more than probable that there were more buildings in the tell settlements with special purposes than those which were discovered until now. Some were identified by excavating entire settlements like the one at Slacea or larger areas as in the case of Spisk tvrtok were 6600 m2 were investigated87. The second and the third categories of archaeological data are the offerings with ritual purposes. Out of these, one group is represented by deviant burials (Sonderbestattungen) of people and animals88. In almost all the tell settlements, that were systematically researched and where bone analysis were also made, were found human remains as well. Burying human and animal remains in houses or near them is not a surprising behavior, being an old practice. There are many examples dating back to Paleolithic, Mesolithic, Neolithic89, as well as to the Bronze Age90, Iron Age91 and even later92.
VLADR 1973, 294. FURMNEK/VLADR 1996, 502 talks about eine Brandbestattung eines Tires. VLADR 1975, 224. 88 For the definition of this term see WAHL 1994, 85106. I quoted a more recent article (ASPCK 2008, 1734) as well as the other studies from MURPHY 2008. See also CHAPMAN 2010, 3045; KOODZIEJ 2011, 141358; NOTROFF 2011, 143 (Generally, in archaeology special or deviant burials mean all burials different from what is considered the normative in the funeral rite of a group, community or society. This can be referring to the spatial situation of the dead and its grave, the grave construction itself, the treatment of the deceased, as well as conspicuous or unusual grave goods and contents). 89 HAPP 1991; VEIT 1996. 90 RITTERSHOFER 1997; STAPEL 1999, 203255. A recently published article about this kind of discoveries from the Carpathian Basin is URK/MARTA 2011, 155162. 91 CAPELLE 1987, 182205. I also quote some articles about these kinds of Iron Age complexes from Romania SRBU 1993; AILINCI 2008, 933; GOGLTAN/APAI/KELEMEN 2008, 109124 etc. 92 MAKIEWICZ 1988; RIND 1996.
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Twenty-four pits containing human bones and entire skeletons along with three Pithosbestattungen with children remains were found at Nitriansky Hrdok Zmeek93 (Pl.III/26). In the case of deviant burials (Sonderbestattungen), one notices the deposit in the same pit of several individuals, some presenting certain marks of violence: Spisk tvrtok94, Carei Bobald95 (Pl.III/1), Nin Mya Vrhegy96 (Pl.IV/2). Entire skeletons of adults and children (Nitriansky Hrdok, Jszdzsa Kpolnahalom97) or some separate anatomic parts (three skull calottes) were discovered under the floor of a building in Semlac Livada lui Onea98, and at Andrid Curtea grajdurilor99 (Pl.IV/1). Concerning the existence of certain practices which suppose the depositing of animals or parts of animals as offerings100, an example can be Jszdzsa. There, an incomplete dog skeleton was recovered from one of thewalls of ahouse101 (Pl.V/1, 3). A similar case of building offering was considered a dog skull discovered at Tszeg Laposhalom102. Among the recent findings at Jszdzsa was a small pit located in the defense ditch which contained 1012 animal skulls of aurochs, deer, bear and boar103. In a ritual pit from Nitriansky Hrdok an entire calf skeleton was unearthed104 and there are many other similar examples (Pl.V/2). Another archaeological category among ritual offerings are the ceramic deposits (Keramikdepotfund)105. When referring to these specific offerings, we should mention 2 cases in which the deposit was connected to the fireplace. For example, at Corneti Dealul Cornet, 23 vessels were found on a fireplace106. Out of them, 19 were drinking vessels, 2 were large dishes, one represented a big, globular vessel and another one was a strainer. At Vrand Movila dintre vii = Laposhalom, several drinking vessels were discovered in a decorated fireplace107. Another example is a group of 6 cups placed under the floor of a house from Nin Myla108 (Fig.4).
93 It concerns the pits: 3, 27, 28, 105, 116, 120, 134, 216, 220, 228, 230, 237, 242, 243, 252, 266, 268, 285, 296298, 306 and 325. Children Pithosbestattungen were found in Sektor G/18, H/22 and N/22 (TOK 1981). 94 JAKAB 1978, 139141. 95 NMETI 1996, 2930, Fig.12/3. 96 JAKAB/OLEXA/VLADR 1999, 91127. 97 A child was buried under the floor of a house, together with a funerary inventory consisting of three golden rings (CSNYI/STANCZIK/TRNOKI 2000, 151, 165). 98 Archaeological researches by Florin Gogltan 1994. 99 In this tell-like settlement, a ditch having the walls and the bottom burned to red, was studied (the length at the top is 1.30m and at the bottom is 1.05m). In the researched area of 4.70m, a lot of sherds were found, along with charcoal and human bones of several people. The fragments of long bones, vertebrae and skulls were not placed in anatomic position. Also, the human bones were covered with ash and ceramic fragments, but they didnt present any secondary burning marks. The function of this complex inside the settlement couldnt be explained, due to incomplete researches (NMETI 1996, 2829 Fig.: 11/3; 12/1, 2, 47). 100 See CAPELLE 1985, 498501; CAPELLE 1987, 182205, for the older literature. A more recent perspective appears in KOODZIEJ 2011, 141358. 101 VRS 1996, 6988. 102 STANCZIK 1980, 67, 76 br. 6. 103 STANCZIK/TRNOKI 1992, 127 Hier handelt es sich mglicherweise um ein Bauopfer nach Beendigung des Grabenbaus. 104 TOK 1981, Plan 71/4. 105 EIBNER 1969, 1952; STAPEL 1999, 76117. Regarding this subject I have recently published an article where the bibliography may be found (GOGLTAN/NMETH/APAI 2011, 163183). In Stapels opinion: Unter Keramikdeposition wird die Niederlegung eines oder mehrerer vollstndiger oder z.T. stark beschdigter Gefe verstanden (STAPEL 1999, 19) 106 RADU 1972, 272277 Fig.37. 107 DOMONKOS 1908, 7576, br. VI. 108 GAAJ 1994, 8186.
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There were many debates concerning the role played by the metal hoards in a settlement. The core of the discussions was the sacred versus profane character of those deposits109. Some recent discoveries, such as the second deposit from Velince Lszlfala110 (Pl. VI/23) or the one from Jszdzsa111 3b 1 (Pl. VI/1), both under the dwellings floors, are cases of intentional burials with religious character. As M. Eliade argued, metallurgy was regarded as a spiritual activity as well112. There are tell settlements, like those at Pecica 2b 3a anul Mare113 and Moorin Feudvr114, where metal workshops were identified115. The archaeological discoveries suggest that similar workshops must have existed in other settlements too116. Beyond their main purpose of supplying with metal products 2a the local and the neighborhood communities, such settlements also received spiritual powers. Thiswas a consequence of the smiths Fig. 8. 1 TszegLaposhalom. position in the society due his knowledge in 2 DunajvrosDunapentele-Koziderpadls. 3 MendeLenyvr(after KOVCS 1988). working themetals. Archaeological researches made in Bronze Age tell settlements from the Carpathian Basin led to the discovery of a great number of objects that may have been used in religious practices. The clay figurines constitute thefirst category of such objects117. These are stylized figurines of human, animals, weapons and tools etc.118. In comparison to the Neolithic and Copper Age, in the Bronze Age the animal idols were more spread than the human ones. There are two main types of such objects: with a sketched head, decorated or not (Koice Barca, Nin Myla Vrhegy, Spisk tvrtok119 Pl.VII/18) and with a mobile one (Tibolddarc Brct120, Slacea121 Pl.VII/910). However, if they were not found in an evident ritual context, it is hard to establish whether these clay objects were representations of certain individuals122,
MOZSOLICS 1987, 9398; CSNYI/STANCZIK/TRNOKI 2000, 164165. FURMNEK/MARKOV 1996, 137146. 111 CSNYI/STANCZIK/TRNOKI 2000, 149151, 164165. 112 ELIADE 1991b. 113 GOGLTAN 1999, 100101, 127128. 114 HNSEL/MEDOVI 2004, 83111. 115 See also the article published in the same volume by Alexandra Gvan. 116 See the recent discoveries from Nin Mya Vrhegy (OLEXA 2003, Tab.: VII; XI; XIII) or Velince (FURMNEK/MARKOV 2008, Obr. 21). 117 KOSSACK 1954, 2. 118 KOVCS 1990a, 3151; BKNYI 1992, 69 Fig.30; KOVCS 1992, 77 Fig.39; MARKOV 2001, 353364. Recently OLEXA 2003, Tab. XXII. 119 FURMNEK/VELIAIK/VLADR 1999, 170; MARKOV 2001, Abb.: 3/15, 78; 4/1, 34. 120 BALSZ 1907, br. 17. 121 ORDENTLICH 1967, 147154. 122 Such interpretation was offered by D.W. Bailey for the Chalcolithic figurines in South-Eastern Europe (BAILEY 1994, 321331). A more convincing analysis of these idols was proposed by BIEHL 2003; HANSEN 2007.
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toys123, or idols124. Nevertheless, the last hypothesis must be considered the least plausible125. The animal idols were found in almost all tell settlements and they were inspired by thedomestic and wild fauna of that time: pigs, sheep, horses, oxen, bears etc.126. The miniature clay representations of some weapons as a double axe at Jszdzsa, provide other information concerning the cults practiced during the Bronze Age127. The functionality of such objects is still debated but a great number of scholars argue that such artifacts had ritual purpose128. Miniature vessels, as for example those discovered at Vrand, were labeled as toys129, but they could have also been models for ceramic pots. Another specific category of objects, characteristic for the tell settlements, were the miniature clay wagons: Bks Vrdomb, Pir Cetate = Vrsziget, Pocsaj Lenyvr (Fig. 5), Scueni Cetatea Boului = krvr = krdomb, Slacea, Trksezentmikls Terehalomrl, Vrand, Derida Dealul lui Balot (Pl. VIII/14, 7, 9) etc.130. Besides these, a great number of wagon wheels decorated with all sorts of ornaments or undecorated were found131 (Pl.VIII/6, 8, 10). There are also cases in which the wagons present animal protoma (Derida132), that were not precisely identified (horse?) (Pl. VIII/9). The special character of these miniature clay wagons is indicated by their discovery in necropolis like that of the tell settlement from Nin Mya133. Besides wagons, a large variety of small altars with or without legs, circular or rectangular (Bakonszeg Kdrdomb = Krgypuszta134, Berettyjfalu Herply-Fldvr = Herplyidomb135, Derida136, Jszdzsa137, Pecica138, Tarcal Mzmjtet139, Feudvar140 etc.) was discovered (Fig.6). These objects must have served as house altars upon which small offers could have been burnt or placed141. In the same group may be included the fireplaces, especially the decorated ones (Tiszafred sotthalom142,
A recent discussion concerning such objects contemporary with those from the tell settlements in the Carpathian Basin in DIETRICH 2011, 87106. 124 GIMBUTAS 1974; GIMBUTAS 1999, 342. 125 A debate about the possibility to identify them as deities of the Bronze Age see at RENFREW 1985, 2223. 126 HAIMOVICI 1987, 3754; BKNYI 1992, 6972; FURMNEK/VELIAIK/VLADR 1999, 132 133. See, for example, the animal idols from Alsvadsz Vrdomb (KALICZ 1968, Taf.LIX/715; CSNYI/ TRNOKI 1992, 417419); Jszdzsa (CSNYI/TRNOKI 1992, 403413), Szihalom rpdvr = Fldvr (KALICZ 1968, Taf.LXXXI/1, 311)), Tibolddarc (BALSZ 1907, br. 316; KALICZ 1968, Taf.LXIV/1 18); Tiszaluc Dankadomb (KALICZ 1968, Taf.XLV/13) etc. 127 STANCZIK/TRNOKI 1992, 125; CSNYI/TRNOKI 1992, 205 nr.421. See also the new discoveries at Velince (FURMNEK/MARKOV 2008, Obr. F. 10). 128 BUCHHOLZ 1959. 129 BANNER 1959, 245252. 130 BNA 1960, 83111; ORDENTLICH/CHIDIOAN 1975, 2744; MESTERHZY 1976, 223230; BNA 1992, 7375; SCHUSTER 1996, 117137; TRNOKI 1999, 165177. 131 BNA 1960, 9293. New views and discoveries on this matter appear in BOROFFKA 2004, 347354; KOVCS 2006, 3943, Abb. 4 (Fzesabony regdomb). 132 CHIDIOAN 1980, Pl.25/7, 9. 133 OLEXA 1982, 390391, Abb.: 1; 2/2. 134 MTH 1988, Pl.21/4. 135 MTH 1992, Abb. 129. 136 CHIDIOAN 1980, Pl.26. 137 CSNYI/TRNOKI 1992, 447. 138 SOROCEANU 1991, Taf.: 32/5, 15; 39/3. 139 KALICZ 1968, Taf.LVIII/16. 140 HNSEL/MEDOVI 1991, Taf.23. 141 Similar altars were also identified in the cemeteries of the middle Bronze Age (BNA 1975, Taf.: 221/18; 222/4; 230/7; 232/14; 236/10 Kirlyszentistvn). 142 BNA 1975, Taf.197/2.
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Tszeg143, Vrand144 etc.), a hypothesis recently suggested by Christian Schuster145 (Fig.7). More than probable, a ritual purpose must have had the smoking vessels (Tonrhren), like the ones found in the tell settlement from Derida146 (Pl.VIII/1112). Among the archaeological sources important for interpreting the ritual practices in the tell settlements one may also include the pottery. Although this is usually analyzed from the perspective of its functionality when ceramic objects are found in ritual contexts, they gain special values. One good example is a pyraunos from Spisk tvrtok which was found in a pit, together with 9 human skeletons147. Without any doubt, a certain role in the ritual practices must have had those vessels which depict the shape of a bird (bird-shaped askoi, bird-shaped vessels): Dunajvros Dunapentele-Koziderpadls, Fzesabony regdomb = Nagyhalom = Cignydomb, Jszdzsa, Mal Kosihy Trkdomb, Nitriansky Hrdok, Pkozd, Santovka Nad Brom = Maarovce = Malinovec etc.148 (Pl. IX). Among the vessels with special meanings we may include those with anthropomorphic representations due to their rarity and symbolic decorations: Igar Vmpuszta-Galstya149, Mende Lenyvr150 (Fig.8/3), Tszeg151 (Fig. 8/1). Connected to such depictions are dagger representations such as the ones on the vessels discovered in Mende152 or in Tszeg153 (Fig. 8/1, 3) or the one which suggests an ax, on a vessel from Pkozd Vrhegy154. Along with these examples it was proved that a certain category of vessels, the so-called Gefe mit sulenartigen Henkeln, were used to pour liquids in offerings (Nitriansky Hrdok, Trkeve Terehalom, Bks, Vrand)155 (Pl.X). The symbols existing on vessels contain valuable information. For example, on the pottery discovered in the
BANNER/BNA/MRTON 1959, Abb. 4/1, 2425. BNA 1975, Taf.146/17. 145 SCHUSTER/COMA/POPA 2001. 146 CHIDIOAN 1980, Pl.25/1112. The attention on this category of vessel was drawn by BOROFFKA 1994, 169 (Ruchergefe) and mostly by Carol Kacs. He wrote about the existence of such artifacts (diegeschlitzte Tonrhre) discovered in the open sanctuary that functioned in the time of the communities Wietenberg II and III on the hill called Ghiile Botii in Oara de Sus (KACS 1998, 255266). See a presentation of this interesting cult place from the Middle Bronze Age investigated by C.Kacs and the bibliography in GOGLTAN/NMETH/ APAI 2011, 172 n. 30. 147 FURMNEK/VLADR 1996, 506. 148 KOVCS 1972, 728; KOVCS/STANCZIK 1980, 4452. More recently SZATHMRI 2003, 513523; GUBA/SZEVERNYI 2007, 75110 (with the complete list). On the neck of an askos type vessel, accidentally found in the area close to the tell settlement from Tiszafred, a human face is depicted (KOVCS 1990b, 927). Together with other discoveries from the Middle Bronze Age, this vessel type may be related to a feminine deity like Hera from the Greek Pantheon (REICH 2005, 231239). Interesting observations on this subject were also made by Szilvia Guba and Vajk Szevernyi: In the case of bird-shaped askoi we may assume with some certainty that they were the paraphernalia of rites connected with blood sacrifice, probably carried out at tell settlements, which functioned as religious centers as well. At the same time we may suggest in the case of both the askoi and the bird-shaped vessels that they were used to contain special, valuable, ritually significant perhaps psychoactive liquids as well (GUBA/SZEVERNYI 2007, 87). 149 KOVCS 1973, 10 Fig.5. 150 KOVCS 1973, 10 Fig.4. 151 The human face fragment from Tszeg which was initially published in KOVCS 1973, 12 Fig. 8, was proved to be part of a vessel on which a dagger was also represented (KOVCS 1988, 8192). 152 KOVCS 1973, 710, Fig.13. From the tell settlements cemetery in Dunajvros was unearthed an urn fragment with a human depiction, together with a dagger similar to the one published in (MAKKAY 1971, 1928; KOVCS 1973, 1011, Fig.6). 153 KOVCS 1973, 12 Fig.8; KOVCS 1988, 8192. 154 KOVCS 1973, 11 Fig.7. 155 BANNER/BNA 1974, 50 Abb. 20; HORVTH. L. A.2000, 169181. Without questioning the role they must have played in rituals, Szilvia Honti argued that this type of vessel was mainly used for smoke-drying (HONTI 1994, 6, tb. VI/12).
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tell settlements belonging to the Nagyrv culture (Pl. XI), a multitude of human, solar and animal representations may be seen156. In some tells or tell-like settlements from Slovakia (Koice Barca, Nitriansky Hrdok, Spisk trvtok, Vesel Hradisko-Podzmske, Vrble Fldvr = Fidvr)157 (Fig.9) and Hungary Hrsashegy, Stt Hosszuvlgy, 2 1 3 (Kisterenye158 Tiszafred) , was discovered a puzzling type of objects. The so-called pintadere (Brotlaibidole) made of clay are representative for the Middle Bronze Age and the beginning of the Late Bronze 0 Age in a vast area from Northern Italy to Middle and 4 Lower Danube. Their functionality is still debated. 5 Some scholars believe that they had a practical 5 cm purpose, being used to decorate ceramics or mark the quality or quantity of amber; others argue that these could have been used like pendants, having a symbolic value159. ***
6
What do all these discoveries suggest? First of all, they point out that in the Bronze Age Fig. 9. 13, 6, 7 VeselHradisko-Podzmske. tell settlements of the Carpathian Basin, like in the Mycenaean world160, a so-called official cult 45, 8 Nitriansky HrdokZmecek was practiced in specific buildings, but there (after BARTK/BACA 1999). also existed a family cult. The fireplace of each dwelling, the small altar pieces or the miniature wagons made of clay could have been used in cult practices in the house161. On the other hand, altars such as those discovered in the megaron-temple at Slacea could have been destined to serve the entire community. The characteristics of the sanctuary in Slacea are similar to the classic megara in Mycenae, Pylos and Tiryns dating from a later period. It is difficult to establish if in the case of Slacea we may suppose the existence of a ruler like wanakas (wa-na-ka) mentioned in the Linear B tablets from Pylos and Knossos162. Even in the Mycenaean world the role played by the wanakas in the megaron remains uncertain163. Some scholars believe that such buildings were used by
KALICZ-SCHREIBER 1990, 59107; CSNYI 1992, 8387. BARTK/BAA 1999, 1325. 158 BNDI 1974, 237252. 159 The most recent article concerning this type of objects is that of Monica andor-Chicideanu where may be found almost the complete bibliography on this matter (ANDOR-CHICIDEANU 2003, 413428). Unfortunately, for those who dont have access to the libraries in Germany will not be able to find the complete titles of the literature referring to this type of artifacts. Illustrations of these artifacts, such as those made by Gbor Bandi, Juraj Bartk and R. Baa, would have also been useful. To this bibliography, one should add Gerhard Trinkas article, from the same publication (TRNKA 2003, 483486) as well as an earlier article of Michael M.Rind. He published a Brotlaibidole discovered in the fortification from Frauenberg hill, placed near Weltenburg Monastery in Southern Germany (RIND 1999, 8998). 160 HGG 1981, 3539; WRIGHT 1994, 7276. HGG 1996, 387 wrote about the official level and the popular level. 161 WRIGHT 1994, 5760. 162 KILIAN 1988, 291302. 163 DARCQUE 1990, 2131; Jung 2000, 7195.
156 157
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the wanaks/wanakas164 for official political purposes as throne rooms like in Mycenae, Tiryns or Pylos. Others argue that these were also destined for cult practices. In that case, wanakas were in the same time rulers and high priests165. If there is information about the divinities oftheMycenaean and Minoan civilization, in the case of the Bronze Age from the Carpathian Basin very little is known. However, based on analogies with the Greek world, several attempts to reconstruct the Bronze Age Pantheon in Central Europe were made166. Concerning the tell settlements in the Carpathian Basin, it is arguable that the solar cult was representative in the spiritual life of the human communities. There are various depictions of the sun, of water birds on vessels and metal artifacts along with miniature wagons made of clay167, all of them recalling the practice of Zeus/Apollos cult168. An interesting argument is provided by a discovery in Vesel which probably represented a clay boat pulled by two horses recalling Apollos chariot169 (Pl. XII/1). The cult of the sun is better known in a later period170, when the Urnfields culture developed in Central Europe. The classical examples are the chariot of Dupljaja (Serbia)171 and Trundholm in the Nordic Bronze Age172 (Pl.XII/23). Besides the cult of the sun, the cult of the dead, known in the Homeric world mostly through funerary discoveries173, must have been practiced in settlements too. Some of the deviant burial (Sonderbestattungen), identified in the Bronze Age tell settlements in the Carpathian Basin, could be interpreted in this sense174. Human sacrifices might have been addressed to a deity of war, (such as Ares175), as signs of respect and gratitude for the protection offered and/or as a consequence of a military victory obtained by the local community176. Following the same pattern, we may suggest, that the offerings consisting of food might have represented gifts for some deity of fertility, like the Great Mother. This cult survived for millennia177, reinventing itself, in the field of practice, during the Bronze Age178. The stylized
KILIAN 1987, 2138; REHAK 1995a, 95118. Recently WRIGHT 2006, 952. PALAIMA 1995, 119139; STAVRIANOPOULOU 1995, 423433. Recently PALAIMA 2006, 5372. 166 KOSSACK 1999, 520. An attempt to identify, on iconographic basis, the different Minoic and Mycenaean deities may be found at LAFFINEUR 2001, 387392. 167 NOVOTN 2001, 365375. A new point of view at GUBA/SZEVERNYI 2007, 75110. 168 HEGYI 1989, 521; KAUL 1998; PAULK 1999, 2954; PAULK 2000, 2960; PAULK 2001, 972. Among the recent works debating the whole matter of the solar deity in the Bronze Age, see PAULK 2002, 716; KAUL 2003, 3651; KAUL 2004; MARINATOS 2010. For the Greek civilization see LARSON 2007, 86100. 169 PAULK 1999, Obr. 4/1a-b. 170 VERHAGEN 1986, 114148. 171 BOKOVI 1959, 4145; GARAANIN 1983, 530 T.LXXXIII/1. 172 ANER/KERSTEN 1976, Taf.139; KAUL 2003, 3651. 173 ANDRONIKOS 1968; MARINATOS 1993, mostly the second chapter. J.Btora and J.Vladr consider that the image of the chariot on the well-known vessel belonging to Suciu de Sus culture from Velk Rakovce in South-Eastern Slovakia (VIZDAL 1972, Abb. 1), must be related to a funerary practice (BTORA/VLADR 2001, 178179). A recent view at GALLOU 2005. 174 RITTERSHOFER 1997; STAPEL 1999, 203255. 175 LARSON 2007, 156157. 176 For the different aspects of human sacrifices in Bronze Age, along with the cited bibliography, see the story of the events that took place in the Minoic temple of Anemspilia (SAKELLARAKIS/SAPOUNA-SAKELLARAKIS 1981, 205222). Other ritual gestures in the antic Greece appear at HUGHES 1991 and BONNECHERE 1994. Reinhard Jung has also an interesting analysis about representations of human sacrifices (JUNG 1997, 133194). New general approaches on this matter in BREMMER 2007; PETER-RCHER 2007. 177 GIMBUTAS 1974, 152200; GIMBUTAS 1999, 127213. See Demeter and Kore/Persephone from the Greek world (LARSON 2007, 6985). 178 GOODISON/MORRIS 1998, 113132; YIANNOULI 1998, 6584.
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animal idols might be considered symbols of certain types of offerings destined to protect thehealth and the prosperity of the herds179. Offerings consisting of drinking vessels such as those from Corneti or Vrand make us think to the same Great Mother or to a God like Dionysus, form the Mycenaean world180. The grape kernels discovered in tells181 indicate that wine was obtained like in the Aegean world182. In libation practices, wine wasnt the only drink used; water, oil, milk, mead, beer were sometimes part of the ritual too183. Like in the Minoan civilization184, or in other regions185, the cult of the double axe (labrys) seems to have existed in the tell settlements of the Carpathian Basin as well. A hero cult186 or a God like Hephaestus could have inspired the offerings consisting in weapons and other metal objects187. One must not ignore the deities of the house, to whom animals or other types of offerings were given like in other historical periods (Bauopfern)188. Good examples for such practices are the discovery of a dog skull placed in the wall of a house in Jszdzsa or thevessel deposit found under the floor of a house in Nina Myla. The everyday respect shown to house Gods (similar to Hestia/Vesta in the Greco-Roman Pantheon) might explain the care with which the fireplaces were made or to the great number of small clay altars189. Unfortunately, our knowledge about the religious life and the practices performed in Bronze Age tell settlements of the Carpathian Basin, is very limited. However, even if we are not acquainted with the names of Gods venerated in this area, the archaeological discoveries provide various hints about their existence190. The inhabitants of Bronze Age tell settlements must have also acknowledged, like those in Mycenaean Greece, Orient or Egypt, the strength of Gods power along with the price to pray and pay for their protection: For Poseidon: one golden cup, two women For Zeus: one golden bowl, one man For Hera: one golden bowl, one woman For Hermes: one golden cup, one man191.
BIBLIOGRAPHY AILINCI 2008 S.C. AILINCI, The Place for the Dead in Early and Middle Iron Age Lower Danube Area. In: V. Srbu/D. L. Vaida (Eds.), Funerary Practices of the Bronze and Iron Ages in Central and South-Eastern Europe. Proceedings of the 9th International Colloquium of Funerary Archaeology. Bistria, Romania May 9th11th, 2008 (Cluj-Napoca 2008), 933.
HAMILAKIS/KONSOLAKI 2004, Fig.5. ANTONELLI 1996, 169176; KONSOLAKI-YNNOPOULOU 2001, 213220. See as well WRIGHT 2004; WHITTAKER 2008, 8996; LARSON 2007, 126143. 181 For the discoveries in the Carpathian Basin see FACSAR/JEREM 1985, 121144. 182 PALMER 1994. 183 Recent contributions on this topic appear in GOGLTAN/NMETH/APAI 2011, 173, with the bibliography. 184 See HAYSOM 2010, 3555, with an extent bibliography on this subject. 185 BOUZEK 1985, 4146. 186 See the works from HGG 1999. Recently LARSON 2007, 183187, 196207. 187 LARSON 2007, 159160. 188 See MEDELE 1991, 82 with some important bibliographical references. The comparison with other spaces and cultural realities should be also taken into consideration (RECH 1981, 505528). 189 For this, see the classic work of Denis Fustel de Coulanges The Ancient City (La Cit antique), published in 1864; LARSON 2007, 160162. 190 HNSEL 2000, 331344; BOUZEK 2000, 345354. 191 Pylos Table Tn 316 after MYLONAS 1966, 136.
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11 10
12
13
Pl. I. SalaceaDealul Vida. Inventary objects from the megaron-temple (after CHIDIOAN/ORDENTLICH 1975).
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MH SLACEA EUTRESIS LHIIB
MENELAION LHIIIA1
TIRYNS
PHYLAKOPI HAGIA TRIADA
LHIIIB2
TIRYNS
MYCENAE
PYLOS
0
PHYLAKOPI
10 20 m
Pl. II. The megaron-temple from SlaceaDelul Vidaand the architectural layout of residential nuclei in Mycenaean palaces (after KILIAN 1988).
47
1m
1m
1m
Pl. III. 1 CareiBobld (after NMETI 1996). 26 Nitriansky HrdokZmecek (after TOCIK 1981).
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Florin Gogltan
Pl. IV. 1 AndridCurtea grajdurilor (after NMETI 1996). 2 Nin MylaVrhegy (after JAKAB/ OLEXA/VLADR 1999).
49
1
0 1 m
Pl. V. 1, 3 JszdzsaKpolnahalom (after VRS 1996). 2 Nitriansky HrdokZmecek (after TOCIK 1981).
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Florin Gogltan
2
0 0
Pl. VI. 1 JszdzsaKpolnahalom (after CSNYI/STANCZIK/TRNOKI 2000). 23 Vcelince Lszlfala (after FURMNEK/MARKOV 1996).
51
1 3
5 cm
10
Pl. VII. 1, 48 KoiceBarca. 2 Nin MylaVrhegy. 3 Spisk tvrtokMyia hrka=Barimberg (after MARKOV 2001); 910. SalaceaDealul Vida (after ORDENTLICH 1967).
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Florin Gogltan
2
a b
10 9
11
12
Pl. VIII. DeridaDealul lui Balot. Clay wagons, wagon wheels, smoking vessels (after CHIDIOAN 1980).
53
Pl. IX. Bird-shaped askoi, bird-shaped vessels (after KOVCS 1972).
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Florin Gogltan
Pl. X. Gefe mit sulenartigen Henkeln (after HORVTH L. A. 2000).
55
Pl. XI. Symbols on the pottery discovered in the Nagyrv tell settlements (after KALICZ-SCHREIBER 1990).
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Florin Gogltan
3 cm
Pl. XII. 1 VeselHradisko-Podzmske (after PAULK 1999). 2 Dupljaja (after GARAANIN 1983). 3 Trundholm (after ANER/KERSTEN 1976).

Gogâltan, Florin: RITUAL ASPECTS OF THE BRONZE AGE TELL-SETTLEMENTS IN THE CARPATHIAN BASIN. Ephemeris Napocensis XXII (2012)

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EPHEMERIS NAPOCENSIS

ROMANIAN ACADEMY INSTITUTE OF ARCHAEOLOGY AND HISTORY OF ART CLUJ-NAPOCA

Responsible of the volume: Ioan Stanciu

ACADEMIA ROMN INSTITUTUL DE ARHEOLOGIE I ISTORIA ARTEI

EDITURA ACADEMIEI ROMNE

SOMMAIRE CONTENTS INHALT

To Professor Gheorghe Lazarovici at his 70th anniversary

Ephemeris Napocensis, XXII, 2012, p. 756

Ritual Aspects of the Bronze Age Tell-Settlements in the Carpathian Basin

Ritual Aspects of the Bronze Age Tell-Settlements in the Carpathian Basin

Ritual Aspects of the Bronze Age Tell-Settlements in the Carpathian Basin

Fig. 4. Nin Myla (after GASAJ 1994).

Ritual Aspects of the Bronze Age Tell-Settlements in the Carpathian Basin

Fig. 5. PocsajLenyvr(after BNA 1992).

Ritual Aspects of the Bronze Age Tell-Settlements in the Carpathian Basin

Fig. 6. 1 Pecicaanul Mare(after Soroceanu 1991). 2 Feudvar (after HNSEL/MEDOVI 1991).

Fig. 7. TszegLaposhalom(after BANNER/BNA/MRTON 1959).

Ritual Aspects of the Bronze Age Tell-Settlements in the Carpathian Basin

Ritual Aspects of the Bronze Age Tell-Settlements in the Carpathian Basin

Ritual Aspects of the Bronze Age Tell-Settlements in the Carpathian Basin

Ritual Aspects of the Bronze Age Tell-Settlements in the Carpathian Basin

Ritual Aspects of the Bronze Age Tell-Settlements in the Carpathian Basin

Ritual Aspects of the Bronze Age Tell-Settlements in the Carpathian Basin

Ritual Aspects of the Bronze Age Tell-Settlements in the Carpathian Basin

Ritual Aspects of the Bronze Age Tell-Settlements in the Carpathian Basin

Ritual Aspects of the Bronze Age Tell-Settlements in the Carpathian Basin

Ritual Aspects of the Bronze Age Tell-Settlements in the Carpathian Basin

Ritual Aspects of the Bronze Age Tell-Settlements in the Carpathian Basin

Ritual Aspects of the Bronze Age Tell-Settlements in the Carpathian Basin

Ritual Aspects of the Bronze Age Tell-Settlements in the Carpathian Basin

Ritual Aspects of the Bronze Age Tell-Settlements in the Carpathian Basin

MH SLACEA EUTRESIS LHIIB

PHYLAKOPI HAGIA TRIADA

Ritual Aspects of the Bronze Age Tell-Settlements in the Carpathian Basin

Ritual Aspects of the Bronze Age Tell-Settlements in the Carpathian Basin

Ritual Aspects of the Bronze Age Tell-Settlements in the Carpathian Basin

Ritual Aspects of the Bronze Age Tell-Settlements in the Carpathian Basin

Pl. IX. Bird-shaped askoi, bird-shaped vessels (after KOVCS 1972).

Pl. X. Gefe mit sulenartigen Henkeln (after HORVTH L. A. 2000).

Ritual Aspects of the Bronze Age Tell-Settlements in the Carpathian Basin

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