SHAPE AND VIBRATION CONTROL OF SMART LAMINATED PLATES

DISSERTATION

Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Doctor of Philosophy in the Graduate School of The Ohio State University By Amitesh Punhani, M.S. *****

The Ohio State University 2008

Dissertation Committee: Professor Gregory N. Washington, Adviser Professor Vadim Utkin Professor Rajendra Singh Professor Daniel Mendelsohn ______________________________ Adviser Mechanical Engineering Graduate Program Approved by

ABSTRACT

Active structures flexible enough to be molded in desired shapes and coupled with the ability to be controlled have been pursued for many high precision applications. Membrane-thin but extremely large (>10 m) optical mirrors and reflectors for combined RF-Optical applications are one of the important high precision applications where shape and vibration control of a structure is highly desirable. In this application the precision demands of the optical surface mitigate the combined benefit of the large aperture. Polyvinylidene Fluoride or PVDF is a semi-crystalline piezoelectric polymer with strong orthotropic in-plane properties. This material is suitable for making large reflectors due to its availability in thin sheets and almost linear and nonhysteretic behavior at low to moderate operating voltages. Its low cost and ease of manufacture also make it suitable for shape and vibration control of large reflecting structures. This research focuses on a three-layer laminated actuator with two layers of PVDF film bonded with a layer of epoxy. The electrodes are applied externally on the top PVDF film in a given pattern such that the applied electric field will yield the desired shape of the laminate. The bottom layer of the bimorph is the reflecting surface and acts as the ground. The actuator itself acts as the RF and optical surface and therefore requires no secondary surface. ii

Research has been performed by Sumali et. al. and Massad et. al. for quasi-static deflection of a PVDF bimorph with both simply supported and corner supported boundary conditions under an applied electric field. This methodology produced excellent results under ideal conditions with no disturbances. Due to lack of any kind of feedback, the methodology was an open loop technique lacking the ability to acclimatize under inclement real world conditions. This research takes a step further and removes this demerit by dynamic modeling of a three layer PVDF laminated plate with simply supported boundary conditions and developing a Closed Loop Control Methodology which is capable of rejecting external disturbances. This will not only help in controlling the shape, but also will allow the structure to maintain it under inclement environment. The orthotropic properties of the laminate / actuator are also incorporated into the model, reducing the error due to unmodeled dynamics. Using the developed model and closed loop control methodology, the laminate can be precisely and accurately shaped to function as a satellite antenna, optical reflector or a solar reflector. Typically, these are the type of applications where a shape change is difficult once the system is installed.

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Dedicated to my Father my Idol, for guiding me in the right direction throughout my life. I would have never reached where I am without his support and guidance

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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I would like to extend my sincere appreciation to my adviser, Dr. Gregory Washington for his support, technical guidance, encouragement and patience throughout the course of this research. I would also like to thank Dr. Vadim Utkin, Dr. Daniel Mendelsohn and Dr. Rajendra Singh for being a part my Doctoral Committee and giving invaluable inputs on my dissertation. I would like to thank Leon, Vijay, LeAnn, Farzad and other Intelligent Structures and Systems Laboratory members for their help during my graduate school. Special thanks to my wife for her patience and support during the more difficult times. Finally, I would like to thank my family in India for their continuous support throughout my graduate school at The Ohio State University.

VITA
June 01, 1976. Born Shahjahanpur, U.P., India July 1998 B.E., Mechanical Engineering Birla Institute of Technology, Mesra, India July 1998-July 1999Senior Officer, Tata Steel, India August 2001 .. M.S., Mechanical Engineering The Ohio State University 1999-June 2006.. Graduate Research Associate Department of Mechanical Engineering The Ohio State University July 2006 Present.Engineer, ICM Projects Team Rockwell Automation Inc.,

FIELDS OF STUDY Major Field: Mechanical Engineering Major Areas of Specialization: Dynamics Systems, Smart Materials, Vibration and Control Systems.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS
ABSTRACT........................................................................................................................ ii DEDICATION................................................................................................................... iv ACKNOWLEDGMENTS .................................................................................................. v VITA .................................................................................................................................. vi LIST OF FIGURES ........................................................................................................... ix CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................... 1 1.1 Motivation................................................................................................................. 1 1.2 Background ............................................................................................................... 5 1.3 Smart Materials......................................................................................................... 7 1.3.1 Piezoelectricity................................................................................................... 9 1.4 Research Objectives................................................................................................ 13 1.4.1 Conceptual Development ................................................................................. 14 1.4.2 Design and Modeling ....................................................................................... 14 1.4.3 Control Methodology Development and Implementation ................................ 15 1.5 Thesis Organization ................................................................................................ 15 CHAPTER 2 LAMINATED PLATE: EQUATIONS OF MOTION .............................. 17 2.1 Piezoelectric Effect ................................................................................................. 26 2.2 Energy Formulation ................................................................................................ 36 2.2.1 Kinetic Energy: ................................................................................................ 36 2.2.2 Strain Energy: .................................................................................................. 37 2.2.3 Potential Energy: ............................................................................................. 38 2.3 Equations of Motion ............................................................................................... 39 CHAPTER 3 LAMINATED PLATE: DYNAMIC MODELING................................... 45 3.1 PVDF Laminate (Bimorph) .................................................................................... 45 3.2 Dynamic Equations................................................................................................. 46 3.3 Input Function......................................................................................................... 49 3.4 Boundary Conditions .............................................................................................. 53 3.4.1 Simply Supported ............................................................................................. 54 3.4.2 Corner Supported: ........................................................................................... 68 vii

CHAPTER 4 CONTROL METHODOLOGY ................................................................ 76 4.1 Open Loop Control ................................................................................................. 76 4.2 Closed Loop (Feedback) Control............................................................................ 83 4.2.1 State Space Modeling....................................................................................... 85 4.2.2 Controller Design ............................................................................................ 88 4.2.2 Reference Tracking .......................................................................................... 90 4.2.3 Empirical Observer.......................................................................................... 97 4.3 Application to a Simply Supported Laminated Plate............................................ 100 4.3.1 State Space Modeling..................................................................................... 101 CHAPTER 5 CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE WORK.............................................. 104 5.1 Research Summary and Contributions.................................................................. 104 5.2 Future Work:......................................................................................................... 109 BIBLIOGRAPHY........................................................................................................... 111

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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1.1: Offset Cassegrain Reflector Antenna ............................................................... 2 Figure 1.2: Three stages of a piezoelectric material (a) Unpolarized, (b) During Polarization, and (c) After Polarization. ................................................................... 11 Figure 1.3: PVDF Chemical Formula [23] .................................................................... 12

Figure 2.1: An Element showing the coordinate system .................................................. 18 Figure 2.2: Deformation of a cross-section due to bending.............................................. 31 Figure 3.1: A three layer laminate with PVDF and epoxy ............................................... 46 Figure 3.2: PVDF Bimorph with rectangular patch of electrode for input signal ............ 50 Figure 3.3: Three layer laminate with an electrode pattern. ............................................. 52 Figure 3.4: PVDF Bimorph with electrode grids on the top and bottom layer................. 53 Figure 3.5: Constant electric field of +200 Volts applied to the whole laminate. ............ 66 Figure 3.6: Opposite polarity electric fields of 200 Volts applied to each half of the plate........................................................................................................................... 66 Figure 3.7: Alternate polarity electric fields of 200 Volts applied to each quarter. ...... 67 Figure 3.8: One quarter of the laminate is excited by +100 Volts, others by 200 Volts. ................................................................................................................................... 67 Figure 4.1: Open Loop Control System............................................................................ 77 Figure 4.2: Beam with four patch actuators...................................................................... 77

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Figure 4.3: Actual shape calculated using the Open Loop Control, exactly matches the Desired or Reference Shape...................................................................................... 82 Figure 4.4: Block diagram for a typical feedback control system with sensor and control. ................................................................................................................................... 83 Figure 4.5: Block diagram representing the State Space model of the beam ................... 87 Figure 4.6: Closed Loop Control System ......................................................................... 89 Figure 4.7: Reference tracking with input directly proportional to the error.................... 91 Figure 4.8: Simulink Model for Reference Tracking of Beam Shape Coefficients.......... 93 Figure 4.9: Reference Tracking response Steady State Error. ....................................... 94 Figure 4.10: Simulink Model with Integral Control for Reference Tracking and Disturbance Rejection............................................................................................... 95 Figure 4.11: Reference Tracking Disturbance Rejection and No Steady State Error.... 96 Figure 4.12: Block diagram showing the application of feedback control to the system. 97 Figure 4.13: Schematic Outline of Experimental Setup ................................................. 100 Figure 5.1: a) Alternated Electric field of 200 V applied to each of the four quadrants. b) One quadrant of the plate is excited by +100V, others by 200 V .................... 107 Figure 5.2: Quasi-static deflection of a corner supported plate, excited by +200V of Electric Field........................................................................................................... 108

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

The primary objective of this chapter is to provide an introduction to this research. It starts by talking about the motivation behind pursuing this area of research, where different practical applications are discussed. This is followed by the literature review, where work done by different people in this area is discussed and the novel aspects of this research are explained. As the research is based on smart material, the next section gives a brief introduction to different smart materials and their properties. PVDF, the piezoelectric material used in the research is discussed in detail. The section for research objectives breaks down the research into three major sections and briefly discusses each one of them. Finally, the organization of this dissertation is discussed by stating the area of work explained in each subsequent chapter.

1.1 Motivation Active structures flexible enough to be molded in desired shapes and coupled with the ability to be controlled have been pursued for many high precision applications. Membrane-thin but extremely large (>10m) optical mirrors and reflectors for combined RF-Optical applications are one of the important high precision applications where shape 1

and vibration control of a structure is highly desirable. In this application the reflection demands of the optical surface mitigate the combined benefit of the large aperture.

Figure 1.1: Offset Cassegrain Reflector Antenna

Much work has been going on under Dr. G. Washington at the Intelligent Structures and Systems Laboratory (ISSL) in the Department of Mechanical Engineering at The Ohio State University since 1999 to change the shape of a sub-reflector (Figure 1.1) of a satellite antenna to get the desired radiation pattern. Fukashi Andoh et.al.[1] tried controlling the shape of the sub-reflector by attaching actuators on the back of the 2

structure. This method had limitations because only a finite number of actuators can be attached, so not all the shapes were practically possible. Bruce Isler [2] also worked with Dr. Washington to implement uniform damping control on a distributed system by using specially etched PVDF films. Mark Angelino [3] worked at ISSL for the design and construction of a piezoelectric point actuated aperture antenna. Bailey and Hubbard [4] were one of the first to use the piezoelectric actuators as one of the layers of the structure. Crawley and Luis [5] showed the use of smart actuators by surface binding and embedding it into the structure. Extending Crawleys work, Main, Garcia and Howard [6] determined the optimal actuators location and layer thickness for beam and plate control. Wang, B. and Rogers [7] also gave predictions for piezoelectric patches embedded in anisotropic plates. Ha, Keilers and Chang [8] used the finite element method to discuss the possibility of plate shape control by distributed piezoelectric patches. Wang, X. et. al. [9] analytically investigated the static models of piezoelectric patches attached to beams and plates. But all the work has similar limitations, as the number of locations of surface or embedded actuators actually determined the achievable shapes of the structure. The main advantage of applying external actuators on the structure is that the structural dynamics are not needed beforehand. This is also a demerit, as we cannot incorporate the system dynamics to derive the actuator signals, hence accuracy in the system response is more difficult to achieve. Polyvinylidene Fluoride or PVDF is a synthetic polymer with strong piezoelectric properties. It is a semi-crystalline polymer with unidirectional alignment of molecule 3

chains and has shown strong orthotropic in-plane properties parallel and perpendicular to the orientation of the molecular chain [10]. This material is really suitable for making large reflectors due to its availability in thin sheets, 9 m to 800 m thick. Additionally,

its almost linear and non-hysteretic behavior at low to moderate operating voltages and its relative low cost and ease of manufacturability make it a suitable material for shape and vibration control of large reflecting structures. This research focuses on a three-layer laminated actuator with two layers of PVDF film bonded with a layer of epoxy. This differs from the previous research of Lee, Main, Hubbard and others because the actuator itself will act as the RF and optical surface and will thus require no secondary surface. This means that the orthotropic properties of the laminate cant be neglected as in previous studies. The electrodes are applied externally on the PVDF film in a given pattern such that the applied electric field will yield the desired shape of the laminate. As this research assumes the orthotropic properties of the PVDF film in developing the model, the results are more accurate and realistic thereby increasing the practicality of implementation. Recently research has been conducted for the quasi-static shape control of the laminate [11, 12 and 13]. The primary aim of this research is to include the dynamic case thus controlling the vibration and shape of the laminated plate. Controlling vibration will help in negating external disturbances hence increasing system performance. This phenomenon is really useful for making large mirror -like reflectors to be used in satellite antennas where unknown disturbances (like micro meteorite impact and thermal cycling gradients) may negate the validity of the quasistatic analysis.
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1.2 Background

The polymer Polyvinylidene Fluoride (PVDF or PVF2) was first discovered by Kawai in 1969 [14]. Being a polymer it embodied many of the general characteristics of polymers like low mass, high flexibility, high toughness, and relatively low production cost. These characteristics were very different than the more conventional piezoceramic materials and hence, PVDF had extensive application capabilities primarily as a sensor. PVDF is available in thin sheets, which are easy to cut into different shapes. This enabled distributed sensors and actuators to become some of the more popular applications. The most comprehensive research employing PVDF as distributed sensors and actuators was conducted by Lee [15]. He used composite laminate theory coupled with piezoelectric constitutive relationships to develop the equations of motion of a multilayer laminate. The PVDF films were considered to be isotropic, so the Youngs modulus of the material was the same in x and y directions. The input was applied by the electrodes on the surface of the structure. Sensor equations were also derived for the same electrodes. Lee and Moon [16] also studied the dynamic model of laminated plates for torsion and bending sensors and actuators. They used different laminae skew angles and electrode patterns to create both bending and torsion in the structure under applied electric field. This theory has major applications in control of large continuous structures. Yang and Ngoi [17] extended the work by Lee and Moon by incorporating the orthotropic properties of the PVDF film in the sensor and actuator equations.

Hubbard and Burke [18] developed an open loop control to get the desired shape of a beam with patch actuators. They proved that the number of actuators required should be atleast equal to or more than the number of modes to be controlled to get the desired shape. The open loop results from the methodology have been quite useful for this research and are suggested as one of the possible starting points. Burke et.al [19] worked on developing a closed loop transfer function to get the response for a simply supported beam with patch actuators. A nonlinear active vibration damper was developed using Lyapunovs Methodology by Plump et.al [20] in 1987. Halim and Meheimani [21] developed a spatial H control to suppress the vibration of a piezoelectric-laminated plate. G. Washington and L. Silverberg [22] worked on controlling the damping and stiffness of structures with distributed actuators. They developed a mathematical formulation to calculate the proportional, integral and derivative gains in a feedback control law. In 2003, Sumali, et.al [11] made a major contribution in the area of calculating the deflection results of a quasi-static piezoelectric laminated plate. They developed an algorithm for shape control of a simply supported isotropic PVDF laminate. The electrode was divided into grids and the charge was distributed over the PVDF film for active control of the reflectors shape. A relation between the applied electric field and the structure shape coefficients was developed by minimizing the strain energy expression. To get the required electric field for the desired shape, singular value decomposition was used.

In order to increase the deflection of actuated film, Sumali et.al [12] investigated active control of a corner supported isotropic laminated plate. The actuation methodology of distributing the charge over the PVDF film for active shape control was the same as in previous work. The corner supported laminated plates have much larger deflections compared to the other boundary conditions for the same exciting electric field. This makes the corner supported case very interesting as the number of achievable shapes are higher so it has more practical applications. This research improves the existing quasi-static work by including the dynamic term in the mathematical formulation of the vibration of a three layer PVDF bimorph and also developing a control methodology which is capable of rejecting external disturbances. This will not only help in controlling the shape but also will allow the structure to maintain it under inclement environment.
1.3 Smart Materials

Smart Materials are materials that have one or more properties that can be significantly altered in a controlled fashion by external stimuli; such has electrical fields, magnetic fields, stress, moisture etc [23]. Smart Materials convert one form of energy to another, so it can be said that they are a kind of transducers. Some of the most common and popular types of smart materials are:
Piezoelectric materials are one of the most popular smart materials. When a

piezoelectric material is deformed, it gives a small but measurable electrical discharge. On the other hand, when an electric field is applied across the material, 7

the material deforms and strain is produced. So, piezoelectric materials convert mechanical energy into electrical energy and vice versa. Quartz is one of the few naturally found piezoelectric materials. Lead Zirconium Titanate (PZT) and Polyvinylidene Fluoride (PVDF) are the two most popular man-made piezoelectric materials.
Shape Memory Alloys (SMA) [24]: These materials undergo a phase

transformation at a specific temperature. They can be plastically deformed at relatively low temperature. The materials can then recover to their original unreformed condition if their temperature is raised above a certain transformation temperature. The process is repeatable with great accuracy. The most common SMA material is Nickel Titanium Alloy, or Nitinol, which is available in the form of wires and films.
Electrostrictive [24] materials have similar properties to piezoelectric materials

but have better strain capability and more sensitivity to temperature. One of the most common materials is Lead-Magnesium-Niobate or PMN.
Magnetostrictive [24] materials elongate when exposed to a magnetic field as

their magnetic domains align themselves with the external field. One of the most popular magnetostrictive materials is Terfenol-D (Tb0.3Dy0.7Fe1.9), which produces relatively low strains and moderate forces over a wide frequency range.
Electrorheological (ER) fluids are suspensions of extremely fine non-conducting

particles (upto 50 diameter) in an electrically insulating fluid [23]. With the application of an electric field the rheological properties of the fluid (esp. viscosity) change significantly. 8

Magnetorheological (MR) fluids are similar to ER fluids with extremely fine

iron particles in a base medium, with a significant change in viscosity on the application of any external magnetic field.

PVDF, the material used in this research is a piezoelectric material. The next section explains in detail about the material and piezoelectricity.

1.3.1 Piezoelectricity

Piezoelectricity is the property of some materials to generate electric charge with the application of an external mechanical stress. It was first discovered in 1880 by Pierre and Jacque Curie, when surface charges were measured on tourmaline with the application of mechanical stress. They later extended their study to other materials like quartz and Rochelle salt. The converse effect was mathematically derived by Gabriel Lippman in 1881 [23] using fundamental thermodynamics principles and later confirmed by the Curie brothers. Thus, the phenomenon of generating electric charge from applied stress is known as the Direct Effect, while the deformation due to an applied electric field is known as the Converse Effect. Quartz, Rochelle salt and Tourmaline are some of the naturally occurring piezoelectric materials. Two of the most popular man-made piezoelectric materials are PZT (Lead Zirconate Titanate), a ceramic, and PVDF (Polyvinylidine Fluoride) a polymer.

Any piezoelectric material will produce electrical charge on the application of an external stress, but to really induce the piezoelectric effect, the material needs to be polarized. This can be done by applying high DC voltage (>2000 V/mm) across the heated material, with its temperature above the Curie point and then slowly cooling it down while the electric field is maintained. The Curie temperature is the temperature above which the material looses its ferroelectric properties [25]. This also sets the maximum operating temperature limit for the material. Figure 1.2 shows the three stages before, during and after polarization. During polarization dipoles are formed and similarly oriented dipoles start grouping together, which are known as Weiss domains [24]. Application of a high electric field and a high temperature causes these dipoles to align. These dipoles remain roughly aligned even after cooling the material to room temperature and in the absence of the electric field. Once the material is polarized, an external electric field can be applied through the electrodes plated on the material surface. If an electric field, larger than the one used for initial polarization, is applied in the opposite direction of the polarization, the material gets depolarized. Depoling is also possible by heating the material above its Curie point or by the application of extremely large external stress. Once the material is depolarized, it can be polarized again.

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Figure 1.2: Three stages of a piezoelectric material (a) Unpolarized, (b) During Polarization, and (c) After Polarization.

The piezoelectric materials are insulators; hence the charge generated can be calculated by using the expression, Charge = Capacitance x Voltage The properties of a piezoelectric material change with time after the original polarization of the material. Some time after the initial poling, the material becomes quite stable. Unless the stress level is very high, the properties of a piezoelectric material are independent of stress [24].

Polyvinylidene Fluoride or PVDF is highly non-reactive and pure thermoplastic

fluoropolymer [23].

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Figure 1.3: PVDF Chemical Formula [23]

The IUPAC name for PVDF is polyvinylidene difluoride and its molecular formula is ( CH 2CF2 )n . It is also known as KYNAR or HYLAR. Being a thermoplastic fluoropolymer, PVDF has a high resistance to solvents, acids and bases. It is also recyclable and has a glass transition temperature of -35o C. To induce the piezoelectric properties, the material is polarized under tension and high temperature depending upon the thickness. General characteristics of a PVDF film are low mass, flexibility, low elastic stiffness (or high compliance) and relatively high voltage output. Its piezoelectric constant is approximately 10 to 20 times higher [24] than other piezoceramic materials. This makes it an ideal material for distributed sensors. Other advantage over the brittle ceramic materials is its low elastic stiffness, which makes it easier to mold in customizable shapes.

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The electric charge generated due to any mechanical stress can only be collected if there is some surface electrode to collect the charge. The amount of charge collected is directly proportional to the size of electrode i.e. if there are more electrodes, more charge is collected. Spatial Aperture Shading uses this characteristic to have a special weighting on the sensor. This selective charge collecting phenomenon is equivalent to performing signal processing through integration in the spatial domain [24]. This phenomenon can also be applied when the film is being used as an actuator. Only the portion of the film covered by the electrode will get actuated. Some of the different ways to achieve spatial aperture shading are:

Etching or removing the desired electrode Cutting the film in desired shape or Variable polarization.

1.4 Research Objectives

The goal of this research is to develop a methodology for creating a self-shaping laminated plate, which could counter all the external disturbances while maintaining its desired shape. This plate or laminate can be shaped to function as a satellite antenna, optical reflector or a solar reflector. Typically these are the type of applications where a shape change is difficult once the system in installed. In order to realize the usage of piezoelectric film for vibration and shape control the following research objectives should be met: 1) Conceptually develop the model of the laminated plate including the piezoelectric effect in relation to its electrodes; 2) Perform some preliminary simulated 13

experiments by applying different electric fields to get the deflections; 3) Develop and implement control strategies, which increase the performance of the laminated system. To meet the stated desired objectives the research is divided into three major categories: Conceptual Development, Design and Modeling and Control Methodology Development and Implementation.
1.4.1 Conceptual Development

This stage of research conceptually develops the idea of a self shaping structure, which could handle external disturbances while maintaining its shape. The term external disturbances refers to the disturbances directly interacting with the structure as well as disturbances interacting with the output of the structure. For example significant weather changes affect the radio frequency (RF) output of an antenna without affecting its shape. This stage will also study the different applications where this new methodology could be really useful like satellite antennas and solar reflectors etc., and also identify the real advantages over earlier work.
1.4.2 Design and Modeling

This category primarily involves the modeling of the piezoelectric laminated plate and developing all the necessary equations. The stage starts with formulating the stress-strain relationships of the laminate, which are later used to develop the equations of motion. Finally a displacement function of the plate with simply supported boundary conditions is developed. Some preliminary testing is also performed in this section to get an idea of the deflection to be controlled.

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1.4.3 Control Methodology Development and Implementation

This stage develops the control strategy suitable for shape control of the laminated plate. The merits and demerits involved in varying different parameters of the system are also discussed. Previous work done in this area is also mentioned to compare with the current system and its advantages.

1.5 Thesis Organization

Chapter 1 (current) introduces the problem statement. It also talks about the motivation behind pursuing this area of work by detailing the previous work done. A small section on Smart Materials is also covered, which talks about the availability of different kinds of materials. Polyvinylidene Fluoride (material used) and its properties are described in detail. Chapter 2 develops the equations of motion of a multilayer piezoelectric laminated plate from first principles. It starts out by explaining tensors and developing the compliance matrix for an orthotropic laminated plate under plane stress. The piezoelectric effects of the material are incorporated in the equations of motion. Chapter 3 uses the equations of motion to generate an expression for deflection of a simply supported PVDF bimorph with respect to time. The chapter also elaborates on the input function generated to incorporate the piezoelectric effect of the PVDF film. This dynamic expression is the first attempt in this area of research for the modeling of a laminated plate. The chapter also discusses the advantages of corner supported boundary 15

conditions. An approximate eigenfunction is suggested and used in the Rayleigh-Ritz method to develop the frequency equation of the laminate. Chapter 4 develops a control methodology for the simply supported PVDF bimorph. It starts out by discussing the open loop control methodology and its disadvantages. The idea is to develop the control methodology for a simply supported beam and then extend it for a plate. The open loop control methodology for a pin-pin beam by Burke and Hubbard [18] is discussed with an example. Closed Loop Control and its advantages are discussed. The dynamic model of a simply supported beam is developed, which is used for state space modeling of the beam. This state space model was then further used to design a controller by pole placement technique. A new Observer is developed to simulate the experiments and is termed an Empirical Observer. This technique is further used to show the results for simple examples, which proved the methodology is capable of dynamically rejecting the disturbances. The dynamic model for the plate is simplified and reduced to a form such that the same control methodology can be used. Chapter 5 summarizes the whole research and talks about the possible future work in this area.

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CHAPTER 2

LAMINATED PLATE: EQUATIONS OF MOTION

This chapter describes in detail the dynamic modeling of a laminated plate and also develops an analytical solution of the simply supported laminate used in the research. Hookes law defines the relationship between stress and strain as,

= C

(2.1)

Where, is the stress applied, is the strain generated and C is the stiffness of the material. Equation (2.1) shows a single dimensional stressed state; hence the stress, strain and stiffness are all scalar values. For a three dimensional stress state, equation (2.1) will be a matrix equation and the three quantities will be tensors. Although the physical quantities represented are independent of any coordinate system, choosing a coordinate system will be convenient to describe them. Tensors are used to mathematically represent these quantities. Tensors: Tensors can be defined as a simple array of numbers or functions that transform according to certain rules under a change of coordinates and are used to define physical quantities. Tensors are independent of any coordinate system, yet they are specified in a 17

particular coordinate system by a certain set of quantities known as components. Once the components of a tensor in one coordinate system are specified, the components of that tensor in all other coordinates are defined as well. They are converted from one coordinate system to another by the use of transformations. Generally, tensors are noted in terms of orders, like a scalar number is a zero order tensor, a three dimensional vector is a first order tensor. The number of components in a tensor can be defined as 3n , where n is the order of the tensor. So a 2nd order tensor will have 32 = 9 components.

Figure 2.1: An Element showing the coordinate system

Figure 2.1 shows the Cartesian Coordinates for a plate element. dimensional stress state is represented by the stress tensor as, 18

A fully three

 11 12 13 2nd Order Tensor - 32 = 9 Components. ij = 21 22 23 ; 31 32 33

(2.2)

Similarly the strain tensor is,

ij

11 = 21 31

12 13 nd 2 22 23 ; 2 Order Tensor - 3 = 9 Components 32 33

(2.3)

and stiffness is a 4th order tensor with 34 = 81 with Components, Cijkl So equation (2.1) can be written as,

ij = Cijkl kl
kl

(2.4) (2.5)

or

ij = Sijkl kl
kl

Where, Sijkl is the compliance (inverse of stiffness) of the material. An alternative to the tensor notation in equation (2.4) is,

[ ] = [C ][ ]

(2.6)

Where, [C ] is a 9x9 stiffness matrix of the material and [ ] and [ ] are the vectors containing all the components of the stress and strain tensors from equations (2.2) & (2.3) Assuming no net moment is acting on the element,

ij = ji
i.e.
11 12 13 [ ] = 12 22 23 13 23 33

(2.7)

(2.8)

thus reducing the number of elements in the stress vector to 6 and in the stiffness matrix to 54. 19

Similarly, for strain there are only six independent components,

ij = ji
i.e.
11 12 13 = 12 22 23 13 23 33

(2.9)

(2.10)

The number of elements in the stiffness matrix is now reduced to 36. Reducing the stress and strain notations to,

11 = 1 ; 22 = 2 ; 33 = 3 ; 23 = 4 ; 13 = 5 ; 12 = 6
and

(2.11) (2.12)

11 = 1 ; 22 = 2 ; 33 = 3 ; 23 = 4 ; 13 = 5 ; 12 = 6

Using the notations of equations (2.11) & (2.12), generalized Hookes law can be rewritten as,
1 C11 C 2 21 3 C31 = 4 C41 5 C51 6 C61 C12 C22 C32 C42 C52 C62 C13 C23 C33 C43 C53 C63 C14 C24 C34 C44 C54 C64 C15 C25 C35 C45 C55 C65 C16 1 C26 2 C36 3 C46 4 C56 5 C66 6

(2.13)

If W is the strain energy then by using Chain Rule the strain energy differential can be expressed as,
dW =

W W d i + d j i j

(2.14)

Assuming,

W W and are continuous then, i j

W W = j i i j
20 (2.15)

Strain Energy per unit volume for an element can be written as,

W = i
From equation (2.13),
i = Cij j
Cij = i j

(2.16)

(2.17) (2.18)

From equation (2.17),

Cij =

2W 2W = = C ji i j j i

(2.19)

Thus the number of elements in the stiffness matrix of equation (2.13) is reduced to 21 and the equation can be expressed as,
1 C11 C 2 12 3 C13 = 4 C14 5 C15 6 C16 C12 C22 C23 C24 C25 C26 C13 C23 C33 C34 C35 C36 C14 C24 C34 C44 C45 C46 C15 C25 C35 C45 C55 C56 C16 1 C26 2 C36 3 C46 4 C56 5 C66 6

(2.20)

Symmetry: If a quantity f(x) is symmetric across one plane then mathematically we can

say that f(x) = f(-x) or suppose if the plane of symmetry is 1-2 then looking in the +3 direction is the same as looking in the -3 direction. So if the material has symmetry with respect to one of the planes then the number of constants is reduced to 13. This type of material is called Monoclinic. Considering the above stated example, if the axis 3 is perpendicular to the plane of symmetry (plane 1-2) then,
C14 = C15 = C24 = C25 = C34 = C35 = C46 = C56 = 0 21

(2.21)

and the stiffness matrix reduces to,

1 C11 C12 C 2 12 C22 3 C13 C23 = 0 4 0 5 0 0 6 C16 C26 C13 C23 C33 0

0 0 0 C44
C45

0 0 0 C45
C55

0
C36

C16 1 C26 2 C36 3 0 4 0 5 C66 6

(2.22)

Similarly if there are two planes of symmetry (if a material is symmetrical across two planes then it is also symmetrical across the third plane) then the number of constants reduce to 9.
C16 = C26 = C36 = C45 = 0

(2.23)

and the stiffness equation reduces to,

1 C11 C12 C 2 12 C22 3 C13 C23 = 0 4 0 5 0 0 0 6 0 C13 C23 C33 0 0 0 0 0 0 C44 0 0 0 0 0 0 C55 0 0 1 0 2 0 3 0 4 0 5 C66 6

(2.24)

A material with two planes of symmetry (if a material is symmetric across two planes, then is also symmetric across the third plane) and 9 constants is known as Orthotropic. Some of the naturally occurring orthotropic materials are Barytes and Wood.
Isotropy: This should not be confused with symmetry. Mathematically isotropy could be

termed as f(x1) = f(x2) = f(x3) = i.e. if a material is isotropic in a certain direction then no matter where we look in that direction, the material properties are the same.

22

Now if a material has three planes of symmetry and one of the planes is isotropic then the number of constants is reduced to 5 and the material is known as Transversely Isotropic. Considering the case when plane 2-3 is isotropic,
C22 = C33 ; C12 = C13 ; C55 = C66 and C44 = 1 ( C22 C23 ) 2

(2.25)

and equation (2.24) will reduce to,

C12 C 1 11 C12 C22 2 C C23 3 12 = 0 4 0 5 0 0 6 0 0 C12 C23 C22 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 2 3 0 4 0 5 6 C66 0 0 0

1 ( C22 C23 ) 0 2 C66 0 0 0

(2.26)

If the material is completely Isotropic,

C11 C12 C12 1 C12 C11 C12 C12 C12 C11 2 3 0 0 0 = 4 5 0 0 0 6 0 0 0

0 0 0 1 ( C11 C12 ) 2 0 0

0 0 0 0 1 ( C11 C12 ) 2 0

1 0 2 3 0 4 5 0 6 1 ( C11 C12 ) 2

0 0

(2.27)

and equation (2.27) shows that the stiffness matrix is configured of only 2 unknowns. This research deals with an orthotropic material, so getting back to equation (2.24), the 9 constants defining the stiffness matrix of the material are the Youngs modulii, E11 , E22 , E33

23

Shear modulii, G12 , G13 , G23 and Poissons Ratios,

12 , 13 , 23
Considering a plane stress case relative to the plane 1-2,

3 = 4 = 5 = 0
Stress-Strain relationship for an orthotropic element can be written as,

(2.28)

E11 1 2 E / E ( 12 22 11 ) 1 12 E22 = 2 (1 2 E / E ) 12 22 11 6 0

12 E22 2 (1 12 E22 / E11 )

0 1 E22 0 2 2 (1 12 E22 / E11 ) 6 0 G12

(2.29)

Equation (2.29) is the fundamental equation for dynamic modeling of a thin laminated plate under plane stress. Rewriting equation (2.29) in a simplified form as,
1 Q11 Q12 = Q Q 22 2 12 0 0 6 0 1 0 2 Q66 6

(2.30)

Q11 =
Where,

12 E22 E11 ; Q12 = 2 (1 E22 / E11 ) (1 12 E22 / E11 )

2 12

E22 Q22 = ; Q66 = G12 2 (1 12 E22 / E11 )

(2.31)

Equation (2.30) can also be written as,

24

[ ] = [Q ][ ]

(2.32)

Basic Assumptions: The following basic assumptions [26] are considered for the laminated plate modeling: 1. The laminate is constructed of multiple orthotropic PVDF layers bonded by isotropic epoxy. 2. The plate (laminate) is thin and the thickness is much smaller as compared to other dimensions of the laminate. 3. The laminated plate has constant thickness. 4. u, v and w are the displacements in the three directions (1, 2 & 3) of the coordinate system and are much smaller as compared to the thickness of the plate. 5. The tangential displacements u and v are a linear function of the coordinate in 3(z)-direction. 6. The strains 1 , 2 & 6 are very small compared to unity. 7. Transverse shear strains 4 & 5 are negligible. 8. Transverse normal strain 3 is negligible. 9. Rotary inertia terms are negligible. 10. Each lamina obeys Hookes law. 11. There are no body forces.

25

2.1 Piezoelectric Effect

As the laminated plate in the research consists of PVDF films, hence the piezoelectric effect of the smart material should be included in the model. For any piezoelectric material the charge developed due to strain in the material is known as Direct Effect and the deflection due to applied electric field is known as Converse Effect. The constitutive equations for the converse and direct effects can be written as, Converse Effect: Direct Effect:

i = sij j + d mi Em
T Dm = d mi i + mk Ek

(2.33) (2.34)

Where, [s] is the compliance matrix, [d] is the piezoelectric strain constant matrix, [ ] is the permittivity matrix, [E] is the applied electric field vector and [D] is the electric displacement vector. The piezoelectric constant d mi indicates the strain in i-direction due to the electric field applied in m-direction. m also indicates the direction of initial polarization of the material.

The Converse Effect equation (2.33) can be written in its full form as,
1 s11 s 2 21 3 s31 = 4 s41 5 s51 6 s61 s12 s22 s32 s42 s52 s62 s13 s23 s33 s43 s53 s63 s14 s24 s34 s44 s54 s64 s15 s25 s35 s45 s55 s65 s16 1 d11 s26 2 d12 s36 3 d13 + s46 4 d14 s56 5 d15 s66 d16 6 d 21 d 22 d 23 d 24 d 25 d 26 d31 d32 E d33 1 E d34 2 E d35 3 d36

(2.35)

26

Plane Stress: A thin structure subjected to in-plane loading such that the stresses with respect to the thin surface are zero is said to be under Plane Stress. For a thin plate under a plane stress condition,

3 = 4 = 5 = 0
So equation (2.35) can be written as,
1 s11 = s 2 21 6 s61 s12 s22 s62 s16 1 d11 s26 2 + d12 s66 6 d16 d 21 d 22 d 26 d31 E1 d32 E2 d36 E3

(2.36)

If the electric field is applied only in 3-direction then E1 = E2 = 0 and d1i = d 2i = 0 . Equation (2.36) becomes,
1 s11 = s 2 21 6 s61
s12 s22 s62 s16 1 d31 s26 2 + d32 [ E3 ] s66 6 d36

(2.37)

As compliance of any material is the inverse of its stiffness then for an orthotropic material from equation (2.32),

[ s ] = [Q ]
Using equation (2.38) in equation (2.37),

(2.38)

1 1 d31 = Q 1 + d E 2 [ ] 2 32 [ 3 ] 6 6 d36 1 1 d31 = Q Q d E 2 [ ] 2 [ ] 32 [ 3 ] 6 6 d36

(2.39)

or

(2.40)

27

Similarly, Direct Effect equation (2.34) can be written in expanded form as,

d11 d 12 D 1 D = d13 2 d 14 D3 d 15 d16

d 21 d 22 d 23 d 24 d 25 d 26

d31 d32 d33 d34 d35 d36

1 2 11 E1 3 11 11 + 21 22 23 E2 4 33 E3 5 31 32 6

(2.41)

Considering the conditions for plane stress and applying the electric field in the direction of axis-3, we can write equation (2.41) as,

D3 = d31 1 + d32 2 + d36 6 + 33 E3

(2.42)

Till now it is assumed that the orthotropic coordinates of each element are aligned with the Cartesian coordinates of the laminate. To write equations (2.40) & (2.42) in a more generalized form, let us assume that the local coordinates of each element are 1' , 2' & 3' and the angle of rotation from global coordinates 1 & 2 is , which is the Skew

Angle.
Equations (2.40) and (2.42) can be written as,
1 1 d 31 = [Q ] [Q ]d E 2 2 32 3 6 6 d 36

(2.43)

D3 = d 31 1 + d 32 2 + d 36 6 + 33 E3

(2.44)

Transformation Matrix:

28

Transformation matrices can be used to convert the equations from local to global coordinate system. Transformation matrices for the stress and strain matrices are, Stress Transformation Matrix:

[T ]

cos 2 = sin 2 cos sin

sin 2 cos 2 cos sin

2 cos sin 2 cos sin cos 2 sin 2

(2.45)

Strain Transformation Matrix:

[T ]

cos 2 = sin 2 2 cos sin

sin 2 cos 2 cos sin

2

cos sin cos 2 sin 2

cos sin

(2.46)

Where, is the angle of rotation from the cartesian coordinates. So if the element is aligned with the coordinate axis, then the angle of rotation =0. Substituting this value in either of the transformation matrices will give us an identity matrix (reminder sin (0) = 0 and cos (0) = 1). Using equations (2.45) and (2.46) to substitute [T ] & [T ] for stress and strain (local coordinates) respectively in equation (2.40),

[T ]

1 = Q T 2 [ ][ ] 6

1 d31 Q d E 2 [ ] 32 3 6 d36

(2.47)

29

 1 1 d 31 = [T ]1 [Q ][T ] [T ]1 [Q ]d E 2 2 32 3 6 6 d 36

(2.48)

or

1 1 d 31 = Q [T ]1 [Q ]d E 2 2 32 3 6 6 d 36

[ ]

(2.49)

where,

Q = [T ] [Q ][T ]
1

(2.50)

Basic assumption # 6 states that the displacements in the direction 1(x) and 2(y) are linear functions of the 3(z) coordinate.

Let u, and w be the displacements in 1(x) and 3(z) directions. If u o is the displacement of the middle plane in x direction then according to Figure 2.2, the net displacement of any point q can be written as, u = u o z or (2.51) (2.52)

u = uo z

w x

Similarly, if v is the displacement in 2(y) direction and v o is the corresponding middle plane deflection then net displacement of any point can be written as,

v = vo z

w y

(2.53)

30

Figure 2.2: Deformation of a cross-section due to bending

Using equations (2.52) & (2.53), the strain expressions can be written as,

1 =

u o w u o 2w = (u z ) = z 2 = 1o + z1 x x x x x

(2.54)

2 =

v o w v o 2w o = (v z ) = z 2 = 2 + z 2 y y y y y

(2.55)

31

 o w o w u o v o 2w o + 2z = 6 + z 6 6 = u z + v z = y x x y y x xy

(2.56)

Where,

1 =

2w 2w 2w ; = ; 2 = 2 6 x 2 y 2 xy

(2.57)

Using equations (2.54), (2.55) and (2.56), the stress equation (2.49) can be rewritten as,

1o + z1 1 d31 = Q o + z T 1 Q d E 2 [ ] [ ] 32 3 2 2 o 6 + z 6 6 d36 1o 1 1 d31 = Q o + Q z T 1 Q d E 2 2 2 [ ] [ ] 32 3 o 6 6 6 d36

(2.58)

or

(2.59)

Stress Resultants:

Stress resultants are the total load acting per unit length at the mid plane. They have the dimensions of force per unit length and are defined as,
Nx =
h/2

h / 2 h/2

x dz =

h/2

h / 2 h/2

1 dz 2 dz 6 dz
(2.60)

Ny =

h / 2 h/2

y dz =

h / 2

N xy =

h / 2

xy dz =

h/2

h / 2

Where, h is the height of each lamina. The three forces in equation (2.60) can be combined in a vector form for k th lamina as,

32

Nx x 1 h/2 h/2 N y = h / 2 y dz = h / 2 2 dz N xy xy 6 k k k

(2.61)

Extending equation (2.61) for an n layer laminate,

Nx 1 n h/2 N y = h / 2 2 dz N xy k =1 6 k
Substituting the stress equation (2.59) in equation (2.62),

(2.62)

1o Nx 1 d31 n hk n hk _ 1 o N y = Q 2 + z 2 dz [T ] [Q ] d32 E3 dz k =1 hk 1 o N xy k =1 hk 1 k 6 6 d36

or
_ h Q 11 Nx n k _ 12 N y = Q k =1 hk 1 _ N xy Q 16
n _

(2.63)

Q 12
_

Q 22
_

Q 26

_ _ Q 16 o Q 11 1 hk _ _ o Q 26 2 dz + Q 12 _ hk 1 _ o Q Q 66 6 16 k

Q 12
_

Q 22
_

Q 26

_ Q 16 1 _ Q 26 2 zdz _ 6 Q 66 k (2.64)

d 31 hk 1 [T ] [Q ]d 32 E3 dz k =1 hk 1 d 36

If

n _ _ Aij = Q ij dz = Q ij (hk hk 1 ) k hk 1 k k =1 k =1 n

hk

(2.65)

and

k n _ _ 1 Bij = Q ij zdz = Q ij (hk2 hk21 ) k hk 1 k 2 k =1 k =1

(2.66)

Then using equations (2.65) and (2.66), equation (2.64) can be written as,

33

 N x A11 N y = A12 N xy A16

A12 A22 A26

A16 1o B11 o A26 2 + B12 o A66 k B16 6

B12 B22 B26

B16 1 B26 2 B66 k 6

d 31 hk n 1 [T ] [Q ]d 32 E3 dz k =1 d 36 hk 1

(2.67)

and if,

N x A11 N y = A12 N xy A16

A12 A22 A26

A16 1o B11 o A26 2 + B12 o A66 k B16 6

B12 B22 B26

B16 1 B26 2 B66 k 6

(2.68)

Then equation (2.67) can be written as,

Nx Nx d 31 hk n 1 N y = N y [T ] [Q ]d 32 E3 dz hk 1 N xy N xy k =1 d 36

(2.69)

Moment Resultants:

For the Total Equivalent Load on the laminate, moments must also be applied (in addition to the resultant stresses) at the mid plane. These moments are equivalent to the moments by the resultant stresses at the mid plane. So the dimensions are length times the force per unit length (unit of the resultant stress). Similar to Stress Resultants, the Moment Resultants for each lamina can be written as,

34

 Mx x h/2 h/2 1 M y = y zdz = 2 zdz h / 2 M xy h / 2 xy 6 k

k k

(2.70)

Extending equation (2.70) for an n layer laminate,

1o Mx 1 d31 n hk n hk _ 1 o M y = Q 2 + z 2 zdz [T ] [Q ] d32 E3 zdz k =1 hk 1 o M xy k =1 hk 1 k 6 6 d36

or
_ h Q 11 Mx n k _ = M 12 y Q _ M xy k =1 hk 1 Q 16
n _

(2.71)

Q 12
_

Q 22
_

Q 26

_ _ Q 16 o Q 11 1 hk _ _ o Q 26 2 zdz + Q 12 _ hk 1 _ o Q Q 66 6 16 k

Q 12
_

Q 22
_

Q 26

_ Q 16 1 _ Q 26 2 z 2 dz _ 6 Q 66 (2.72) k

d 31 hk 1 [T ] [Q ]d 32 E3 zdz k =1 hk 1 d 36

If

k n _ _ 1 Dij = Q ij z 2 dz = Q ij (hk3 hk31 ) k hk 1 k 3 k =1 k =1

(2.73)

Substituting equations (2.66) and (2.73) in (2.72) will give,

M x B11 M y = B12 M xy B16 B12 B22 B26 B16 1o D11 o B26 2 + D12 o B66 D16 k 6 D12 D22 D26 D16 1 D26 2 D66 k 6

d 31 hk n 1 [T ] [Q ]d 32 E3 zdz k =1 d 36 hk 1

(2.74)

35

and if,

M x B11 M y = B12 M xy B16

B12 B22 B26

B16 1o D11 o B26 2 + D12 o B66 k D16 6

D12 D22 D26

D16 1 D26 2 D66 k 6

(2.75)

then,

Mx Mx d 31 hk n 1 M y = M y [T ] [Q ]d 32 E3 zdz hk 1 M xy M xy k =1 d 36

(2.76)

2.2 Energy Formulation

The governing equations and natural boundary conditions for the laminate will be formulated by using the variation in energy principle. This method utilizes the piezoelectric properties of the PVDF material and could also be used for other approximate methods like Galerkin and Ritz methods.

2.2.1 Kinetic Energy: If o is the mass density of a layer then kinetic energy for each

lamina can be expressed as,

u 2 v 2 w 2 1 T = o + + dxdydz t t t 2

(2.77)

Substituting the displacement expressions from equations (2.52) and (2.53) in (2.77), the kinetic energy per lamina can be written as,

2 2 2 u o 1 2 w v o 2 w w z z T = o + + dxdydz t t x t t x t 2

(2.78)

36

If ok is the k th layer density then the mass density of the laminate can be written as,

= ok dz
k =1 k

(2.79)

Carrying out the integration over z in equation (2.78), using equation (2.79) and

2w 2w and , kinetic energy for a laminate neglecting time derivatives of plate slopes t x t y
can be expressed as,

2 2 2 1 u o v o w + T = t + t dxdy t 2

(2.80)

2.2.2 Strain Energy: Strain Energy for any elastic body under plane stress can be

expressed as,

U=

1 ( 11 + 2 2 + 6 6 ) dxdydz 2

(2.81)

Substituting equations (2.54), (2.55), (2.56), (2.67) and (2.74) into equation (2.81) and performing the integration over z yields,

37

2 u o 2 v o u o v o u o v o u o v o A11 2 2 + + A A + A + A + 12 22 16 26 x x y x y y x y 2 u o v o v o 2 w u o 2 w u o 2 w v o 2 w y + x 2 B11 x x 2 2 B12 y x 2 + x y 2 2 B22 y y 2 + A66 o o o o o o 2 2 2 2 w u w u 1 v w v u w v B 2 2 2 U = 2 B16 2 + + + + dxdy 26 2 2 y xy x x xy x y y x y 2 2 2w 2w 2w 2w 2 w u o v o 4 B66 xy + 2 D12 x 2 y 2 + D22 y 2 y + x + D11 x 2 2 2 2 2 2 w w w + 4 w + + D D D 4 66 26 16 2 2 xy x y x y

u o v o v o 2 w 2w 1 u o 2 w + + + R R R R R R 2 1 dxdy 1 2 2 3 3 y x xy 2 x x 2 y 2 y

(2.82)

Where,

R1 n d31 hk 1 E d [ R ] = R2 = [T ] [Q ] 32 3 dz k =1 hk 1 R3 d36

(2.83)

and

R 1 d31 hk n 1 = R = [T ] [Q ] d E zdz R 2 32 3 k =1 hk 1 d36 R3

(2.84)

2.2.3 Potential Energy: Considering a plane stress case, transverse loads are absent.

So the potential energy due to the inplane loads ( N i ) can be expressed as,

2 2 1 i w i w i w w 2 V = N x + N y N dxdy + xy y 2 x x y

(2.85)

38

2.3 Equations of Motion Hamiltons Principle: states that the development in time for a mechanical system is

such that the integral of the difference between the kinetic and the potential energy is stationary. More specifically it can expressed as,

(U + V T )dt = 0
t0

t1

(2.86)

t0

( U + V T )dt = 0

t1

(2.87)

To find the variation in the strain energy, taking the first term from equation (2.82)

u o 2 u o = A11 2 (uo ) A 11 x x x

(2.88)

and the second term,

u o v o u o v o o 2 A12 ( v ) + 2 A12 (uo ) = 2 A12 x y x y y x

(2.89)

Similarly, taking the variation of each term in the strain energy expression,

39

U =
u o u o v o v o 2w 2w 2w B B B 2 u o + A12 + A16 + A11 11 12 16 2 2 x y x xy x x y y o o u o v o 2w 2w 2w o + A u + A v + A + 22 26 B12 x 2 B22 y 2 2 B26 xy y v 12 x y y x 2 2 2 o o o o u v u v w w w + A26 + A66 + B16 2 B26 2 2 B66 + A16 x y x xy x y y o o dxdy y u + x v 2 2 2 2 o o o o u v w w w B11 u + B12 v + B16 ( ) 2 D D D w + 2 11 12 16 2 2 y x x y x y x y x u o v o 2w 2w 2w 2 u o v o + B22 + B26 + D12 2 D22 2 2 D26 2 (w) B12 x xy y x y x y y 2 2 2 2 o o o o u v w w w 2 B u + B v + B ( ) + 2 D D D w 26 66 16 26 66 2 2 16 x y y x x y x y x y 2 2 (w) + R v o R (w) + R u o R u o + v o R1 1 2 2 3 2 2 x x y x y y dxdy 2 2 R (w) 3 xy

( )

( )

( )

( )

( )

( )

( )

( )

(2.90)

Using equation (2.67) and (2.72),

2 o (w) + (N R ) (v o ) ( ) ( ) N R u M R x y 1 1 2 x x y x 2 2 (w) + (N xy R3 ) ( U = M y R u o ) + (v o ) dxdy (2.91) 2 2 x y y 2 (w) 2 M xy R 3 x y

40

Using integration by parts for each term in equation (2.91),

U =

( N x R1 ) (N xy R3 ) o (N y R2 ) (N xy R3 ) o + + u + v x y y x 2 2 M xy R 2 M y R 3 2 M x R1 + 2 (w) + 2 2 xy x y o o (N xy R3 ) u (N y R2 ) v + M y R2 y (w) dx Sy M R M R 2 3 y xy (w) 2 (w) y x o o ( N x R1 ) u + (N xy R3 ) v + M x R1 x (w) dy + Sx M R M R 3 xy 1 x (w) + 2 (w) x y

( )

( )

dxdy (2.92)

( )

( ) (

( )

( ) (

Similarly, from equation (2.85), the variation in potential energy can be written as,

V =
2 2 i 2w i w i w N x 2 + 2 N xy + N y 2 (w)dxdy xy x y

(2.93)

i w i w i w i w ( (w)dy + N xy + Ny + N xy w)dx + N x Sy Sx x y x y

For kinetic energy variation, using equation (2.80),

T =

u o v o w (w)dxdy u o + v o + t t t t t t

( )

( )

(2.94)

41

 2u o 2v o 2w o o Adding and subtracting 2 u , v and 2 (w) from equation (2.94) t t 2 t

( )

( )

2u o 2v o 2w 2 u o + 2 v o + 2 (w) t t t 2u o o 2v o v o u o o o u u v T = v o + + 2 2 t t t t t t 2w w t 2 (w) + t t (w)

( )

( )

( )

( )

( )

( )

dxdy (2.95)

2u o 2vo 2w o o (w) + + u v 2 2 2 t t t dxdy T = o o u w v o o (w) u + v + t t t t

( )

( )

( )

( )

(2.96)

Integrating equation (2.96) in the time interval t o t t1 and assuming,

u o (to ) = u o (t1 ) = v o (t o ) = v o (t1 ) = w(to ) = w(t1 ) = 0

(2.97)

Total Variation in kinetic energy can be written as,

to

Tdt =
to

t1

t1

2u o 2vo 2w o o w ) dxdy u v + + ( ) ( ) 2 2 2 ( t t t

(2.98)

Substituting equations (2.92), (2.93) and (2.98) in equation (2.87), 42

 ( N x R1 ) (N xy R3 ) 2u o o u + + 2 x y t 2 o (N y R2 ) (N xy R3 ) v o + + v y x t 2 2 2 dxdy M xy R My R 2 M x R 3 2 1 +2 + + 2 2 xy x y ( w) + 2 2 2 i 2w w w w i i N x x 2 + 2 N xy xy + N y y 2 t 2 t1 dt = 0 to o o (N xy R3 ) u (N y R2 ) v + M y R2 y (w) dx + S y M R M xy R3 2 y i w (w) 2 (w) N xy (w) N yi w (w) y y x x o o ( N x R1 ) u + (N xy R3 ) v M x R1 x (w) M xy R Mx R 3 i w 1 (w) + 2 (w) + N x (w) dy S x + x y x i w (w) + N xy y

( ) ( )

( )

( ) (

( )

( ) (

(2.99) In equation (2.99) looking at the dynamic terms, it can be said that the surface integral (double integral) will be zero if the following equations hold good,

(N x R1 ) (N xy R3 ) 2u o = + y x t 2 (N y R2 ) y + (N xy R3 ) x = 2vo t 2

(2.100)

(2.101)

43

2 2 2 2 M xy R 2 M y R 2 M x R 2w 3 2 i w i w i w 1 2 2 + + + N + N + N = x xy y xy xy x 2 y 2 x 2 y 2 t 2

(2.102)

or,

N x N xy 2 u o R1 R3 = + + + y x x y t 2 N y y + N xy x = 2 v o R2 R3 + + y x t 2

(2.103)

(2.104)

2 2 2 2 M xy 2 M y 2M x 2R 2R 2w 2R i w i w i w 3 1 2 + = + + + + + + + 2 N 2 N N 2 x xy y 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 xy xy xy x y x y t x y

(2.105)

Equations (2.103), (2.104) and (2.105) are the equations of motion in x, y and z direction respectively.

44

CHAPTER 3

LAMINATED PLATE: DYNAMIC MODELING

This chapter describes in detail the dynamic modeling of a laminated plate.

3.1 PVDF Laminate (Bimorph)

This laminated plate or laminate consists of three layers. The top and bottom layers are made of an orthotropic piezoelectric material PVDF, and the middle layer consists of isotropic epoxy.

Bimorph: A piezoelectric laminate with two active layers is called a Bimorph.

Figure 3.1 shows a bimorph with top and bottom active layer of a piezoelectric material. The x-axis of the laminate is aligned with the direction of stretching of PVDF. The two active layers have a silver electrode coating. The bottom layer of the laminate is the reflecting side and acts as the ground. The top layer is generally divided into grids of electrodes. Each grid can be individually excited by applying an electric field. The electrodes are assumed to be extremely thin and light. Their effect on the stiffness and mass of the laminate is neglected and not taken in consideration during the formulation. PVDF layers are polarized in the opposite directions such that when an electric field is applied across the laminate the top layer extends in the x-y (or 1-2) plane and the bottom 45

layer contracts in the x-y plane, thus creating a moment bending and deflecting the plate in the z direction. If the thickness of the PVDF and epoxy are hp and he respectively then the total thickness of the laminate can be written as h = 2hp + he .

Figure 3.1: A three layer laminate with PVDF and epoxy

3.2 Dynamic Equations

Assuming the mid-plane in plane displacements to be zero,

uo = vo = 0
46

(3.1)

the dynamic terms in equations (2.103) and (2.104) are zero. Therefore, considering equation (2.105) for transverse deflection in the absence of external

i i i = Ny = N xy = 0) , load ( N x

2R 2 M xy 2 M y 2M x 2R 2w 2 R 3 1 2 + + = + + + 2 2 x 2 xy y 2 t 2 x 2 xy y 2

(3.2)

Rewriting equation (2.75) for moment resultants,

M x B11 M y = B12 M xy B16

B12 B22 B26

B16 1o D11 o B26 2 + D12 o B66 D16 k 6

D12 D22 D26

D16 1 D26 2 D66 k 6

From equation (3.1), mid-plane in plane displacements are zeros, so from equations (2.54), (2.55) and (2.56)
o o 1o = 2 = 6 =0

(3.3)

So, equation (2.75) can be written as, M x D11 M y = D12 M xy D16 Using equations (2.57) and (3.4),
M x = D11 2w 2w 2w D D 2 12 16 x 2 y 2 xy

D12 D22 D26

D16 1 D26 2 D66 k 6

(3.4)

(3.5)

47

M y = D12

2w 2w 2w D D 2 22 26 x 2 y 2 xy 2w 2w 2w D D 2 26 66 x 2 y 2 xy

(3.6)

M xy = D16

(3.7)

Substituting equations(3.5), (3.6) and (3.7) in equation of motion (3.2)

2 2w 2w 2w 2 2w 2w 2w + D D 2 D 2 D D 2 D 11 12 16 16 26 66 x 2 x 2 y 2 xy xy x 2 y 2 xy + 2 R 2 R 2 2w 2w 2w 2w 2 R 3 1 2 D D D 2 2 = + + + 12 2 22 26 y 2 x y 2 xy t 2 x 2 xy y 2

(3.8)

4w 4w 4w 4w 4w ( ) D D D D D + 2 2 4 4 12 66 16 26 22 x 4 x 2 y 2 x 3 y xy 3 y 4 2R 2R 2w 2R 3 1 2 = 2 + + + 2 xy x 2 y 2 t D11

(3.9)

If we define

p ( x, y , t ) =

2 R 2 R 2 R 3 1 + + 22 2 2 x xy y

(3.10)

Then equation (3.9) can be written as,

D11

4w 4w 4w 4w 4w 2w 2 D 2 D 4 D 4 D D + + + + + + + p ( x, y , t ) = 0 ( ) 12 66 16 26 22 x 4 x 2 y 2 x3y xy 3 y 4 t 2

(3.11)

48

Equation (3.11) is a 4th order differential equation of motion and p ( x, y, t ) is the input to the system.

3.3 Input Function

Rewriting equation (3.10) for the input function,

p ( x, y , t ) =

2 R 2 R 2 R 3 1 2 + + 2 x 2 xy y 2

from equation (2.84) is, Where, R

d 31 hk n 1 R = [T ] [Q ]d 32 E3 zdz k =1 hk 1 d 36

The applied electric field E3 can be expressed as,

E3 ( x, y, t ) = o Eo Po ( x, y )G (t )

(3.12)

Where, o = 1 if the direction of polarization is the same as the applied electric field,

o = 1 if the direction of polarization is opposite to the applied electric field,

E o is the magnitude of the applied electric field, G(t) is the time variable function of the applied electric field and Po ( x, y ) is the spatial distribution of the applied electric field.

The input can be altered by varying the electric field E o and also by changing the shape of the electrode Po ( x, y ) .

49

Figure 3.2: PVDF Bimorph with rectangular patch of electrode for input signal

Figure 3.2 shows the laminate with a rectangular shaped electrode. The spatial function for this shape can be expressed as,
Po ( x, y ) = [H ( x x1 ) H ( x x 2 )] [H ( y y1 ) H ( y y 2 )]

(3.13)

Where, H is the Heaviside Step Function. It is a discontinuous function whose value is zero for negative argument and one for positive argument. It is also known as Unit Step Function. Substituting equations (3.12) and (2.84) in equation (3.10),

50

p ( x, y, t ) = [T ]
k =1

d31 2 h E3 2 E3 2 E3 k + + 2 [Q ] d32 zdz x 2 xy y 2 h k 1 d36

(3.14)

p ( x, y, t ) = [T ]
k =1 n

d31 hk 2 2 2 Po ( x, y ) + 2 Po ( x, y ) G (t ) zdz [Q ] d32 o Eo 2 Po ( x, y) + 2 x xy y hk 1 d36 (3.15)

The partial derivatives of the spatial function defined in equation (3.13) are,
Po ( x, y ) = [ ( x x1 ) ( x x 2 )] [H ( y y1 ) H ( y y 2 )] x

(3.16)

2 Po ( x, y ) = [ ( x x1 ) ( x x 2 )] [H ( y y1 ) H ( y y 2 )] x 2
Po ( x, y ) = [H ( x x1 ) H ( x x 2 )] [ ( y y1 ) ( y y 2 )] y 2 Po ( x, y ) = [H ( x x1 ) H ( x x 2 )] [ ( y y1 ) ( y y 2 )] y 2
2 Po ( x, y ) = [ ( x x1 ) ( x x2 ) ] [ ( y y1 ) ( y y2 )] xy

(3.17)

(3.18)

(3.19)

(3.20)

Where,

is the dirac delta function and represents an impulse of a force or a point force, and
is a first derivative of the dirac delta function and represents a point moment.

Substituting equations (3.17), (3.19) and (3.20) in (3.15) will provide the input function.

51

Figure 3.3: Three layer laminate with an electrode pattern.

Figure 3.3 shows a PVDF Bimorph with an electrode pattern. This pattern can be broken down to five different rectangular electrodes blocks. The applied electrical field for each block can be written as,
i i i E3 = o Eo P o ( x, y )G (t )

(3.21)

Where

i = I, II, III, IV and V

After calculating the input function for each rectangular block by using equations (3.15) and (3.21), Net Input Function can be expressed as, p( x, y, t ) = pi ( x, y, t )
i =1 V

(3.22)

52

Figure 3.4: PVDF Bimorph with electrode grids on the top and bottom layer.

Figure 3.4 shows an electrode grid on a laminate. Different blocks of the grid can be used to develop an input pattern.

3.4 Boundary Conditions

Two boundary conditions in this research are, i) ii) Simply Supported: All four edges are simply supported. Corner Supported: Four corners are simply supported.

53

3.4.1 Simply Supported

If a and b are the x and y dimensions of the laminate, the boundary conditions for a plate with simply supported edges can be written as,
Displacement Boundary Condition: w(0, y, t ) = w(a, y, t ) = w( x, 0, t ) = w( x, b, t ) = 0 Moment Boundary Condition:
M x = 0 at x = 0 and x = a M y = 0 at y = 0 and y = b

(3.23)

(3.24)

The shape function satisfying the boundary conditions for simply supported plate is given by,
m x n y Wmn ( x, y ) = sin sin a b

(3.25)

Where m and n are the mode numbers for the natural modes of the plates. W(x,y) is also the eigenfunction of the system, forming the orthogonal basis of the modal space.

Vibration without Piezoelectric Effect (Free Vibration):

For free vibration the input function is absent i.e. p( x, y, t ) = 0 So writing equation (3.11) without the input function,
D11 4w 4w 4w 4w 4w 2w 2 D 2 D 4 D 4 D D + + + + + + =0 ( ) 12 66 16 26 22 x 4 x 2 y 2 x 3y xy 3 y 4 t 2

(3.26) Separating the space and time differential terms,

54

 D11

4w 4w 4w 4w 4w 2w (3.27) 2 D 2 D 4 D 4 D D + = ( 12 66 ) 16 26 22 x 4 x 2 y 2 x 3y xy 3 y 4 t 2

In equation (3.27), the method of separation can be used to find the steady state solution. Let,
w( x, y, t ) = W ( x, y ) f (t )

(3.28)

Substituting equation (3.28) in equation (3.27),

{ D11W4 x 2 ( D12 + 2D66 )Wxxyy 4 D16W3 xy 4D26Wx3 y D22W4 y } f (t ) = W

d 2 f (t ) dt 2

(3.29) Where, W4 x =
4W 4W 4W 4W 4W = = = = ; ; ; ; W W W W 3 xy xxyy x3 y xxyy x 4 x 2 y 2 x3y xy 3 y 4

1 1 d 2 f (t ) D11W4 x 2 ( D12 + 2 D66 ) Wxxyy 4 D16W3 xy 4 D26Wx 3 y D22W4 y } = { W f (t ) dt 2

(3.30) It can be seen from equation (3.30) that the left side depends on the spatial coordinates x and y, while the right hand side depends only on the time t, hence, both must be equal to a constant. Let that constant be - 2 . So equation (3.30) can be expressed as,
1 { D11W4 x 2 ( D12 + 2D66 )Wxxyy 4 D16W3 xy 4 D26Wx3 y D22W4 y } W 1 d 2 f (t ) = f (t ) dt 2 = 2

(3.31)

From equation (3.31) the time differential equation can be expressed as,
f (t ) +

2 f (t ) = 0

(3.32)

55

The roots of the characteristic equation of equation (3.32) are purely imaginary, therefore the solution is,
f (t ) = A cos t + B sin t

(3.33)

Where, A and B are constants. Similarly, the spatial part of equation (3.31) can be expressed as,
D11W4 x + 2(D12 + 2 D66 )W xxyy + 4 D16W3 xy + 4 D26W x 3 y + D22W4 y = W 2

(3.34)

Substituting equation (3.25) in (3.34),

2 = D11
m 4 4 m 2 n 2 4 m 3 n 4 mn 3 4 n 4 4 ( ) D D D D D + 2 + 2 4 4 + 16 26 22 12 66 a4 a 2b 2 a 3b ab 3 b4

(3.35) So, the constant can be found with the help of mode numbers, laminate dimensions and the material property. Hence, the solution for the (m,n) mode of free vibration can be expressed as,
m x m y w( x, y, t ) = sin A t B t sin cos sin + mn mn a b

(3.36)

The constants Amn and Bmn can be found using initial conditions.

Vibration with Piezoelectric Effects (Forced Vibration):

To include the piezoelectric effects in the dynamic solution of the laminate, the input function term p ( x, y, t ) in equation (3.11) will be considered. Rewriting equation (3.11),
D11 4w 4w 4w 4w 4w 2w + + + + + + + p ( x, y , t ) = 0 2 D 2 D 4 D 4 D D ( ) 12 66 16 26 22 x 4 x 2 y 2 x3y xy 3 y 4 t 2

56

or,
D11 = 4w 4w 4w 4w 4w ( ) + D D D D D 2 2 4 4 12 66 16 26 22 x 4 x 2 y 2 x 3 y xy 3 y 4

2w + p ( x, y , t ) t 2

(3.37) We know that any plate deformation can be represented in terms of its eigenfunctions and shape coefficients. Let us suppose that f mn (t ) is the shape coefficient of a particular mode with modal numbers m and n and shape coefficient Wmn ( x, y ) . Therefore any arbitrary shape of the structure can be represented as a sum of all the modes of the structure as,
mx ny w( x, y, t ) = f mn (t ) sin sin a b m =1 n =1

(3.38)

Substituting equation (3.38) in (3.37),

m 4 4 m x n y D sin + 11 4 f mn (t ) sin a a b 2 2 4 mn m x n y + 2 2 ( ) sin sin D D f t ( ) mn 12 66 a 2b 2 a b 3 4 4 4 m n m x n y n m x n y m =1 n =1 f mn (t ) cos 4 D16 3 cos + D22 4 f mn (t ) sin sin ab b a b a b mn3 4 m x n y 4 D26 cos cos ( ) f t mn ab3 a b = 2 f mn (t ) m x n y sin sin + p ( x, y , t ) t 2 a b

(3.39)

57

 m x n y Multiplying equation (3.39) by sin sin and integrating between the limits a b

x = 0 to a and y = 0 to b,
ab m 4 4 m 2 n 2 4 n 4 4 D11 4 f mn (t ) + 2 ( D12 + 2 D66 ) 2 2 f mn (t ) + D22 4 f mn (t ) 4 a ab b
b a

ab 2 f mn (t ) m x n y = + p( x, y, t ) sin sin dxdy 2 4 t a b 0 0

m4 m2 n2 n4 4 D11 4 + 2 ( D12 + 2 D66 ) 2 2 + D22 4 f mn (t ) a ab b 2 f mn (t ) 4 m x n y = + p( x, y, t ) sin sin dxdy 2 t ab 0 0 a b
b a

(3.40)

(3.41)

If

m4 m2n2 n4 4 = D11 4 + 2(D12 + 2 D66 ) 2 2 + D22 4 a a b b

m x n y F (t ) = p ( x, y, t ) sin sin dxdy a b 0 0
b a

(3.42)

and

(3.43)

Then equation (3.41) can be written as,

2 f mn (t ) 4 + f mn (t ) + F (t ) = 0 2 t ab

(3.44)

Equation (3.44) is a second order ordinary differential equation. To solve for the homogenous solution,
H 2 f mn (t ) H + f mn (t ) = 0 2 t

(3.45)

H 2 f mn (t ) H = f mn (t ) 2 t

(3.46)

H Assuming f mn (t ) = et , then will have purely imaginary roots of i

58

Therefore, the homogenous solution can be written as,

H + f mn (t ) = Amn cos t B sin mn t
(3.47)

Where, Amn and Bmn are constant for a particular mode and can be found using initial conditions. For the particular solution, the Laplace transform of equation (3.44),

s 2 f mn ( s ) + f mn ( s ) +

f mn ( s ) =

4 F (s) = 0 ab

(3.48)

4 1 .F ( s ) 2 ab ( s + )

(3.49)

Using a convolution integral, the particular solution can be written as,

P mn

=
0

4 F ( ) sin t ( ) d ab

(3.50)

and the total solution of the equation for f mn (t ) is,

H P f mn = f mn + f mn

(3.51)

t 4 F ( ) + f mn (t ) = Amn cos t B t t sin sin ( ) mn d (3.52) ab 0

The transverse displacement could be written as,

w( x, y, t ) = t 4 F ( ) + A t B d cos sin sin (t ) mn mn t ab 0 m =1 n =1 m x n y sin sin a b

(3.53)

59

The coefficients Amn & Bmn could be found from the initial conditions. In equation(3.53), can be calculated using equation (3.42) for a particular mode and the material properties. To calculate F(t), let us consider the electrode in the form of a rectangular patch as in Figure 3.2. Since the electric field is applied in the 3-direction, the strain is generated in the x(1) and y(2) directions and d36 = 0 . Also, the epoxy layer does not have any piezoelectric properties, so the piezoelectric strain constants d31 = d32 = d36 = 0 for epoxy.

From equation (2.84),

R [T ] = k =1
n

d 31 hk [Q ]k d32 E3 zdz hk 1 d36 k

as, d36 = 0
R 1 n R = R2 = [T ]1 [Q ] k k =1 R3 d31 hk d E 32 3 zdz 0 k hk 1

(3.54)

Expanding equation (3.54) for the two piezoelectric layers and considering the fact that the two PVDF layers are polarized in the opposite directions,

R he + h p he 1 d31 d31 2 2 1 1 d = R = [T ] [Q ] d E R zdz T Q E zdz + [ ] [ ]bottom 32 2 3 3 top 3 2 he he h p 0 top 0 bottom 2 2 R3

60

(3.55) As all the three layers are aligned with each other, so the stress and strain transformation matrix will be identity matrices. R he 1 d31 2 2 + hp z R = R2 = [Q ]top d32 E3 2 he + 2 0 R3
he d31 2 2 z [Q ]bottom d32 E3 2 he hp 2 0

(3.56)

or

R 1 d31 2 2 = R = [Q ] d E 1 he + h 2 + h h he + R p e p 2 top 3 2 3 2 4 4 0 R3
d 31 2 2 E 1 he h 2 h h he d [Q ]bottom p e p 32 3 2 4 4 0

(3.57)

R 1 hp ( hp + he ) [Q ]top + [Q ]bottom R = R2 = 2 R3

d31 d E 32 3 0

(3.58)

From equation (2.29) and using the relation 12 E22 = 21 E11 for an orthotropic laminate,

R E 12 E22 1 11 hp ( hp + he ) 2 R E22 21 E11 2 = R2 = 2 E22 / E11 ) 1 12 ( 0 R3 0

d 31 0 d32 E3 2 (1 12 E22 / E11 ) G12 0 0 (3.59)

61

 = R 1 = R 2

hp ( hp + he ) hp ( hp + he )

(1 12 21 )

( E11d31 + 12 E22 d32 ) E3 ( E22 d32 + 12 E22 d31 ) E3

(3.60)

(1 12 21 )

=0 R 3 From equation (3.10), the input function can be written as,

p ( x, y , t ) = hp ( hp + he ) 2 E3' 2 E3' E d + E d + E d + E d ( 11 31 12 22 32 ) 2 ( 22 32 12 22 31 ) x y 2 (1 12 21 )

(3.61) Substituting the electric field from equation (3.12) in (3.61),

2 E d E d Po ( x, y ) + + ( ) 11 31 12 22 32 2 hp ( hp + he ) x G (t ) o Eo p ( x, y , t ) = 2 (1 12 21 ) ( E22 d32 + 12 E22 d31 ) y 2 Po ( x, y )

(3.62)

Substituting the partial differential of the spatial function with respect to x and y from equations (3.17) and (3.19),
p ( x, y , t ) = hp ( hp + he )

(1 12 21 ) o o (3.63) ( E11d31 + 12 E22 d32 ) [ ( x x1 ) ( x x2 ) ] [ H ( y y1 ) H ( y y2 )] + G (t ) ( E d + E d ) [ H ( x x ) H ( x x ) ] [ ( y y ) ( y y ) ] 1 2 1 2 22 32 12 22 31

Input function in equation (3.63) will be used to calculate the expression for F in the final solution of the dynamic equation. Substituting equation (3.63) in equation (3.43),

62

F (t ) =

hp ( hp + he )

(1 12 21 )

o EoG (t )

( E11d31 + 12 E22 d32 ) [ ( x x1 ) ( x x2 ) ] [ H ( y y1 ) H ( y y2 ) ] + b a E d + E d H x x H x x y y y y ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) [ ] [ ] 22 3 2 12 22 3 1 1 2 1 2 dxdy 0 0 sin m x sin n y a b (3.64) Equation (3.64) consists of integration for a derivative of a dirac delta function. The general form for integrating the derivative of a dirac delta function is given as,

( x ) f ( x)dx = f ( x) ( x )dx
and the integration of a dirac delta function can be written as,

(3.65)

( x ) f ( x)dx = f ( )
Back from equation (3.64), let us assume,
b a

(3.66)

mx ny F1 = [ ( x x1 ) ( x x 2 )] [H ( y y1 ) H ( y y 2 )]sin sin dxdy a b 0 0

(3.67) or
n y m x F1 = [ H ( y y1 ) H ( y y2 ) ] sin dy [ ( x x1 ) ( x x2 ) ] sin dx b a 0 0
b a

(3.68)

2 a m a b m n y m x m x cos ( ) cos ( ) cos F1 = x x dx x x + 1 2 dx n a b y1 a 0 a a 0

(3.69)

63

F1 =

mb n x2 n x1 n y1 n y2 cos cos cos cos na b b b b

(3.70)

Similarly if,
mx ny F2 = [H ( x x1 ) H ( x x 2 )] [ ( y y1 ) ( y y 2 )]sin sin dxdy a b 0 0
b a

(3.71) then,
F2 = na m x1 m x2 n y2 n y1 cos cos cos cos mb a a b b

(3.72)

Substituting equations (3.70) and (3.72) in equation (3.64),

F (t ) = hp ( hp + he )

(1 12 21 )

o EoG (t )

mb n x2 n x1 n y1 n y2 cos ( E11d31 + 12 E22 d32 ) cos cos cos na b b b b + na m x1 m x2 n y2 n y1 cos cos cos ( E22 d32 + 12 E22 d31 ) mb cos a a b b

(3.73)
Deflection Results:

Modulus of Elasticity of PVDF film: E11 = 2.7 109 Pa; E22 = 2.5 109 Pa; G12 = 0.528 109 Poissons Ratio of PVDF film:

12 = 0.326; 21 = 12
Piezoelectric Strain Constants:

E22 E11

64

d31 = 23 1012 m/V; d32 = 2.3 1012 m/V PVDF film thickness: h p = 52 106 m Modulus of Elasticity of the Epoxy Layer: Ee = 1.03 109 Pa Poissons Ratio of the Epoxy Layer: e = 0.35 Epoxy layer thickness: h e = 30 106 m Laminated Plate Dimensions: a = 71 103 m; b = 71103 m Applied Voltage: 200V

Electric Field E3 =

V he + 2hp

Figure 3.5 to Figure 3.8 show the deflection of the laminated plate, when the electric field is applied at different areas. The deflection shapes come out to be as expected.

65

Figure 3.5: Constant electric field of +200 Volts applied to the whole laminate.

Figure 3.6: Opposite polarity electric fields of 200 Volts applied to each half of the plate. 66

Figure 3.7: Alternate polarity electric fields of 200 Volts applied to each quarter.

Figure 3.8: One quarter of the laminate is excited by +100 Volts, others by 200 Volts. 67

3.4.2 Corner Supported:

A corner supported plate requires no displacement boundary condition at the four corners of the laminate. Everywhere else the laminate is free to move and rotate. So the moments and effective shear forces should be zero at all the four edges.
Displacement Boundary Conditions at the four corners:

w(0, 0, t ) = w(a, 0, t ) = w(0, b, t ) = w(a, b, t ) = 0

Moment Boundary Conditions at the four corners:
M x = 0 at (0, 0), (a, 0), (0, b) & (a, b) M y = 0 at (0, 0), (a, 0), (0, b) & (a, b)

(3.74)

(3.75)

Boundary Conditions at the four edges:

M x = 0, M xy = 0, Qx = 0 at x = 0 & a M y = 0, M yx = 0, Qy = 0 at y = 0 & b

(3.76)

Until now, no eigenfunction has been found, which satisfies all the stated boundary conditions for a corner supported plate. This research makes an attempt to calculate the natural frequencies of the PVDF Bimorph with corner supported boundary conditions. Referring to the work by Reed [27] and Sumali et.al. [12], the shape function satisfying the displacement boundary condition is,
m x n y m y n x Wmn ( x, y ) = amn cos sin + bmn cos sin a b b a

(3.77)

Where m and n are the mode numbers for a particular mode shape. amn and bmn are the expansion coefficients.

68

Each pair of mode numbers m and n corresponds to one mode shape and one natural frequency of the structure. Therefore each mode can be represented by a single index and the function can be represented as,
m j x n j y m j y n j x W j ( x, y ) = a j cos sin + b j cos sin a b b a

(3.78)

Since equation (3.78) does not satisfy all the boundary conditions, hence, it will not be able to satisfy the equation of motion (3.37).
Rayleigh Method:

The Rayleigh method is used to calculate the natural frequency of any structure when the exact mode shape is not known. The assumed mode shape should satisfy the geometric boundary conditions for a good approximation. If the function chosen approximates closely the exact eigenfunction then the frequency determined will closely approximate the exact frequency. The Rayleig Method uses the fact that the total energy of any structure is a constant.
T + U = C (Constant)

For any undamped vibrating structure, the maximum potential energy occurs when the total kinetic energy is zero and the displacement at every point is at its maximum. Similarly, when the kinetic energy reaches its maximum value, the total potential energy of the structure is zero. So,
Tmax + 0 = C (Constant)

and

0 + U max = C (Constant)
Tmax = U max

(3.79)

69

From equation (2.80) the kinetic energy expression can be written as, 1 w T = dxdy 2 t
2

(3.80)

If the displacement is,

w( x, y, t ) = W j sin j t
j =1 N

(3.81)

Where N is the total number of modes considered. Substituting equation (3.81) in equation (3.80),
T=
2 1 N 2 j (W j ) cos 2 j tdxdy 2 j =1

(3.82)

In equation (3.82), T = Tmax if cos j t = 1

Tmax =
2 1 N 2 j (W j ) dxdy 2 j =1

(3.83)

For a particular mode j,

2 1 j Tmax = 2j (W j ) dxdy 2

(3.84)

From Rayleighs principle, using equation (3.79),

2 1 j 2j (W j ) dxdy = U max 2

(3.85)

=
2 j

j U max 2 1 (W j ) dxdy 2

(3.86)

j is the j th natural frequency of the structure.

The right hand side of equation (3.86) is known as Rayleighs Quotient.

70

The approximate mode shape does not give the freedom to the structure to vibrate in the desired shape. Hence, constraints are added to the system, which increases the frequencies of the modes constrained. Thus the frequency calculated using equation (3.86) will be the upper bound of the true natural frequency.
Ritz Method:

Ritz extended Rayleighs method to find the minimum upper bound natural frequency of a mode. He minimized the natural frequency expression by optimizing the expansion coefficients. Let us assume that c j are the expansion coefficients ( a j & b j ). Partial differentiating equation (3.86) with respect to c j ,
j U max =0 = 2 c j c j 1 2 (W j ) dxdy
2 j

(3.87)

2 2 1 1 j j U max U max (W j ) dxdy (W j ) dxdy = 0 c j 2 2 c j

(3.88)

Using relation (3.85) in equation (3.88),

2 2 1 1 j U max 2j (W j ) dxdy (W j ) dxdy = 0 c j 2 2 c j 2 1 j U max 2j (W j ) dxdy = 0 c j c j 2

(3.89)

(3.90)

From equation (3.84),

j j U max Tmax = 0 c j c j

(3.91)

71

To develop the maximum kinetic energy expression for the Bimorph, substituting the expression (3.78) in equation (3.83),
Tmax = m j x n j y m j y n j x cos sin cos a + b sin j j N N 1 a b b a 2 dxdy 2 k =1 j =1 mk x nk y mk y nk x ak cos a sin b + bk cos b sin a

(3.92) Integrating with respect to x and y,

Tmax =

(1+ m + n ) a j b j 1 + ( 1) j j 16n 2 j ab 2 2 ab + a j + bj + 2 4 2 2 2 4 mj nj N 1 2 1+ m j + nk ) 1+ mk + n j ) m j + mk + n j + nk ) ( ( ( 2 j =1 j max abn n ( 1) + ( 1) + ( 1) +1 k j b a a b + ( ) j k j k 2 2 k =1 2 m2 mk n2 j nk j

)(

(3.93)

If,

Aj =

16n 2 j a j b j 1 + ( 1)

(
)

(1+ m j + n j )

2 m2 j nj

)
( m j + mk + n j + nk )

(3.94)

and

C jk =

abnk n j

(( 1)(

1+ m j + nk

+ ( 1)

(1+ mk + n j )

+ ( 1)

+1

2 2 2 2 ( m2 j nk )( mk n j )

(3.95)

Then Tmax can be expressed as, Tmax =

N N 1 ab 2 ab + + b C jk ( b j ak + a j bk ) 2 2 Aj a j b j + ( a 2 ) j j 2 4 k =1 j =1 4

(3.96)

Partial differentiating equation (3.96) with respect to its expansion coefficients,

72

N Tmax 1 ab ab = 2 2 a j + 2 Aj b j + 2C jk bk 2 4 a j k =1 4

(3.97)

N Tmax 1 ab ab = 2 2 Aj a j + 2C jk ak + 2 b j 2 4 b j k =1 4

(3.98)

Collecting equations for all the modes in (3.97) and (3.98),

Tmax b C j =1,2.. N = Tmax B a j 1,2.. N = B a C b

(3.99)

Where,
ab 2C1N 4 2 A1 + 2C11 1 C = 2 2 ab A C 2C N 1 2 + N NN 4 2 NN ab 2 0 1 B = 2 2 ab 0 2 N N

(3.100)

and

(3.101)

Potential Energy of the laminate is stored in the form of its strain energy. As the midplane deflections are zero, the strain energy from equation (2.82) can be written as,
2 2 w 2 2w 2w 2w + D D11 2 + 2 D12 2 22 2 2 x y 1 x y U = dxdy 2 2 2 2w 2w 2w w +4 xy D16 x 2 + D26 y 2 + 4 D66 xy

2 1 2w 2w w R R 2 R + + dxdy 1 2 3 2 x 2 y 2 xy

73

The second expression in the strain energy consists of the piezoelectric properties of the PVDF film, which actuates the laminate when an electric field is applied. So for the calculation of the natural frequencies of the laminate, the second term should be neglected.
2 2 w 2 2w 2w 2w + D D11 2 + 2 D12 2 22 2 x y 2 1 x y U = dxdy 2 2 2 2 2 2 w w w w +4 xy D16 x 2 + D26 y 2 + 4 D66 xy

(3.102)

Substituting equations (3.78) and (3.81) in (3.102) and integrating with respect to x and y. U = U max if sin t = 1 U max =
N 1 N 2 2 + + A a B b C jk a j bk j j j j 2 j =1 k =1

(3.103)

Where,

Aj =

2 2 2 2 4 4 D11b 4 m 4 j + 2 ( D12 + 2 D66 ) a b m j n j + D22 a n j 4 a 3b 3

4 4

(3.104)

Bj = C jk = and 2 2 a 3b3

2 2 2 2 4 4 D11b 4 n 4 j + 2 ( D12 + 2 D66 ) a b m j n j + D22 a m j 4a b 3 3

(3.105)

nk n j

(( 1)(

1+ m j + nk

+ ( 1)
2 j

(1+ mk + n j )

+ ( 1)

( m j + mk + n j + nk )

+1

(m

2 2 nk mk n2 j

)(

(3.106)

4 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 4 2 2 D11b m j nk + ( D12 + 4 D66 ) a b m j mk + D12 a b n j nk + D66 a mk n j

Partial differentiating equation (3.103), with respect to its expansion coefficients a j and bj ,
N U max 1 = 2 Aj a j + C jk bk a j 2 k =1

(3.107)

74

U max 1 N = C jk ak + 2 B j b j b j 2 k =1 Using equations (3.107) and (3.108) for all the modes in consideration,
U max b j =1,2.. N U max a j =1,2.. N C = A B a C b

(3.108)

(3.109)

Where C is a N N matrix with

1 N C jk as its N rows. A and B are N N matrices 2 k =1

containing Aj and B j as their diagonal terms.

Applying the Rayleigh-Ritz Method from equation (3.91),

Tmax U max b b j =1,2.. N j =1,2.. N = 0 Tmax U max a j =1,2.. N a j =1,2.. N

(3.110)

C C B 2B

B 2 B a 0 = C C b 0

(3.111)

For non-trivial solution of the expansion coefficients, C C det B 2B B 2B =0 C C

(3.112)

The solution of the determinant will be the natural frequencies of the laminated plate and the equation is known as the Frequency Equation.

75

CHAPTER 4

CONTROL METHODOLOGY

The main goal for this research is to develop a feedback control methodology for a three layer PVDF laminated plate, which could reject external disturbances and maintain the desired shape. The control methodology is first developed for a simply supported beam, a one dimensional vibration structure and then extended for a PVDF laminate with simply supported boundary conditions, a two dimensional structure. This section starts by discussing the equation of motion of a beam. The beam consists of piezoelectric patch actuators on its surface, which are used for the input. Open Loop Control [18] is discussed and derived with an example. Feedback control is briefly discussed and defined. A State Space model is developed by using the equation of motion of the beam. A controller is designed for reference tracking. Lastly, the equation of motion for the laminate is transformed for its state space modeling.
4.1 Open Loop Control

In an Open Control System, the output has no effect upon the control action. The output is not compared with the reference input. Therefore, for each reference input, there 76

corresponds a fixed operating condition. It is generally used if the relationship between the input and output is known and in the absence of any internal or external disturbances.

Figure 4.1: Open Loop Control System

General equation of motion for a beam can be written as, EI 4 w( x, t ) 2 w( x, t ) + A = u ( x, t ) x 4 t 2 (4.1)

Where, w( x, t ) is the deflection, x is the length of the beam and u ( x, t ) is the input.

Figure 4.2: Beam with four patch actuators.

Figure 4.2 shows a beam with four piezoelectric patch actuators. The generalized input function in equation (4.1) can be written as,
u ( x, t ) = Vo ( H ( x a1 ) H ( x a2 ) ) j u j (t )
j =1 M

(4.2)

77

Where, M is number of electrodes, a1 and a2 are the x-coordinates of the j th electrode and u j (t ) represents the temporal part of the input at the j th electrode. Let the desired shape be expressed by a polynomial f ( x, ) in the frequency domain. If

i ( x) represents the orthogonal basis function of the infinite dimensional space and
ci ( ) is the shape coefficient defining the magnitude of each basis function, then any shape can be represented in a linear combination form as,
f ( x, ) yd ( x, ) = c1 ( ) 1 ( x) + c2 ( ) 2 ( x) +

(4.3)

Where, yd ( x, ) is the exact desired shape of the structure. From the orthogonormality of the basis function:

( x)
D i

( x)dx = ik

(4.4)

Where, Kronecker Delta

ik = 1; i = k
= 0; i k

Multiplying equation (4.3) by the basis function and using the orthogonal property (4.4),
ci = yd ( x) i ( x)dx
D

(4.5)

Similarly, the coefficient can be expressed in terms of the actual output ( ya ( x) ) of the plant,
ci = ya ( x) i ( x)dx
D

(4.6)

Output of any plant ya ( x) can also be represented in terms of its Greens Function as,
ya ( x, ) = G ( x, , )u ( , )d
D

(4.7)

78

Where, is the dummy variable, u ( , ) is the input and G ( x, , ) is the Greens function represented in its bilinear form as,
G ( x, , ) =

k ( x)k ( ) k ( ) k =1

(4.8)

k ( x) is the eigenfunction of the structure and k ( ) is the corresponding eigenvalue. In

most cases the orthogonal eigenfunctions form the basis of the infinite dimensional space of the desired shape. The input function u ( , ) in equation (4.7) can be broken into its spatial and temporal functions as,
u ( , ) = q j ( )u j ( )
j =1 M

(4.9)

Since the desired shape coefficients will be known, we need to calculate the input such that the output shape will have the desired shape coefficients. Using equations (4.6), (4.7), (4.8) and (4.9) the expression for the shape coefficient can be written as,
M K k ( )q j ( ) ci ( ) = i ( x)k ( x)dx d u j ( ) D D k ( ) j =1 k =1

(4.10)

If hik = i ( x)k ( x)dx and f kj = k ( )q j ( )d then equation (4.10) can be written as,
D D M K h ci ( ) = ik f kj u j ( ) j =1 k =1 k ( )

(4.11)

Considering all the shape function coefficients, relation (4.11) can be expressed in a matrix form as,
C = ( H F ) U

(4.12)

79

Where,

c1 u1 u c 2 ;C= 2 U= uM cN h11 h H = 21 hI 1 h12 h22 hI 2 h1K f11 f h2 K ; F = 21 hNK f K1 f12 f 22 fK 2 f1M f2M hKM

(4.13)

(4.14)

1 ( ) 1 0 = 0

0 1 2 ( )

0 0 1 K ( ) 0

(4.15)

Using equation (4.12), required electrical field inputs can be calculated as,

U = ( H F ) C
1

(4.16)

From the matrix equations (4.12) and (4.16), it could be said that the number of actuators should be more than or equal to the number of shape coefficients or modes i.e. M N . If M < N , the system will be underdetermined as [C] will be out of column space of

( H F ) .
Example:
Consider a pin-pin beam of unit length with the following properties, Youngs Modulus (E) = 2.6 109 Pa; Mass Density ( ) = 1770 Cross Sectional Area (A) = 52 109 m 2 80

kg m3

The eigenfunction of a pin-pin beam is,

k ( x) = sin( k x) , k = k
Let the desired shape be represented in terms of its eigenfunctions as,

(4.17)

yd ( x) = sin( x) + 5sin(2 x) + 3sin(3 x) + sin(4 x)

So the desired shape coefficient vector is C = [1 5 3 1]
T

(4.18)

Since the number of modes considered in the desired shape are 4, the number of input actuators on the beam should be 4 . Let the total number of patch actuators be 4 with the following x-coordinates,
nd 1 2 1st : x1 = 0.0, x1 : x12 = 0.15, x2 = 0.25 2 = 0.1 ; 2
3 4 3rd : x13 = 0.3, x2 = 0.4 ; 4th : x14 = 0.6, x2 = 0.7

Natural frequency for a simply supported beam can be expressed as,

k = k2

EI 2 = ( k ) A

EI A

Since the desired shape is expressed in terms of eigenfunctions of the beam, hence,

hik = sin(i x) sin(k x)dx = 0 (i k ) =

From equations (4.2) and (4.11),
f kj = sin(k ) ( H ( x a1 ) H ( x a2 ) ) j d
0 1 0

1 (i = k ) 2

In case of static deflection, the excitation frequency = 0 . Therefore, the eigenvalue for the system will be, 81

k = k2 = k4

EI 4 EI = ( k ) A A

Using the matrix equation (4.16), the 4 inputs to the structure are,

U = [ 0.1852 0.2794 0.1634 0.0125]

Substituting the input in equations (4.1) and (4.2), the beam deflection can be calculated at any point.

Figure 4.3: Actual shape calculated using the Open Loop Control, exactly matches the Desired or Reference Shape.

82

Figure 4.3 shows the desired and actual beam shape. The actual beam shape is the result of the deflection by applying the calculated inputs. It can be seen that the actual shape matches exactly with the desired shape. So, the Open Loop Control or Inverse Methodology was able to give the desired results, but it should be noted that this is an ideal situation where there is no disturbance. In the real world there will be lots of external disturbance. Closed Loop or Feedback Control has the ability to counter the external disturbances.

4.2 Closed Loop (Feedback) Control

Due to unmodeled dynamics and disturbances, the application of a desired input to the structure does not necessarily take it to the required shape. This research incorporates a feedback control, which forces the beam to go to the desired shape by altering the input and reducing the error (ideally making it zero).

Figure 4.4: Block diagram for a typical feedback control system with sensor and control. 83

Figure 4.4 is a typical block diagram for a feedback control system. The central component of this feedback system is the System, Plant or Process whose output is to be controlled. In this research, the System is the structure whose shape is to be controlled. C a ( ) , the actual shape coefficients of the beam shape, are the output of this system. C d ( ) , the desired shape coefficients, are the reference input. Disturbance
d ( ) could be any external impact affecting the shape. At each instance of time, the

error is fed into the Controller, which computes the desired control signal to be fed into the System. Control systems can be divided into two major categories:
i. Classical Control: In Classical Control theory the analysis and design of control

systems is done in the frequency domain using transfer functions, with techniques such as root-locus plots and frequency response curves. Generally, it is applicable only to linear time invariant systems with a single input and a single output.
ii. Modern Control Theory: Unlike Classical Control, Modern Control Theory is

applicable to Multi Input Multi Output systems, which may be linear or non linear, and time varying or invariant. It is essentially a time domain approach. This research deals with modern control theory to develop the feedback control for the beam. State Space Modeling is best suited for system analysis by this approach.

84

4.2.1 State Space Modeling

Let the shape of a simply supported beam be represented in terms of its eigenfunction as,

y ( x, t ) = c1 ( t ) 1 ( x) + c2 ( t ) 2 ( x) + c3 ( t ) 3 ( x)........... = ck ( t ) k ( x)
k =1

(4.19)

Where, ck ( t ) is the shape coefficient as a function of time. Substituting equation (4.19) in equation (4.1) with equation (4.2) as the input,
EI kIV ( x)ck (t ) + Ak ( x)ck (t ) = Vo ( ( x a1 ) ( x a2 ) ) j u j (t )
k =1 j =1 N M

(4.20)

Taking the spatial projection on the eigenfunction and using the orthogonality condition, equation (4.20) can be written as,
ck (t ) + k2 ck (t ) =
j =1 M

Vo ( cos k a2 cos k a1 ) j u j (t ) A
M

(4.21)

ck (t ) + c (t ) = kj u j (t )
2 k k
j =1

(4.22)

Where,

kj =

Vo ( cos k a2 cos k a1 ) j A

(4.23)

kj is a constant for a particular mode k and actuator j.

For mode k, let if

ck = ck 1 ck1 = ck 2

(4.24) (4.25)

Substituting equations (4.25) and (4.24) in (4.22),

ck 2 = k2 ck1 (t ) + kj u j (t )
j =1 M

(4.26)

Using equations (4.25) and (4.26), we can write,

85

 ck 1 0 c = 2 k2 k

u1 1 ck 1 0 u2 + 0 ck 2 k1 k 2 .... kM u M

(4.27)

To extend equation (4.27) for all the modes, let ck and ck be the states of mode k and the state vector be defined as,

[C ] = [c1

c2

cN

c1 c2

cN ]

(4.28)

Using equations (4.27) and (4.28), for all N modes,

0 0 C = 2 1 0

0 0 0 2 N

1 0 0 0

0 0 0 1 0 0 [C ] + 0 11 12 N1 N 2 0

u 1 u2 0 1M u M NM

(4.29)

If

0 0 [ A] = 2 1 0

0 0 0 2 N

1 0 0 0

0 1 0 0

(4.30)

86

And

0 0 0 0 [ B] = 12 11 N1 N 2

0 1M NM 0

(4.31)

Equation (4.29) can be written as,

C = AC + BU

(4.32)

Figure 4.5: Block diagram representing the State Space model of the beam

Figure 4.5 is a block diagram representation of equation (4.32) with actual shape coefficients being the output at any instance of time.

Controllability:
A system is said to be controllable if and only if it is possible, by means of the input, to transfer the system from any initial state x ( t1 ) to any other state x ( t2 ) in a finite time. 87

Controllability of any linear time invariant system can be found by the Controllability Matrix.

Q= B

A2 B

A( N 1) B

(4.33)

Matrix Q(2 N 2 NM ) in equation (4.33) is known as the Controllability Matrix of the system. For the system to be controllable, the Controllability Matrix should be nonsingular or full ranked. Q has 2N rows and 2NM columns, thus the rank of Q cannot be greater than 2N. So for the system to be controllable, r(Q) = 2N. For the example in open loop case (section 4.1), the controllability matrix will be,

Q= B

A2 B

A7 B

The dimensions of Q are 8 32 . The rank of Q is 8 i.e. full ranked, so the system is controllable.

4.2.2 Controller Design

Rewriting the state space equation developed earlier,

C = AC + BU
Where C is the state vector and U is the control signal input to the system. Let us assume that the control signal is dependent on the instantaneous state,
U = GC

(4.34)

This is known as State Feedback and G is known as the State Feedback Gain. It is a vector for single input single output system and a matrix for a multi input multi output system. Using equation (4.34) in (4.32), 88

C = ( A BG ) C

(4.35)

This is a Closed Loop Control System because the state is fed back to the control signal U. Figure 4.6 is the block representation of equation (4.35).

Figure 4.6: Closed Loop Control System

If C (0) is the initial state of the system, then the solution of equation (4.35) can be given as,

C ( t ) = e( A BG )t C ( 0 )

(4.36)

The stability of the system can be found by the eigenvalues of matrix (A-BG). If matrix G is chosen properly, the system can be made asymptotically stable i.e. for any C (0) 0 , the state C (t ) will approach zero as the time (t) goes to infinity. The eigenvalues of the matrix (A-BG) are known as the poles of the closed loop system. For the system to be

89

asymptotically stable, the closed loop poles should be placed in the left half of the splane. This is known as the Pole Placement Problem. It should be noted that it is not possible to place the poles at the desired locations for every system. The necessary and sufficient condition for arbitrary pole placement is that the system should be completely controllable. The controllability of any linear time invariant system can be found by using the Controllability Matrix of equation (4.33). The Gain Matrix G is not unique for any system. It depends on the choice of desired closed loop poles, which determine the speed of system response and its damping. But, if we increase the response speed, the effects of disturbances and measurement noises also increase. So, it is a compromise between the two and the best Gain Matrix could be chosen by performing several simulations and deciding according to the need.

4.2.2 Reference Tracking

The previous section explains and designs a controller for controlling the response speed and minimizing the external disturbances. This section deals with reference tracking, which forces the system to respond in the desired way. The input is known as the Reference and the output tries to track the input (reference). The goal is to make the error between the output and the input to zero. If r is the reference, then the control input to the plant can be defined as,

U = G (C r )
Substituting equation (4.37) in (4.32)

(4.37)

C = AC + B(GC + Gr )
90

(4.38)

C = ( A BG ) C + BGr

(4.39)

Let us assume that Css and rss represent the steady state values of the states and the reference respectively. The steady state equation can be written as,
Css = ( A BG ) Css + BGrss

(4.40)

For a step (constant) reference input,

rss = r = Constant
Subtracting equation (4.40) from (4.39),
C (t ) Css = ( A BG ) (C (t ) Css )

(4.41)

(4.42) (4.43)

If the error is represented as

e(t ) = C (t ) Css

Then equation (4.42) can be written as,

e = ( A BG ) e

(4.44)

Equation (4.44) shows that if the controller gain G is chosen such that the closed loop poles are on the left side of the imaginary axis, then the error will go to zero.

Figure 4.7: Reference tracking with input directly proportional to the error. 91

Figure 4.8 is the Sumulink model for Reference Tracking of the beam example in section 4.1. The reference vector is

r = [1 5 3 1 0 0 0 0]

The desired eigenvalues are arbitrarily chosen in the left side of s-plane. The gain is calculated by using the PLACE command in MATLAB, which uses the algorithm by Kautsky and Nichols [28]. Figure 4.9 is the response of the Simulink model. The shape coefficients are responding very well but there is a steady state error. Adding an integral control will help in removing the steady state error from the final response. Figure 4.10 is the Simulink model of the system with an integral and disturbance and the reference vector [1 5 3 1] . It can be seen from the response in Figure 4.11 that the
T

system rejects the disturbance and there is no Steady State Error.

92

Figure 4.8: Simulink Model for Reference Tracking of Beam Shape Coefficients

93

Figure 4.9: Reference Tracking response Steady State Error.

94

Figure 4.10: Simulink Model with Integral Control for Reference Tracking and Disturbance Rejection. 95

Figure 4.11: Reference Tracking Disturbance Rejection and No Steady State Error.

96

Figure 4.12: Block diagram showing the application of feedback control to the system.

4.2.3 Empirical Observer

In all our previous simulations, it was assumed that all the system states were measurable. Theoretically that is correct but in the real world there is no way to measure the shape coefficients directly.

97

Figure 4.12 shows a detailed block diagram for the feedback control system set up, where the sensors are used to measure the beam displacement. These displacement values will be used to calculate the shape coefficients of the beam shape. For the example in section 4.1, let the displacements at x = 0.1, 0.2, 0.6 and 0.7 be y = 6.378, 8.1995, -2.0446 and -1.8723 respectively. For a simply supported beam the displacements at the ends x = 0 and x=1 are zero. Approximating the shape with a 4th degree polynomial,

y = 243.86 x 4 + 582.1x3 445.96 x 2 + 107.85 x 0.12368

(4.45)

Using Fourier analysis, representing the shape in terms of its orthogonal Shape Functions,

y ( x) = 1.9589sin( x) + 4.5248sin(2 x) + 2.5689sin(3 x) + 0.5501sin(4 x)

(4.46) The shape coefficients from equation (4.46) are,

C _ actual = [1.9589 4.5248 2.5689 0.5501]

(4.47)

These are the actual shape coefficients at any instant of time and can be used as a part of the states in the simulations. This algorithm provides the instantaneous states of the system, which is similar to what an Observer does in any Control Methodology. Hence this is named an Empirical

Observer.
Finally, the Closed Loop Control Methodology in this research can be summarized by the following steps:

98

i. Displacements at certain points on the structure are measured and shape coefficients are calculated by formulating a mathematical expression and using the Empirical Observer. ii. Similarly desired Shape Coefficients are calculated by measuring the displacements and using the Empirical Observer. iii. Desired initial input is calculated by an Open Loop Control Methodology. iv. The input is applied on the structure to get some actual shape. v. Sensors are used to measure the actual displacements and shape coefficients are calculated using the Empirical Observer. vi. The error between the actual and desired shape coefficients is the input to the controller. vii. Controller output is applied to the actuators through the output channels of the data acquisition system board.

99

Figure 4.13: Schematic Outline of Experimental Setup Figure 4.13 is a schematic showing an experimental lab setup, where all the calculations and simulations for the control development are done in the computer. The computer communicates with the plant using the Data Acquisition System.
4.3 Application to a Simply Supported Laminated Plate

It can be seen from the previous discussion that the control methodology developed can be used to dynamically control the shape of a simply supported beam. The next step is to extend the same methodology to the simply supported laminated plate, which is a two dimensional structure. We know that the eigenfunction of a simply supported plate is,

m x n y Wmn ( x, y ) = sin sin a b

100

Any shape of the laminated plate can be represented in terms of its eigenfunctions as in equation (3.38)
mx ny w( x, y, t ) = f mn (t ) sin sin a b m =1 n =1

f mn (t ) is the shape coefficient. As earlier m and n are the modal numbers. Each pair of m
and n corresponds to one mode and one natural frequency and therefore can be replaced by a single index. Replacing the modal numbers in equation (3.38) with a single index,

w( x, y, t ) = f1 (t )W1 ( x, y ) + f 2 (t )W2 ( x, y ) + f3 (t )W3 ( x, y ) + ............ w( x, y, t ) = f k (t )Wk ( x, y )

k =1 N

(4.48) (4.49)

Multiply equation (4.49) with its eigenfunction and using the orthogonality conditions,

2 fk 4 + f k + F (t ) = 0 2 t ab

(4.50)

fk +

fk +

4 F (t ) = 0 ab

(4.51)

Where, and F are same as in equations (3.42) and (3.43)

4.3.1 State Space Modeling

Let And From equation (4.51),

f k = f k1
f k1 = f k2

(4.52) (4.53)

f k2 =

f k1

4 Fk ab

(4.54)

101

From equations (4.53) and (4.54),

0 f k1 2 = k fk 1 1 0 fk + 4 F k 0 f k2 ab

(4.55)

From equations (3.15) and (3.43), Fk can be represented as, G (t ) Fk = F ki i

i =1 M

(4.56)

Where M is the total number of electrode patches. So, equation (4.55) can be written as,
0 f = k f
1 k 2 k

1 1 fk 4 2 0 f k ab

G1 0 G1 F F F ... kM k1 k 2 GM

(4.57)

Considering all the modes, equation (4.57) can be expanded as,

f = Af + BU
Where,

(4.58)

[f ]= f1

f2

fN

f1

f2 1 0

fN

(4.59)

0 0 1 [ A] = 0

0 0

0 0 N 0

0 1 0 0

(4.60)

102

0 0 4 = B [ ] ab F 11 FN 1

0 0 F

12

F N2

0 & U = [G1 G2 F 1M F NM
0

GM ]

(4.61)

Equation (4.58) is in the standard state space form and can be used with the control methodology developed earlier in this research. The next step is to get an overall idea of the electrode pattern, which could give us the desired deflection. Sumali et.al. [11] has suggested a Singular Value Decomposition method for the electrode shape prediction by minimizing the potential energy of the laminate. This methodology could be used to predict the electrode pattern, which could be used to generate the input function for the feedback control methodology developed in this research.

103

CHAPTER 5

CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE WORK

This Chapter summarizes all the research work done in the dissertation and also talks about its contribution in the field of shape and vibration control of laminated plates. The Chapter starts with the outline of each section and a brief review of work done in every area. It then discusses the scope of future work and recommends the possible research areas in related topics.
5.1 Research Summary and Contributions

All the previous work done in this field has been focused on quasi-static deflections of a plate, which provides good results in an ideal atmosphere. Undesirable disturbances of the real world prevent the structure from taking the desired shape. This research has successfully conceptualized, modeled and developed a control methodology for dynamic shape control of a piezoelectric laminated plate with simply supported edges. The results have shown that this dynamic control model has the capability of rejecting external disturbances, which enhances its practical applications by many folds. 104

The two main objectives of this research can be broadly classified as,

Develop a dynamic model of a PVDF bimorph including the piezoelectric properties of the PVDF film.

Develop a control methodology to dynamically control the shape and vibration of the laminate.

The work was performed in three stages:

First Stage involved the development of equations of motion of a multilayer laminated

plate from first principles. Basic Assumptions for the laminate modeling were stated. The stiffness matrix for a thin orthotropic laminated plate was derived and the structural parameters were defined. Piezoelectric properties of the smart material (PVDF) were incorporated in the stress-strain equations. These equations were further used to calculate Stress and Moment Resultants of a multilayer laminate. Kinetic and Strain Energy expressions for the laminate were derived. The energy expressions were used in Hamiltons Principle to derive the equations of motion for the laminate. Rewriting equation (2.105) for deflection in the z-direction.

2 2 2 2 M xy 2 M y 2M x 2R 2R 2w 2R i w i w i w 3 1 2 + + + + + = + + + 2 N 2 N N 2 x xy y xy xy xy x 2 y 2 x 2 y 2 t 2 x 2 y 2

Second Stage of the research involved dynamic modeling of the three layer bimorph with
simply supported edges. Equations of motion developed in the earlier section formed the basis of this modeling. Three Layer PVDF bimorph was explained in the first section of this stage, which was followed by the detailed development of an input function for the 105

laminate. Input for a rectangular patch with generalized coordinates was developed using the Heaviside Step Function. Orthotropic properties of the PVDF film were taken into account and the epoxy was considered isotropic. Section 3.4 analyzed the two boundary conditions considered in this research, i) Simply Supported Edges All four edges of the laminate were simply supported: This boundary condition was the main focus of this research. Due to the availability of an exact shape function of a simply supported plate, the goal was to develop a control methodology, which could act as a basis for all other boundary conditions. A generalized expression for free and forced vibration of the laminate in the z-direction was developed. Boundary conditions were elaborated and initial conditions were discussed. Deflection results with different inputs were plotted and discussed. It was verified that the laminate behaved as expected for obvious inputs. Figure 5.1 shows two plots with alternated polarity of 200V input applied to each quarter of the plate. Part b of the figure has one quarter with 100V input, which is very obvious with less deflection of that part.

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Figure 5.1: a) Alternated Electric field of 200 V applied to each of the four quadrants. b) One quadrant of the plate is excited by +100V, others by 200 V

ii)

Corner Supported Four corners of the laminate were simply supported: After successfully modeling the simply supported boundary condition, due to the enhanced practical applications of corner supported plates, this research made an attempt to dynamically model the same. As the exact shape function for a corner supported plate was not found, an approximate shape function was recommended on the basis of earlier research by Reed [27]. This shape function was used to generate the frequency equation of the laminate by using The Rayleigh-Ritz method. Extensive research was done by analyzing different modeling techniques by Kocaturk [29] and Yamada et. al. [30] etc. but almost all of them were focused on finding the deflection or natural frequencies. Our aim was primarily to find the dynamic model, which could be used to develop the control methodology for shape control. Work done by Sumali et al. [12] and Massad et al. [13] was very useful in calculating the 107

deflection of the bimorph under external electric field. Figure 5.2 shows the deflection of a corner supported PVDF bimorph under 200V of input. The maximum deflection around 250 m , which is much more than the plate under simply supported boundary conditions, under similar circumstances.

Figure 5.2: Quasi-static deflection of a corner supported plate, excited by +200V of Electric Field.

Third and Final Stage of this research was focused on the development of a Control
Methodology for shape and vibration control of a multilayer laminate. The goal was to develop a feedback control methodology, which could track the desired reference shape, rejecting external disturbances. This stage started off by discussing the open loop control methodology of a beam developed by Burke and Hubbard [18]. A simple example for a 108

pin-pin beam with four piezoelectric patch actuators was analyzed. It was corroborated that for any beam, at least N patch inputs are required to generate a shape comprising of N modes. This technique being Open Loop or Inverse methodology, is not of much use under the presence of external disturbance. The next section talked about the Closed Loop Control (Classical and Modern). Advantages of Modern over Classical Control were also discussed. A State Space Model for a beam with simply supported boundary conditions was developed. Once it was proved that the system is controllable, a controller was designed for reference tracking using the pole placement technique. After the first attempt, the results were quite encouraging except for some steady state error. An integral was added in the next step to eliminate this error. The term Empirical Observer was introduced to define the algorithm for the calculation of shape coefficients of the structure. A schematic outline for a possible experimental setup was discussed. The last step of this stage expanded the state space modeling of the beam to a two dimensional structure of a laminated plate, which could utilize the same control methodology as developed for a pin-pin beam.

5.2 Future Work:

This research can be further pursued and be used as the basis for many practical applications. Following are a few suggestions:

A simple experiment for a pin-pin beam is suggested as a next step in this research. This will further corroborate the utility of the derived control

109

methodology. Figure 4.13 shows a standard lab experimental setup. Empirical Observer can be used to calculate the shape coefficients of the actual shape.

The experiment can be further expanded for a PVDF bimorph with simply supported edges. Although the setup will be pretty much the same, there will be a couple of different ways to calculate the shape coefficients. Instead of using Fourier analysis, which might be too complicated for a two dimensional structure, Finite Element Analysis can be used for shape coefficient calculations.

The model for control and dynamic terms developed in this research can be expanded for many boundary conditions, thus opening a wide area of research for various applications. Although a simply supported plate is of limited practical use, it can certainly form a basis for more sought after boundary conditions like Corner Supported. If a dynamic model of a corner supported boundary condition is successfully developed, then the same control methodology could be applied to control the shape of the structure.

110

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