Text Books for the Course

UP-201: Thermal and Modern Physics

1. Serway and Jewitt, Physics for Scientists and Engineers
with Modern Physics (7th Edition)
2. Young and Friedman, University Physics with Modern
Physics (12th Edition)
3. Halliday, Resnick and Walker, Fundamentals of
Physics, Extended (8th Edition)
4. Kenneth Krane, Modern Physics, Second Edition
5. Openstax College Physics - available free at
http://cnx.org/content/col11406/1.7
All of the first four are available in cheap Indian / Asian
Editions, and the last one is a free e-book
Lec 1.01
U-P 201 Lec 1:
Thermal Physics: Some Basic Notions
Lec 1.02
What is thermal physics
Atomic hypothesis and Internal Energy
Ideal gas and State variables
Systems in mechanical contact
Systems in thermal contact, Heat, Thermal Equilibrium,,
Temperature
The zeroth law of thermodynamics
Measurement of Temperature and other state variables
Celsius and Fahrenheit Scales
Constant volume gas thermometer and the Absolute or
Kelvin scale
Ranges of Temperature in Nature
What is Thermal Physics
We all have intuitive notions of
"hot" and "cold,
of "temperature", the degree of "hotness" or "coldness "
based primarily on our sense of touch.
Our senses, and hence these intuitive notions are somewhat
imprecise.
Examples
Sticking one hand in hot water, another in cold water and both in
tepid water
A conducting object feels cold to touch where as an insulating object
at the same temperature does not.
Years ( > 2oo) of careful experimentation and rational analysis
have led to a near complete and precise understanding of these and
related notions and phenomena => The subject of thermal physics,
the subject of the next few lectures
OCP Section 13.1
Lec 1.03
Atomic Hypothesis and Internal Energy
crucial under pinning => the "atomic hypothesis : all things
are made of atoms - tiny little particles that move around in
perpetual motion, attracting each other when they are a little
distance apart, but repelling upon being squeezed into one
another, [From Feynman Lectures Vol. I, section 1.2).
Systems to which thermal physics applies typically have very
large numbers (~10
20
or more) of atoms
=> Thermal Systems
The Internal or Thermal energy U of a system is the energy
of its internal constituent degrees of freedom (normally
atoms, but in metals, ions + electrons...) apart from its overall
(centre of mass) translational and rotational Kinetic energy.

OCP Section 13.1
Lec 1.04
Ideal Gas
The simplest example of a thermal system, which we will
keep using for illustrative purposes, is a "mono-atomic
ideal gas " of N rare-gas atoms contained in a volume V
large enough that the consequently large typical inter-
atomic distances allow us to neglect inter-atomic potential
energies
i.e., the internal energy U is just
the Kinetic energy
2
1
2
1
2 2 2
1
2
1
( )
N
i
i
N
ix iy iz
i
U m
m v v v
=
=
=
= + +

v
OCP Section 13.1
Lec 1.05
Ideal Gas and State Variables
The atoms that are running around also collide against and
rebound off the walls of the container, giving rise to a
pressure P = (Average) Force / (Unit Area).
P, U, V are examples of State variables characterizing
the Thermal, or Thermodynamic, or Macro state of the
system, as distinct from the many micro-states of the
system which can correspond to the same macro-state
In a later lecture (Kinetic Theory of Gases) we will see that
for the ideal monatomic gas


Example of an Equation of State
2
3
U
P
V
=
OCP Section 13.1
Lec 1.06
Systems in mechanical Contact
Two systems A and B which share a common flexible or
movable wall (eg. a movable piston of area ) are said to
be in mechanical contact.
If P
A
= P
B
the two systems will be in mechanical
equilibrium.
If, initially, it is known from experiment that
and until the two systems again have equal
pressures and attain mechanical equilibrium.
In this process work is done by system A on system B and
some internal energy is exchanged between the two
systems. As we will prove later

i i
A B
P P >
( , )
A A
P V + |
( , )
B B
P V | +
( ) ( )
A A B A B B
U P P dx P P dV U A = = = A
} }
A
A
OCP Section 13.1
Lec 1.07
Thermal Contact between Systems
Apart from such a mechanical route, three other
mechanisms for the exchange of internal energies between
systems are known, namely conduction, convection and
radiation - together, such exchanges are known as heat
exchanges. (More about these mechanisms later.)
When two systems A and B are such that heat exchanges
between them can take place readily, they are said to be in
thermal contact.
we also know ways of minimizing, and nearly eliminating
the possibilities of heat exchanges between two systems.
Then the two are said to be thermally isolated from each
other
OCP Section 13.1
Lec 1.08
Temperature and Thermal Equilibrium
We saw that the equality or otherwise of the state variable P
determines whether mechanical exchange of internal energies
does not or does take place
Experiments show that there exists another state variable, the
temperature, or T, whose equality or otherwise
determines whether heat exchanges between two systems do
not or do take place.
Typically is a monotonic increasing as U increases and vice
versa.
If two systems A and B with equal temperatures are
brought into thermal contact, These will be no heat exchange
between them - they are in thermal equilibrium.
A B
u u =
OCP Section 13.1
Lec 1.09
Temperature, Heat, and the Zeroth Law
of Thermodynamics
On the other hand, experiments show that if
initially , and until the two
temperatures equalize and thermal equilibrium is attained
Thus heat is the exchange of internal energies that takes
place between systems when they are at different
temperatures and allowed to be in thermal contact
Our skin is sensitive not to temperature but to the rate of
transfer of heat across it. That and the above notions help
us to understand the examples discussed in the beginning!
The existence of a state variable called temperature is
sometimes stated differently, and referred to as the zeroth
law of thermodynamics
i i
A B
u u >
( , )
A A
U u + +
( , )
B B
U u | |
OCP Section 13.1
Lec 1.10
The Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics
I f bodies A and B are each in thermal
equilibrium with a third body T, then A
and B are in thermal equilibrium with
each other.
Starting from this law, it is possible to make
a logical argument to prove the existence
of temperature as a state variable!
From Halliday, Resnick and Walker, Fundamentals of Physics OCP Section 13.1
Lec 1.11
Summary: Temperature and Heat
Heat is the internal energy
exchanged between a
system and its
environment, or between
two systems, because of a
temperature difference that
exists between them.
From Halliday, Resnick and Walker, Fundamentals of Physics OCP Section 13.1
Lec 1.12
Measuring State Variables
State variables Such as Volume V and
Pressure P are directly and easily measurable.
Instruments for measuring Pressure, which is a
very important state variable are called
barometers
The SI unit of pressure (force per unit area) is
the Pascal: 1 Pa = 1 N/m
2
.
Another common unit is the atm (atmospheric
pressure): 1 atm = 1.013 x 10
5
N/m
2
.
A pressure of 1 atm will push a mercury
column up by 76 cm.
0
P
0 Hg
P gh =
h =
Mercury Barometer
OCP Section 13.1
Lec 1.13
Measuring Temperature
The internal energy, U being a sum over many (10
20
) variables is
harder to measure directly
The temperature, T, is an even subtler state variable, and can be
measured only indirectly, but easily, because lots of other easily
measured properties of systems are affected by it.
Thus any reference system which has an observable, measurable
property that changes substantially with its temperature becomes a
temperature sensor or thermoscope, and when properly calibrated, a
thermometer
Examples:
Volumes of liquids or gases at fixed pressure
The Dimensions of a solid
pressures of gases at fixed volume
resistance of metallic wires
the color (spectrum) of light (e-m radiation) emitted by an object
OCP Section 13.1
Lec 1.14
Measuring Temperature
In order to measure temperature we must:
Agree on a standard thermometer (method + device) against which all
other thermometers can be calibrated.
Agree on a unit.
Agree on a standard reference point(s) to which we assign a certain
temperature.
The standard thermometer currently accepted is the constant
volume gas thermometer (Earlier, mercury or alcohol
thermometers)
The unit of temperature universally accepted now is the
Kelvin (K). (Earlier scales were Celsius and Fahrenheit)
The standard reference point is the triple point of water (T =
273.16 K or 0.01 C). (Earlier, freezing and boiling points of
water)
OCP Section 13.1
Lec 1.15
Celsius and Fahrenheit Scales
Typically measured using expansion
of mercury or alcohol confined to
capillary tubes
the Celsius scale:
0 is defined as the freezing point of
water.
100 is defined as the boiling point of
water.
the Fahrenheit scale:
0 was defined as the temperature of a
mixture of water, ice, and ammonium
chloride.
96 was as the temperature of the blood of
Fahrenheits wife.
Note: initially Fahrenheit divided his scale
in 12 segments; later he divided each
segment in 8 smaller segments

OCP Section 13.1
Lec 1.16
The Celsius and Fahrenheit Scales
Limitations:
Alcohol Thermometers and mercury Thermometers do not agree far from
the calibration points
Limited range (mercury Freezes below -39 C, alcohol boils above 85 C)
Melting and Boiling point of Water varies with variation of atmospheric
pressure, presence of impurities,
OCP Section 13.1
Lec 1.17
The Constant Volume Gas Thermometer
consists of a bulb connected by a tube to a mercury
manometer filled with a dilute gas.
By raising and lowering reservoir, the mercury level in the
left arm of the U-tube is brought to the zero of the scale to
keep the gas volume constant.
The pressure exerted by the gas is then


The temperature of any body in thermal equilibrium with
the gas bulb is found to vary linearly with the pressure:


(B is a constant). Note that the pressure extrapolates to
zero at -273.15 C for all dilute gases!
0
P P gh = +
273.15
C
T BP + =
Hence define a new Kelvin or Absolute
temperature scale (K) as


Such that P = 0 at 0 K for all dilute gases!
T = T
C
+273.15
OCP Section 13.1
Lec 1.18
The Reference Temperature for the
Kelvin scale is the Triple Point of
water measured using the triple
point cell
For thermal equilibrium between
the gas bulb and the triple-cell bulb


Therefore,



Finally, this works the best for very
small amounts of gas:

3 3 3
273.16 273.15
C
T T BP = = + =
3
3
273.15
C
P
T T T
P
= + =
0
3
(273.16 )
gas
P
T K lim
P
=
The Kelvin Temperature Scale
T
3
= 273.16
(Triple Point Temperature)
OCP Section 13.1
Lec 1.19
Range of Temperatures manifest in nature
From Halliday, Resnick and Walker, Fundamentals of Physics
Current record 10
12
K
(Relativistic Heavy Ion Collider)
Current record 10
-10
K
(Ultra Cold Atom Traps)

[0 K, the absolute zero
of temperature can not
ever be reached!]
OCP Section 13.1
Lec 1.20