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THE USE OF BRASS INSTRUMENTS IN RITUALS
AND WORSHIP THROUGHOUT HISTORY
BY AMANDA PEPPING
March 2008 Page 6
Overview
Music is a fundamental aspect of worship in most denomi-
nations of Christianity. In many Christian churches, singing is
the focal point of the music, which usually has some sort of
keyboard accompaniment. For special occasions, however,
churches use brass instruments. Christian churches that do not
regularly employ brass players hire them to play for Christmas
and Easter services. This phenomenon occurs for several rea-
sons. First, people in cultures all over the world use and have
used brass instruments in rituals and ceremonies, implying
that there is a universal ideal, similar to Platos chair, concern-
ing brass instruments and ceremonial worship. Second, brass
instruments are frequently used for a variety of purposes in the
Bible. Finally, brass instruments are associated with royalty and
anointment of royalty, and Christmas is the entrance of Christ
into the world, heir to the throne of his ancestor David
[who] shall reign over Israel forever,
1
while Easter is when he
sits on the throne of highest honor in heaven,
2
it follows that
brass instruments would be intrinsic to these holidays.
Brass in different cultures throughout history
People in cultures all over the world throughout history use
and have used brass instruments, defined as those sounded by
the player exhaling through vibrated lips applied to one end
of the instrument, in rituals and ceremonies.
3
In Africa, Aus-
tralia, Asia, Latin America, the Middle East, and northern
Africa, brass instruments are associated with rituals and are
associated with deities in more than just the Christian tradi-
tion.
Some of the earliest evidence of mankind exists in Africa,
and with this is a widespread tradition of brass instruments.
4
In
South Africa, the Vendu-speaking people use an instrument
called a phalaphala, a side-blown trumpet made of sable ante-
lope horn, in ceremonies. In more violent times, it was used
primarily as a way to call people to war. Today, it is used to call
the village to work, to call the ceremonial dancers to dance, to
announce the nanga season when Sirius appears as the morn-
ing star, and to summon both male and female youth to their
initiation ceremonies. The Tswana of Botswana use a virtually
identically constructed instrument known as the lepatata in
circumcision ceremonies and to announce leopard kills to
hunting parties.
5
The Zulu people of South Africa have a unique tradition of
using a kudu horn with the tip cut off to announce a success-
ful courtship. When the successful suitor blows the horn, the
men of the village gather to perform a thank you song for the
courted lady. In Gabon, the Pygmies use a straight tube of palm
marrow known as a dingolo in ceremonies where the spirit Kos
appears. The sound of the instrument embodies the voice of
the spirit; in the ceremony a masked person hides in a hut and
plays the dingolo at the spot on the ground from where the
spirit speaks.
6
The Australian didjeridu, an indigenous Australian wooden
trumpet, is traditionally used in two specific regions: the Daly
region and Arhem Land. In both regions, the instrument is
part of clan songs. People use the instrument in circumcision
ceremonies and for entertainment in both areas. When used
for entertainment, the instrument is always in a group with a
clapstick and the human voice. Interestingly, there is not nec-
essarily any discernible relationship between the pitches of the
voice and didjeridu, perhaps because at times the sounds pro-
duced serve as percussive effects. For religious and ritual pur-
poses, the didjeridu is used in circumcision ceremonies in both
the Daly region and Arhem Land. In the Daly region, it is
played in rag-burning ceremonies to assist the dead with their
passage out of the world of the living. In Arhem land, the did-
jeridu is used in mortuary rites and in secret ceremonies. The
i nstrument i s al so
used in ritual diplo-
macy: specific rituals
held between clans to
celebrate their rela-
tionships.
7
Brass instruments are less prevalent in Asia, primarily
because of the prominence of percussion instruments. Howev-
er, strong traditions of brass instruments still exist in certain
areas. In Japan, the charumera, a holed-bugle, and dkaku,
another bugle made of copper but formerly made of wood, are
used in processional settings.
8
Koreans have an ancient tale
about a magical drum and horn which sounded in the land of
Nangnang whenever attackers entered the state, implying an
association with the divine.
9
In the Han period of China, peo-
ple used long, valveless, metal trumpets, made of copper or a
copper alloy, with broad-rimmed cup mouthpieces that were
described as metal water-buffalo horns. Today, these instru-
ments are not as common as in the past, but Daoist priests still
use them occasionally. In villages throughout China, people
use animal horns with cup mouthpieces in outdoor cere-
monies. Tibetan Buddhists have ensembles where they play
long, straight horns, and they also use Buddhist shells, conch
shells with the tips cut off, for ritual purposes.
10
In Latin America, one of the oldest belief systems revolves
around the jaguar. In different creation stories, the ancestral
jaguar, whose voice is contained in the sound of the trumpet,
gave birth to the primordial hero. In other versions of the
story, the female jaguar brought fire into the world and became
the symbol of when the hearth became the center of commu-
nities. Even today in initiation rites, novices in the Barasana
people of Columbia must face their terror of confronting the
ancestral jaguar. Male initiates are warned of the he trumpets
that sound the voice of the ancestral jaguar. For the initiation,
This article was reviewed and approved for publication by the ITG Editorial Committee.
Didjeridu
2008 International Trumpet Guild
6 ITG Journal / March 2008
THE USE OF BRASS INSTRUMENTS IN RITUALS
AND WORSHIP THROUGHOUT HISTORY
BY AMANDA PEPPING
each group blew their trumpets from opposing sides of the
camp and proclaimed, We fight for God and for Gideon!
21
Finally, Joab called his army to return from chas-
ing the armies of Israel with a trumpet call.
22
Outside of Judaism, the shofar was the exclusive
signaling instrument, but within the religion
hazozerot and conch shells were also used. The
book of Zechariah states, The Lord shall lead his
people as they fight! His arrows shall fly like light-
ning; the Lord God shall sound the trumpet
call!
23
It is difficult for the English-speaking read-
er to discern which specific instruments are being referred to
upon reading the Bible, because editors of many translations
do not fully understand the differences between different mod-
ern brass instru-
ment s and how
they may or may
not be like ancient
ones.
Similar to the
Islamic tradition,
kings and impor-
tant people took
brass instruments
when journeying to religious places. After defeating the
Ammonites and Moabites, King Jehoshaphat took psalteries,
harps, and trumpets to the Temple in Jerusalem to bring
more attention to him and his consorts.
24
King David danced
before the Ark of the Covenant to much shouting and blow-
ing of trumpets when he finally arrived at the City of David
with it.
25
All throughout the Old Testa-
ment, brass instruments announce
impending disasters and times of
repentance. Often, the sounds of
trumpets and horns are metaphors
for oncoming terror, battle, or calls
to repentance. In Joel, the warning
trumpet decl ares that peopl e
should tremble in fear, for the day
of the Lords judgment will come soon.
26
Similarly in Jeremi-
ah, the prophet warns the people, Listen for the sound of the
trumpet! It will let you know when trouble comes!
27
Asa, the
King of Judah from 914 874 BCE, and the people of Israel
swore to God to renew the Covenant with shouting, trumpets,
and horns. The mix of brasses and yelling indicates the instru-
ments could be very loud, and their sound would alert the
deity to the people and make it more likely to accept their
prayers. When Hosea warns the Israelites that the day of judg-
ment is coming, he tells the people to Sound the alarm! Warn
with trumpet blasts
28
In Biblical times, the Jewish temple had two sacred trumpets
that were common icons on coins and in other artifacts. The
Bible contains many references to the usage of these trumpets.
In Leviticus, the holy day on the first day of the seventh month
is proclaimed with the blast of the horn.
29
In the same book,
the Jubilee is announced with the blast of the horn on the
tenth day of the seventh month; in the day of atonement shall
ye make proclamation with the horn throughout all your
land.
30
Throughout the Levite tradition, people used trumpets
between each section of daily worship as the signal for wor-
the initiates must face these instruments, which come to life
and pass the life-giving breath of the ancestor to the initiate.
11
Mexico has several traditions that involve brass instruments.
In the Aztec civilization, music was strictly ceremonial and
communal, rather than solo, so trumpets were not distinct
from other instruments as in many other cultures. The Aztec
language had many nouns for each type of instrumentalist,
including one for trumpet player.
12
In other pre-Columbian
groups, there is evidence the people used conch shells, as well
as very exact clay replicas of conch shells. These conch shells
and their replicas are always associated with rain and rain
deities.
13
In pre-Columbian Peru, people used curved or straight bell
trumpets made of metal, ceramic, or conch shells, the latter
being particularly prominent in the Inca way of life. From mis-
sionaries accounts, music in this area was associated with
monthly festivals for religious and agricultural purposes.
14
In
neighboring Chile, natives used indigenous brass instruments
for water rituals. The clarn, a cane, straight tubular trumpet
with a mouthpiece, played tritonic arpeggios to accompany
vocalizations. People also used the putu, a curved, tubular ver-
tical trumpet, decorated with a cows horn and ornamented
with multicolored balls of wool, to accompany singing. On
Easter Island, conch shells were used as reinforcement for
dancers in ceremonial religious reenactments.
15
In the Islamic tradition of North Africa and the Middle East,
brass instruments in ceremonial and military bands were used
to sound the call to prayer from the tenth century to the early
twentieth century. They would also play for departing pilgrims
journeying to Mecca, as well as other religious pilgrimages.
The same ensembles, consisting of trumpets, drums, shawms,
and cymbals, also sounded important times
of day and important times of year. Today
in Morocco, trumpets announce Thursday
evenings, which, according to Islamic tradi-
tion, is the beginning of Friday, the Muslim
day of prayer and rest. Also in Morocco,
pairs of trumpets announce the beginning
and end of the fasts, breakfasts, and prayer
times each night through Ramadan.
16
Biblical uses of brass instruments
The Bible refers to many different brass instruments. These
include the shofar, a horn still used today in Jewish religious
practices, the hazozerah, which was very similar to the Egypt-
ian trumpet, and conch shells. These instruments were used in
both secular and religious occasions.
Uses in the Old Testament
Brass instruments were very prevalent in military settings. In
the book of Judges alone, there are many references to these
instruments in this context. When God told Ehud that the
Ammonites would defeat the Moabites, he first blew a trum-
pet as a call to arms and mustered an army under his own com-
mand.
17
When God came upon Gideon he blew a trum-
pet as a call to arms, telling the Israelites they would success-
fully defend themselves from their attackers.
18
Later, when
Gideon decided to use only three hundred men to defeat their
enemies, he first collected all the trumpets in the army before
sending the extra men home.
19
When he divided the men into
groups, each soldier received a trumpet and a clay jar with a
torch in it for the fight.
20
As they attacked the enemies camp,
The
shofar
Conch shell trumpet
All throughout the Old Testa-
ment , brass i nst r ument s
announce impending disas-
ters and times of repentance.
March 2008 / ITG Journal 7
2008 International Trumpet Guild
dom of this world now belongs to our Lord, and to his Christ;
and he shall reign forever and ever.
43
In this book, the trum-
pet symbolically anoints the ruler of the world, brings disas-
ters, both natural and unnatural, and signals armies to fight, all
the purposes for which brass instruments were used in the Old
Testament. Interestingly, trumpets are referred to with the fall
of Babylon, in a statement implying that no music nor musi-
cal instruments will be heard there ever again; therefore life in
Babylon is ended forever.
44
Brass instruments in Post-Biblical Judaism
The shofar eventually replaced the
hazozerah, and today the shofar is the
only ancient instrument used in Jewish
religious ceremonies. In post-Biblical
Judaism, both shofarot and hazozerot were
used to announce the Sabbath. Shofarot
were still played to announce disasters,
and they were also played at funerals to keep demons from
inhabiting or stealing the body of the deceased. Additionally,
the Israelites used them to draw the attention of their deity to
their ceremonies, their worshippers, or both.
45
Brass instruments and the association with royalty
Biblical and pre-Biblical
Two metal trumpets, one of bronze and one of silver, were
discovered with the excavation of King
Tuts tomb in Egypt, which implies
Egyptian beliefs dictated they were nec-
essary for the king in the afterlife. Fur-
thermore, the Israelites made their Exo-
dus from Egypt one thousand years after
Tuts time, so the Israelites were familiar
with these instruments well before God
commanded Moses to build them.
46
While waging a war of liberation against the emperor Hadri-
shipers to prostrate themselves.
31
In the book of Numbers, God commanded Moses to make
thee two trumpets of silver to be blown when the people cel-
ebrate feasts for a memorial before your god.
32
These instru-
ments became so sacred that the honor of blowing them was
borne alone by the descendants of Aaron.
33
God even declared
the Festival of Trumpets shall be celebrated on the fifteenth
day of September each year.
34
Frequently in the Bible, brass instruments are involved in
the anointment of kings or the proclamation of secession. In
the second book of Samuel, before
Sheba defects from King Davids peo-
ple, he blows a trumpet, symbolically
anointing himself king, out of Davids
power, and leader of those who defect
with him.
35
Similarly, when Joab and
his army kill Sheba, Joab blows the
trumpet to announce the end of Shebas power and the implied
return of his people to Davids flock.
36
In the book of Kings,
Zadok blows a trumpet in the ceremony to anoint King
Solomon.
37
Later, when Jehu rebels against King Joram, he has
his friends blow trumpets to announce his open rebellion.
38
A survey of the Old Testament indicates brass instruments
were often associated with important, holy people. God had
Moses create the trumpets for the temple, and the descendants
of Aaron, the priests of Israel,
play them.
39
Gideon, a man
God chose to save Israel from
the Midianites, sounded the
trumpet when the Spirit of
the Lord came upon him.
40
The prophet Nehemiah, him-
self, played the trumpet.
41
New Testament references
In the New Testament, brass instruments, especially trum-
pets, are given significant roles in ushering in the events of the
end of time. Corinthians 15:52 foretells:
there will be a trumpet blast
from the sky and all the Christians who
have died will suddenly become alive, with
new bodies that will never, never die; and
then we who are still alive shall suddenly
have new bodies too.
In the book of Revelations, the voice of God is described as
a trumpet blast by John, and the major events of the End
Times are announced by seven angels who are given seven dif-
ferent trumpets by God.
42
The first angels trumpet brings hail
and fire mixed with blood to the Earth. The second sends
what appeared to be a huge burning mountain into the sea,
sinking one third of the ships, turning one third of the sea red,
and killing one third of the fish. The third trumpet sends a
falling star crashing upon one third of the rivers and springs,
resulting in the death of many people. The fourth trumpet
blights one third of the sun, moon, and stars, making the
world darker. The fifth trumpet opens a bottomless pit emit-
ting so much smoke that the world becomes darker, as well as
sending locusts to attack those not marked with the seal of
God. The sixth angels trumpet ushers the opening the
Euphrates River and the coming of four demons whose army
kills one third of mankind. With the sounding of the final
trumpet, a voice speaks from heaven proclaiming, the king-
2008 International Trumpet Guild
8 ITG Journal / March 2008
In the NewTestament, brass instru-
ments, especially trumpets, are
given significant roles in ushering
in the events of the end of time.
today the shofar is the only
ancient instrument used in
Jewish religious ceremonies.
Royal traveling party in Medieval times
March 2008 / ITG Journal 9
2008 International Trumpet Guild
Westminster Abbey, 1689, the artist depicts a row of herald
trumpeters along the walkway to the spot where the king is
crowned.
51
In Antoine Lepautres Festive Music for the Corona-
tion of Louis XIV, in the Cathedral in Reims, 1654, the artist
draws two choirs of mixed-brass instruments, one each on the
left and the right of the walkway where the king is, playing
during the ceremony.
52
Antoine Danchets The
Coronation of Louis XV, King of France and
Navarre at the Church of Reims on October 25,
1732 shows a trumpet and kettledrum ensemble
in the procession.
53
In The Proceeding to the Coro-
nation of their Majesties King William and Queen
Mary from Westminster Hall to Westminster Abbey
on April 11, 1698, engraver Samuel Moore labels the rows of
the trumpet and kettledrum ensemble. The A row of trumpets
is in the front of the ensemble, followed by two kettledrum-
mers, followed by more trumpets, and then finally the sergeant
trumpet who is carrying a giant baton with a type of crown on
the top of it.
54
Finally, in Jean Froissarts Coronation of Carl VI,
King of France, the artist depicts a group of herald trumpeters
riding horses amid various soldiers in along a procession.
55
Until recently in northern Nigerian tribes, the right to king-
an, Bar Kokba put the sacred trumpets from the Temple on
coins. Historians speculate that the trumpets must have
evolved into patriotic symbols for the repressed nation of Israel
in addition to their religious presence. Furthermore, this war
was the first successful insurrection by the Israelites after they
lost their national existence. Issuing the trumpets on the coins
heralds a new ruler for the group.
47
When King Davids son Absalom stole the
throne of Israel from his father, the nation
knew Absalom was the new king when they
heard the trumpets.
48
All throughout the
Bible, trumpets are blown when people
become king of Israel or break away from the
nation and want it to be known.
49
Post-Biblical
In post-Biblical times, trumpets have been and remain inte-
gral in courtly life. In Renaissance courts, having trumpeters
was a demonstration of power. The court of Matthias Corvi-
nus boasted twenty-four trumpeters, and Sforza court had
eighteen in 1482.
50
Trumpets have been part of coronations throughout history.
In the painting Coronation of William III, King of England, in
The Coronation of William III in Westminster Abbey
Trumpets have been
part of coronations
throughout history.
Avenues of further study include comparing and contrasting
the various purposes brass instruments serve in rituals and in
what types of rituals they are used. A better understanding of
brass instruments by those who can read the original Biblical
texts would assist in identifying specifically what types of brass
instruments were used in each function, rather than the gener-
ic labeling of trumpet.
The evidence indicates brass instruments are used today in
Christian churches on Christmas and Easter for three reasons.
First, brass instruments are used universally in rituals and reli-
gious ceremonies. Second, brass instruments are common in
the Bible and associated with God; therefore, they are intrinsic
in worship. Finally, Christ, the reason for Christmas and East-
er, is the king of Christians, and brass instruments are intrin-
sic to royal occasions. As long as music is important to the
Christian religion, brass instruments on Christmas and Easter
will be a part of that tradition.
About the author: Amanda Pepping is an active performer,
recording artist, and arranger. She holds her undergraduate
and masters degrees from Arizona State University where she
studied with David Hickman. She studied the Baroque trum-
pet as a Fulbright scholar with Edward Tarr and Reinhold
Friedrich in Karlsruhe, Germany. She edited David Hick-
ship itself was vested in the royal trumpets and kettledrums
a coup detat was possible simply by capturing them.
56
Even
today, every British coronation includes trumpets.
57
Friedrich Brentels 1608 Representation of Burial of His High-
ness, Duke Charles III shows a balcony filled with trumpeters,
sackbut players, and other musicians playing what appear to be
various brass instruments.
58
Jan and Lucas van Duetecoms copperplate engraving after
Jeremy Cocks Burial Ceremonies for Charles V in Brussels
depicts a somber group of herald trumpeters and kettledrum-
mers preparing for their duty.
59
Galles Atabales-Trompettes
shows an ensemble of trumpeters and kettledrummers in a
funeral procession at the Court of Archduke Albrecht, Gover-
nor of the Netherlands (1598 1621) dressed similarly to
those at the funeral for Charles V in Brussels.
60
Other iconog-
raphy depicting the funerals of Charles II of Graz as well as
Count George Frederick of Ausback show ensembles of the
same instrumentation wearing similar uniforms in funeral pro-
cessions, which indicates a uniformity in the mortuary rites of
high-ranking Europeans at that time.
61
Conclusions
This paper only begins to explore the use of brass instru-
ments in rituals and worship throughout world cultures.
Fredrich Breentels depiction of the burial of Duke Charles III in 1608
2008 International Trumpet Guild
10 ITG Journal / March 2008
sophical Library, 1969, 336.
32. Num. 10:1
33. Num. 10:8
34. Num. 29:1
35. 2 Sam. 20:1
36. 2 Sam. 20: 22
37. 1 Kin. 1:34, 1:38
38. 2 Kin. 9:13
39. Num. 10:2, 10:8
40. Jud. 6:34
41. Neh. 4:18
42. Rev. 1:10, 4:1, 8:1
43. Rev. 8:7-11:15
44. Rev. 18:22
45. Sendrey, 362 363.
46. Sendrey, 332 333.
47. Sendrey, 64 65.
48. 2 Sam. 15:10.
49. 2 Sam. 20:1, 20:22. 1 Kin. 1:34, 1:39, 1:41, 2 Kin. 9:13.
50. Sarkissian.
51. Naylor, Tom L. The Trumpet & Trombone in Graphic Arts
1500 1800. Nashville: Brass Press, 1979, 41.
52. Ibid, 42-44.
53. Ibid, 167.
54. Ibid, 168.
55. Ibid, 210.
56. Sarkissian.
57. Ibid.
58. Naylor, 45.
59. Ibid, 140.
60. Ibid, 142.
61 Ibid, 141, 143.
Bibliography
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ment. New York: Dover, 1993.
Bhague, Gerard, E. Thomas Stanford, and A. Chamorro.
Mexico, Grove Music Online, ed. L. Macy (Accessed 10
November 2003). http://www.grovemusic.com
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http://www.grovemusic.com
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gional or Out of Africa? Bioscience Productions, Inc.
(Accessed 24 November 2003).
http://www.actionbioscience.org/evolution/johanson.html
Marchiando, John. Out of the ShadowAn Overview of the
Trumpet in Africa. Unpublished manuscript. 2002, cour-
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Marett, Allan, Catherine J. Ellis, Margaret Gummow, Roger
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Montagu, Jeremy. Musical Instruments of the Bible. Lanham,
Md.: Scarecrow Press, 2002.
Naylor, Tom L. The Trumpet & Trombone in Graphic Arts
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Neubauer, Eckhard, and Veronica Doubleday. Islamic reli-
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Continued on Page 14
mans book Trumpet Pedagogy. Amanda is currently pursuing
the DMA at the University of Georgia in Athens where she
studies with Fred Mills. In April of 2008 Pepping will begin
serving as co-editor of the ITG News column with Mark
Boren.
Endnotes
1. Luke 1:32 33
2. Acts 2:33
3. Sarkissian, Margaret, and Edward H. Tarr. Trumpet,
Grove Music Online, ed. L. Macy.
(http://www.grovemusic.com).
4. Johanson, Donald. Origins of Modern Humans: Multi-
regional or Out of Africa? Bioscience Productions, Inc.
(http://www.actionbioscience.org/evolution/johanson.html)
5. Marchiando, John. Out of the ShadowAn Overview of
the Trumpet in Africa. Unpublished manuscript. 2002,
courtesy of author.
6. Ibid.
7. Marett, Allan, Catherine J. Ellis, Margaret Gummow,
Roger Covell, and Graeme Smith. Australia, Grove Music
Online, ed. L. Macy (http://www.grovemusic.com).
8. Piggott, Francis. Music and Musical Instruments of Japan.
New York: Da Capo Press, 1971, 180.
9. Source Readings in Korean Music. Trans. with introduction
by Bang-song Song. Seoul: Korean National Commission
for UNESCO, 1980. 14 15.
10. Alan R. Thrasher et al, eds. China, Grove Music Online,
ed. L. Macy (http://www.grovemusic.com).
11. Stevenson, Robert, and Arturo Chamorro. Latin Ameri-
ca, Grove Music Online, ed. L. Macy.
(http://www.grovemusic.com).
12. Stevenson, Robert, and Arturo Chamorro. Aztec Music,
Grove Music Online, ed. L. Macy.
(http://www.grovemusic.com).
13. Bhague, Gerard, E. Thomas Stanford, and A. Chamorro.
Mexico, Grove Music Online, ed. L. Macy.
(http://www.grovemusic.com).
14. Bhague, Gerard, and Thomas Turino. Peru, Grove
Music Online, ed. L. Macy. (http://www.grovemusic.com).
15. Orrego-Salas, Juan A., and Mara Ester Grebe. Chile,
Grove Music Online, ed. L. Macy.
(http://www.grovemusic.com).
16. Neubauer, Eckhard, and Veronica Doubleday. Islamic
religious music, Grove Music Online, ed. L. Macy.
(http://www.grovemusic.com).
17. Jud. 3:27
18. Jud. 6:34
19. Jud. 7:8
20. Jud. 7:16
21. Jud. 7:18
22. 2 Sam. 18:16
23. Zec. 9:14
24. 2 Chro. 20:28
25. 2 Sam. l6:14 15
26. Joel 2:1
27. Jere. 6:17
28. Hos. 6:8
29. Levit. 23:24
30. Levit. 25:9
31. Sendrey, Alfred. Music in Ancient Israel. New York: Philo-
March 2008 / ITG Journal 11
2008 International Trumpet Guild
2008 International Trumpet Guild
14 ITG Journal / March 2008
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Brass Instruments in Rituals and Worship continued from page 11