FROM X-RAY TO PENICILIN. Edited by Ahmad Zahin Zulkipli.

Medical radiology has now existed for over a century. It all started in 1895 when Wilhelm Rntgen discovered x-rays. The essential features of x-rays were described and the new discovery aroused tremendous interest. Because the apparatus was readily available in most physics departments his results could easily be repeated. Most of the early x-ray work was performed by doctors and the departments were often combined with electro-therapeutic departments. However, from about 1903 lay x-ray operators were appointed as assistants. X-rays were used for therapy from the earliest times. In the 1950s came the development of the image intensifier and x-ray television. The principles of CT scanning were invented by Godfrey Hounsfield. Work was progressing on magnetic resonance imaging in the 1970s. Ultrasound started in the 1950s and gained popularity in the 1960s. Real-time ultrasound machines were introduced in the late 1970s. These new techniques have displaced many of the older x-ray techniques and this process will continue. **** Alexander Fleming is alongside the likes of Edward Jenner, Koch, Christian and Louis Pasteur in medical history. Alexander Fleming discovered what was to be one of the most powerful of all antibiotics penicillin. Besides that, lets have a look to the history of vaccine. During 1877, Louis Pasteur proposed The Germ Theory of Disease. Then he continued the development of vaccine by created the first live attenuated bacterial vaccine (chicken cholera). On 1885 he continued with be the first person who used rabies vaccine in humans. Consequence from that historic event, The Pasteur Institute was established as a rabies treatment centre as well as an infectious diseases research and training institute. Pasteurs works had gave a massive to the world of vaccine. Nowadays, there is a great company named Sanofi-Pastuer which is doing research and development of vaccine for the improvement of the human kind. **** Much of biochemistry deals with the structures, functions and interactions of cellular components such as proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, nucleic acids and other biomolecules although increasingly processes rather than individual molecules are the main focus. Among the vast number of different biomolecules, many are complex and large molecules (called biopolymers), which are composed of similar repeating subunits (called monomers). Each class of polymeric biomolecule has a different set of subunit types.[1] For example, a protein is a polymer whose subunits are selected from a set of 20 or more amino acids. Biochemistry studies the chemical properties of important biological molecules, like proteins, and in particular the chemistry of enzyme-catalyzed reactions. The biochemistry of cell metabolism and the endocrine system has been extensively described. Other areas of biochemistry include the genetic code(DNA, RNA), protein synthesis, cell membrane transport and signal transduction. Over the last 40 years biochemistry has become so successful at explaining living processes that now almost all areas of the life sciences from botany to medicine are engaged in biochemical research. Today the main focus of pure biochemistry is in understanding how biological molecules give rise to the processes that occur within living cells, which in turn relates greatly to the study and understanding of whole organisms.

References http://www.immunize.org/timeline/ http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biochemistry http://www.bir.org.uk/patients-public/history-of-radiology/

EXPLOSION OF KNOWLEDGE AND TECHNIQUES. Edited by Ahmad Zahin Zulkipli.

The knowledge explosion has created enormous difficulties for researchers to be aware of, access, and process the volume of new literature. Electronic literature retrieval systems and specialization on narrow topics have been strategies used to cope with these problems. In this study, the authors examined the additional effects of the knowledge explosion on researchers' writing, referencing, and citing. Counts of references within sampled empirical journal articles in sociology, physics, biology, and experimental and social psychology revealed impacts of the knowledge explosion in all disciplines but the greatest effects within psychology. Detailed analyses indicated that substantial changes in the numbers of references and citations and in their format and use within the research article are psychology's unique response to the knowledge explosion.

**** Medical Physics is generally speaking the application of physics concepts, theories and methods to medicine/healthcare. Medical physics departments are found in hospitals or universities. In the case of hospital work the term 'Medical Physicist' is the title of a specific healthcare profession with a specific mission statement (see below). Such Medical Physicists are often found in the following healthcare specialties: Diagnostic and Interventional Radiology (also known as Medical Imaging), Nuclear Medicine and Radiation Oncology (also known as Radiotherapy). However, areas of specialty are widely varied in scope and breadth e.g., Clinical Physiology (also known as Physiological Measurement, several countries), Neurophysiology (Finland), Medical Computing and Mathematics (many countries), Radiation Protection (many countries), and Audiology (Netherlands). University departments are of two types. The first type are mainly concerned with preparing students for a career as a hospital Medical Physicist and research focuses on improving the practice of the profession. A second type (increasingly called 'Biomedical Physics') has a much wider scope and may include research in any applications of physics to medicine from the study of biomolecular structure to microscopy and nanomedicine.

**** World health nowadays are really in critical level. The fast development of modernization is seems likely do not give a holistic approach towards the human civilization. The people are tremendously trap in the stressful daily life style. The invention of technology leads to unhealthy citizen as they are live in the comfort zone and do not like to go for exercise. These are sorts of problems that had been updated during November 2011.

One billion people lack access to health care systems. 36 million deaths each year are caused by noncommunicable diseases, such as cardiovascular disease, cancer, diabetes and chronic lung diseases. This is almost two-thirds of the estimated 56 million deaths each year worldwide. (A quarter of these take place before the age of 60.)

Cardiovascular diseases (CVDs) are the number one group of conditions causing death globally. An estimated 17.5 million people died from CVDs in 2005, representing 30% of all global deaths. Over 80% of CVD deaths occur in low- and middle-income countries.

Over 7.5 million children under the age of 5 die from malnutrition and mostly preventable diseases, each year. In 2008, some 6.7 million people died of infectious diseases alone, far more than the number killed in the natural or man-made catastrophes that make headlines. (These are the latest figures presented by the World Health Organization.)

AIDS/HIV has spread rapidly. UNAIDS estimates for 2008 that there are roughly:

33.4 million living with HIV 2.7 million new infections of HIV 2 million deaths from AIDS

Tuberculosis kills 1.7 million people each year, with 9.4 million new cases a year. 1.6 million people still die from pneumococcal diseases every year, making it the number one vaccinepreventable cause of death worldwide. More than half of the victims are children. (The pneumococcus is a bacterium that causes serious infections like meningitis, pneumonia and sepsis. In developing countries, even half of those children who receive medical treatment will die. Every second surviving child will have some kind of disability.)

Malaria causes some 225 million acute illnesses and over 780,000 deaths, annually. 164,000 people, mostly children under 5, died from measles in 2008 even though effective immunization costs less than 1 US dollars and has been available for more than 40 years.

References http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12674815 http://www.globalissues.org/issue/587/health-issues http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical_physics