TP, Page 1

FLIGHT
OPERATIONS
ENGINEERING
Takeoff Performance
TP, Page 2
Takeoff Performance
Field length requirements
Tire speed requirements
Brake energy requirements
Climb requirements
Obstacle requirements
TP, Page 3
Field Length Considerations
Ground acceleration capability
Takeoff speeds
Accelerate - Go considerations
Accelerate - Stop considerations
Field length calculation and considerations
TP, Page 4
Ground Acceleration Capability
F
Slope
Forces = Mass * Acceleration
Friction Drag Thrust
TP, Page 5
Ground Roll Acceleration Equation
Forces = Mass * Acceleration
Thrust - Drag - Friction - F
slope
= Mass * Acceleration
T - D - ( W - L ) - Wsin = a
W
g
small angles sin = in radians
T - D - ( W - L ) - W = a
W
g
TP, Page 6
Ground Roll Acceleration Equation
Rearranging
T - D - ( W - L ) - W = a
W
g
a = [ T - D - ( W - L ) - W ]
g
W
Combine Drag and Lift term into one since both are a
function of dynamic pressure
a = [ T - W - (D - L ) - W ]
g
W
TP, Page 7
Ground Roll Acceleration Equation
Factors effecting airplane acceleration capability
Thrust - rating, altitude, temperature, bleeds
, rolling friction, function of the airplanes gear
C
D
, C
L
airplane configuration, flap setting, CDL items
q, dynamic pressure, the faster the airspeed the worse
the acceleration
Weight, less weight results in better acceleration
Hand calculations assume weight is constant
Computer programs take into account fuel burn
a = [ T - W - ( C
D
- C
L
) q S - W ]
g
W
TP, Page 8
Workbook Problem
Do problem 9 in the performance workbook
Determine the airplanes all engine ground
acceleration capability at 0 ktas and 150 ktas for the
following conditions.
TP, Page 9
Sample Acceleration Calculation
Acceleration - ft/s
2
Speed - kts
0.0
1.0
2.0
3.0
4.0
5.0
6.0
7.0
8.0
9.0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160
Weight = 240000 lb SLOPE= 0
Sea level, Std. day WIND= 0 0.0165
NO ENG = 2 (CD- CL)= 0.08
ALL ENGINE
V - GS V - TAS DYNAMIC - q F - THRUST F - SLOPE W (CD- CL)qS ACCEL - ft/s/s ACCEL - kt/s
0 0 0.00 35532 0 3960 0 9.0 5.3
20 20 1.35 34653 0 3960 211 8.7 5.2
40 40 5.42 33775 0 3960 845 8.4 5.0
60 60 12.19 32896 0 3960 1902 8.0 4.8
80 80 21.67 32017 0 3960 3382 7.6 4.5
100 100 33.86 31139 0 3960 5284 7.1 4.2
120 120 48.75 30260 0 3960 7609 6.6 3.9
140 140 66.36 29381 0 3960 10357 6.0 3.5
150 150 76.18 28942 0 3960 11889 5.6 3.3
TP, Page 10
Ground Distance Calculation
TP, Page 11
Ground Distance Calculation
To determine the field length required we need to
determine how much runway it took to accelerate from
brake release, ground speed = 0, to some other speed
Rotation speed
Engine failure speed
TP, Page 12
Fundamental Time, Distance Relationship
s
t
V
t
V
a
Velocity, V = or s = V t
Acceleration, a = or t =
Substitute and solve for distance:
V V
a
s =
TP, Page 13
Fundamental Time, Distance Relationship
Integrating you obtain:
Where the beginning velocity is brake release, zero ground
speed and the end velocity is the final ground speed
a
VdV
S
g
Final
V
0
=
TP, Page 14
Fundamental Time, Distance Relationship
If acceleration, a, were a constant with velocity, then
the integral would be easy.
Is acceleration constant with velocity during the
ground run?
a
VdV
S
g
Final
V
0
=
TP, Page 15
Fundamental Time, Distance Relationship
No, acceleration, a, varies as a function of the
airplanes airspeed.
As the airplanes speed increases the acceleration, a,
reduces because of the thrust decay and the increase
in q, dynamic pressure.
Both these are functions of true airspeed, therefore we
will change the integral to terms of true airspeed.
( )
a
dV V V
S
W
T
Final
V
W
V

=
TP, Page 16
Evaluating the Integral
Methods to evaluate integral:
Step integration method
Break up the integral into many small steps and assume
the acceleration is constant over the step
Average acceleration
Calculate an average acceleration and assume the
acceleration is constant over velocity range
Note: Same equations as the step integration only you are
using one large step
( )
a
dV V V
S
W
T
Final
V
W
V
-
=
TP, Page 17
Step Integration Method
An integral can be broken up into many small integrals
the sum of which is equal to the original integral
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
a
dV V V
a
dV V V
a
dV V V
a
dV V V
S
W
T
Final
V
1
T
Final
V
W
1
T
Final
V
2
T
Final
V
W
2
V
1 V
W
1
V
W
V

K
K
TP, Page 18
Step Integration Method
Assume acceleration is constant and equal to the
average of the acceleration at the initial step
velocity and the final step velocity
Evaluate the integral for one small step as an
example, step 1 - 2
( )
2
V
1
V
2 ave1
W
2 ave1
2
2 ave1
W
2
V
1
V
2 1
a
VV
a 2
V
a
dV V V
S

=
TP, Page 19
Step Integration Method
Rearranging

2 ave1
W 1
2 ave1
2
1
2 ave1
W 2
2 ave1
2
2
2 1
a
V V
a 2
V
a
V V
a 2
V
S

2 ave1
W 1
2 ave1
W 2
2 ave1
2
1
2 ave1
2
2
2 1
a
V V
a
V V
a 2
V
a 2
V
S

2 ave1
W 1 W 2
2 ave1
2
1
2
2
2 1
a
W V V V
a 2
V V
S
TP, Page 20
Step Integration Method
Rearranging
As the old college professor said - recognizing
( )( ) ( )

+
=

2 1 ave
W 1 2
2 1 ave
1 2 1 2
2 1
a
V V V
a 2
V V V V
S
( )( ) ( )

+
=

2 1 ave
W 1 2
2 1 ave
1 2 1 2
2 1
a
V V V
a
V V
2
V V
S
TP, Page 21
Step Integration Method
( ) ( )

=


2 1 ave
W 1 2
2 1 ave
1 2
2 1 ave 2 1
a
V V V
a
V V
V S
( )
( )
2 1 ave
1 2
W 2 1 ave 2 1
a
V V
V V S

=
( )
2 1 ave
2 1 W 2 1 ave
2 1
a
V V V
S

=
TP, Page 22
Step Integration Method
General expression for calculating distance of an
individual step
Total distance is the sum of the steps
( )
aveStep
Step W aveStep
Step
a
V V V
S

=
( ) ( )
1 Final Final Step 2 Final 1 Final Step
2 1 Step 1 W Step Step Total
S S
S S S S


+ +
+ = =
L L
L
TP, Page 23
Weight = 240000 lb SLOPE= 0
Sea level, Std. day WIND= 0
NO ENG = 2
ALL ENGINE
V - GS V - TAS ACCEL- ft/s/s ACCEL - kt/s S Step - ft Sum S
0 0 9.0 5.3 0
20 20 8.7 5.2 64 64
40 40 8.4 5.0 199 264
60 60 8.0 4.8 346 610
80 80 7.6 4.5 510 1120
100 100 7.1 4.2 697 1817
120 120 6.6 3.9 917 2734
140 140 6.0 3.5 1183 3917
150 150 5.6 3.3 713 4630
Example of Distance Calculation
Total distance from brake release to 150
knots based on 20 knot steps = 4630 feet
Note: 1 knot step = 4635 feet
TP, Page 24
Average Acceleration Method
Average acceleration is just using the step
integration method with a single step
The trick is in determining the appropriate average
acceleration to give an adequate approximation of
the distance
TP, Page 25
Average Acceleration Method
Example: Compute the average acceleration by
using the acceleration at 0 and 150 kts
From earlier calculations
a
0
= 9.0 ft/s2
a
150
= 5.6 ft/ s2
Notice the distance does not match the step
integration answer
( )
ft 4390 6878 . 1
2
6 . 5 0 . 9
150 0 75
S
2
150 0
=
+

TP, Page 26
Average Acceleration Method
Looking at the acceleration chart, the acceleration
fall off is more proportional to V
2
Why?
Acceleration - ft/s
2
Speed - kts
0.0
1.0
2.0
3.0
4.0
5.0
6.0
7.0
8.0
9.0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160
TP, Page 27
Average Acceleration Calculation
Try calculating average acceleration at average of V
2
.
From earlier chart a
106.1
= 6.9 ft/s
2
4.0
4.5
5.0
5.5
6.0
6.5
7.0
7.5
8.0
8.5
9.0
0 5000 10000 15000 20000 25000 30000
Acceleration - ft/s
2
V
2
- kts
2
( )
1 . 106
2
0 150
V
2 2
accel ave for
=
+
=
TP, Page 28
Average Acceleration Method
Example: Compute the average acceleration by
using the acceleration at 106.1 kts.
a
106.1
= 6.9 ft/s
2
Notice the distance does match the step integration
answer of 4630 ft. quite well
( )
ft 4644 6878 . 1
9 . 6
150 0 75
S
2
150 0
=

TP, Page 29
Summary of Ground Acceleration
Calculation Methods
Step integration on velocity is used in the computer
programs to calculate the ground run with all
engines operating
Forces are a function of speed
Current computer programs take credit for fuel burn
off during ground run
Average acceleration method is quick easy way to
determine the effect of various parameters on the
takeoff ground run
TP, Page 30
Items that Affect Ground Run
Slope, how does slope effect ground run
Uphill slope, worse acceleration, longer distance
Downhill slope better acceleration, shorter distance
Wind, how does wind effect ground run
At a given true airspeed the acceleration is the same
Effect of wind is to change the V the airplane
accelerates through
( )
aveStep
Step W
veStep
a
Step
a
V V V
S

=
TP, Page 31
Effect of Wind
Effect of head wind
is to reduce V
Effect of tail wind is
to increase V
Weight =
240000 lb SLOPE = 0
Sea level, Std. day
WIND = 20 0.0165
NO ENG = 2 (CD-CL)= 0.08
ALL ENGINE
V - GS V - TAS DYNAMIC - q F - THRUST F - SLOPE W (CD-CL)qS ACCEL - ft/s/s ACCEL - kt/s
0 20 1.35 34653 0 3960 211 8.7 5.2
20 40 5.42 33775 0 3960 845 8.4 5.0
40 60 12.19 32896 0 3960 1902 8.0 4.8
60 80 21.67 32017 0 3960 3382 7.6 4.5
80 100 33.86 31139 0 3960 5284 7.1 4.2
100 120 48.75 30260 0 3960 7609 6.6 3.9
120 140 66.36 29381 0 3960 10357 6.0 3.5
130 150 76.18 28942 0 3960 11889 5.6 3.3
V - GS V - TAS ACCEL - ft/s/s ACCEL - kt/s S-Step-ft
0 20 8.7 5.2
20 40 8.4 5.0 66
40 60 8.0 4.8 208
60 80 7.6 4.5 364
80 100 7.1 4.2 542
100 120 6.6 3.9 750
120 140 6.0 3.5 1001
130 150 5.6 3.3 614
Sum S
0
66
274
639
1181
1931
2932
3546
TP, Page 32
Effect of Flap
Increased takeoff flap will typically reduce the
ground acceleration capability due to increased drag
But
Acceleration will be to a lower speed (V
R
,V
2
)
Overall effect will be shorter distance
( )
aveStep
Step W aveStep
Step
a
V V
S

=
V
TP, Page 33
Effect of Thrust
Direct relationship
More thrust - shorter distance
Less thrust - more distance
For example,
Same conditions as earlier
only thrust has been
reduced by 10%.
Result 14% increase in
distance required to
accelerate from 0 150 for
this example.
( )
aveStep
Step W aveStep
Step
a
V V
S

=
V
V - GS V - TAS ACCEL - ft/s/s ACCEL - kt/s S-Step-ft
0 8.0 4.8
20 7.8 4.6 72
40 7.5 4.4 223
60 7.2 4.2 389
80 6.7 4.0 574
100 6.3 3.7 788
120 5.8 3.4 1042
140 5.2 3.1 1356
Sum S
0
72
295
684
1258
2046
3088
4444
150 4.9 2.9 824 5268
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
150
TP, Page 34
Engine Out Ground Acceleration
What is different in the calculation of the distance
required to accelerate following an engine failure
Failed engines thrust spins down as a function
of time, not airspeed
Pilot inputs rudder to steer the airplane
Additional drag
TP, Page 35
Spindown Characteristics
Thrust
TO Thrust
Time From the Event, Sec
Fuel Cut
Throttle Chop
Spindown
Factor
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
TP, Page 36
Spindown Characteristics
Fuel cut used for the continued takeoff following an
engine failure
Lowest thrust
Throttle chop is used for the AFM emergency stop
calculation from an event just prior to V
1
Higher thrust conservative for stop calculation
Note: older airplanes used fuel cut following
engine failure just prior to V
1
TP, Page 37
Calculation of Engine Out Accel/Distance
Same equation used to calculate engine out acceleration
Engine thrust now changing rapidly with time. Typically a
step integration based on time is required. This becomes
an iterative process.
a = [ T - W- ( C
D
- C
L
) q S - W ]
g
W
TP, Page 38
Workbook Problem
Do problem 10 in the performance workbook
Determine the airplanes engine inoperative
ground acceleration capability at 150 ktas
for the following conditions.
TP, Page 39
Engine Out Acceleration
Event Time V - GS V - TAS E1-FC E2 ACCEL - ft/s/s ACCEL - kt/s S-Step-ft Sum S
Eng Fail 0 150 150.0 1 1 5.4 3.2
1 153.3 153.3 0.22 1 2.3 1.4
256 256
2 155.6 155.6 0.08 1 1.7 1.0
261 517
3 157.3 157.3 0.038 1 1.5 0.9
264 781
4 158.8 158.8 0.018 1 1.4 0.8 267 1047
4.9 160.0 160.0 0.01 1 1.3 0.8 242 1290
Speed - kts
Acceleration - ft/s
2
0.0
1.0
2.0
3.0
4.0
5.0
6.0
7.0
8.0
9.0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180
TP, Page 40
Summary
Looked at ground calculation for both all engine and
engine out acceleration between two speeds
All engine is between brake release and engine
failure or rotation speed
Engine inoperative is between engine failure and
rotation speed
Primary method of calculation is a step integration
All engine is step integration based on speed
Engine inoperative is based on time
TP, Page 41
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