Neurophysiology, Neurotransmitters and the Nervous System

KUNNAMPALLIL GEJO JOHN BASLP,MASLP AUDIOLOGIST

The Neuron
The nervous system is made of nerve cells or neurons and glial cells. Glial cells are not excitable and provide metabolic and physical support for the neurons. 90% of the cells are glial cells. Neurons are excitable and control behavior

Neuron

Resting potential

Resting potential

There is a potential difference between the inside and outside of as membrane. The inside is about -70 mv relative to the outside.

Resting Potential
The resting potential is caused by an uneven distribution of ions (electrically charged molecules) of potassium (K+) and sodium (Na+) and chloride (Cl-).
This is caused by Na+/K+ ion pumps that move 3 Na+ ions out of the cell for every 2 K+ ions it moves in.

Therefore there are more +ions outside the cell than inside and the inside is negatively charged with respect to the outside

Ion pump

Resting potential
An ion channel is a combination of large protein molecules that cross the membrane and allow specific ions to pass through at a specific rate, These allow enough leakage of ions to mostly neutralize the effect of the ion pump, but

Ion channels

Resting potential
Forces

maintaining the resting potential

Diffusion pressure molecules want to move from areas of high concentration to areas of low concentration. Electrostatic charge ions with like charge are repelled and ions with a different charge are attracted. Operation of ion pumps and ion channels.

Action potential

Anything that alters the functioning of the ion channels can change the resting potential. If changes cause the resting potential to be reduced, this is called depolarization. If the change causes an increase in the resting potential, this is caused hyperpolarization.

Action Potential
We

can insert an electrode across a membrane and cause depolarization, i.e., we can depolarize the cell. If we reduce the resting potential past a threshold, the resting potential breaks down.

Action potential

Voltage gated ion channels open and let Na+ into the cell. They are driven into the cell because of diffusion gradient and electrostatic charge. This causes the resting potential to reverse, i.e., the inside the cell becomes positive. Now the Na+ ion channels close and the K+ channels open and the K+ ions are driven out of the cell because of their concentration gradient and electrostatic charge. Finally the K+ channels close and the ion pumps kick in and the resting potential returns to normal.

Action potential

All or None Law

Action

potentials when they occur are always the same. Once the process is initiated, it must run its course and nothing can stop it or change it

Transmission of action potentials along a membrane

When

an action potential occurs at one place on the membrane of an axon, the surrounding membrane is depolarized past threshold causing an action potential. This depolarizes the neighboring membrane, etc. Action potentials sweep across a membrane as fast as 100m/sec

Transmission of action potentials along a membrane

Postsynaptic potentials
The

membranes of dendrites and cell bodies do not have action potentials. Instead, any depolarizing stimulus causes a post synaptic potential (PSP) which spreads out across the membrane. The depolarization is weaker the further it gets from the stimulus. When the stimulus is turned off, the PSP disappears.

Postsynaptic potentials
Postsynaptic

potentials can either be excitatory (depolarization) or inhibitory. Excitatory and inhibitory potentials can summate both in time (temporal summation) and across the membrane (spatial summation) . The net effect of summation is reflected at the axon hillock where action potentials are generated.

The synapse
Normally,

cell bodies are stimulated by

either by

stimuli in the environment, e.g. sensory cells like the rods and cones in the eye, or Connections from other nerve cells, i.e., synapses

The Synapse

The Synapse

Synapse

Any neuron can have thousands of synapses on it

Synapse

When an action potential arrives at the terminal bouton, it causes Ca++ channels to open. This causes the vesicles to move to the membrane and release a chemical called a neurotransmitter to be released into the synaptic cleft. The neurotransmitter diffuses across the cleft and activates receptors on the postsynaptic membrane which cause changes on the resting potential by altering the functioning of ion channels.

Proteins

Ion pumps, ion channels, etc., are large molecules of protein. Proteins are long strings of amino acids that can fold into many three dimensional shapes. The same protein can have different configurations, i.e., they can change shape. Receptors are protein molecules that change shape (are activated) by neurotransmitter molecules with a particular shape.

Receptors

Receptor sites can be part of an ion channel and when the receptor site is occupied by a neurotransmitter, the ion channel opens

Post synaptic potential

The change in the resting potential caused by the activation of a receptor site is called the post synaptic potential (PSP). IPSP when the change causes hyperpolarization or makes the cell harder to fire, this is called an inhibitory post synaptic potential. EPSP when the change causes depolarization, this is called an excitatory post synaptic potential.

Post synaptic potential

The excitation and inhibition caused by all the active synapses on the dendrites and cell body are summed and the net effect is reflected in the rate at which the axon hillock generates action potentials

Summation

Terminating synaptic action

Once

the neurotransmitter is released into the cleft, there must be a means by which its activity is terminated. This can be accomplished two ways

The neurotransmitter can be destroyed by an enzyme in the cleft The neurotransmitter can be reabsorbed back into the bouton (reuptake).

Second messenger

The neurotransmitter causes the release of a molecule inside the cell which activates an ion channel and causes it to open

Second messenger cascade

Second messenger cascade

Second messenger molecules can activate a kinase which lasts for minutes and hours. Kinases can activate transcription factors (CREB and c-fos) which alter the expression of genes. Genes carry the codes for the creation of proteins including ion channels and receptor sites and this can cause permanent changes in synaptic function.

autoreceptors
The

membrane of the presynaptic cell has many receptor sites which detect the neurotransmitter. This is a feedback system which regulated the amount of neurotransmitter released into the cleft

Other signaling between neurons

Neuromodulators are chemicals that can alter the effect of a neurotransmitter. Sometimes the postsynaptic membrane releases molecules that affect the presynaptic membrane. DSE- depolarization-induced suppression of excitation DSI depolarization-induced suppression of inhibition. Axo-axonal synapses: axons may also have synapses

Neurotransmitters
Acetylcholine (Ach)

Biogenic amines (monoamines) catecholamines: Norepinephrine (NE) Dopamine (DA) Epinephrine (E) (adrenaline) indoleamine Serotonin (5-HT, 5-hydroxytryptamine)

Amino acids: GABA Glycine Glutamate Proline

Peptides
Substance P Somatostatin Vasopressin Growth hormone Prolactin Insulin Opiate-like transmitters Enkephalins Endorphins

carbon monoxide

nitric oxide

Many hormones are neurotransmitters. Both have the same function: chemical signalling over distances.

Neurohormones
Substances that act at neuron receptor sites, but are not specific to an individual synapse. May be released far from the synapse. Act as a neuromodulator (modify the activity of a neurotransmitter)

Dales Law

A single neuron always produces the same transmitter at every one of its synapses. It is now known that the law is not always right.

Drugs mostly act on the nervous system by interacting with neurotransmission, They may: act on receptor sites and cause the same effect as a transmitter: agonism block a receptor site: antagonism decreasing activity of enzymes that destroy a transmitter block reuptake mechanisms blocking ion channels altering release of transmitter altering the action of neurohormones

Synapses that use NE are nor adrenergic (remember, adrenaline is another word for epinephrine) DA are dopaminergic 5-HT are serotonergic ACh are cholinergic etc

Acetylcholine:
Broken down by AchE (acetylcholinesterase) Receptors: nicotinic and muscarinic

Stimulated Blocked nicotinic nicotine curare

Function Voluntary muscle control (neuromuscular junctions)

muscarinic

muscarine

atropine

Involuntary muscle control

botox and nerve gasses

Biogenic amines Serotonin, Dopamine Norepinephrine and Epinephrine Broken down by MAO and COMT Reabsorbed by transporter mechanisms Influenced by amphetamines and cocaine and SSRIs and SNRIs E and NE receptor sites alpha ()and Beta () with subtypes 1 and 2 DA has 6 receptor subtypes D1 and D2....D6 with sub sub types a b c, etc Serotonin has 4 main receptor subtypes with sub sub types a b c etc.

GABA

Universally inhibitory transmitter Opens a Chloride ion channel which stabilizes the membrane and makes it harder to depolarize Drugs like benzodiazepines enhance the ability of GABA to open the ion channel. There are two types of GABA receptors; GABAA and GABAB. There are many different subtypes of GABAA receptors which control different functions. GABAB receptors are less common and use a second messenger

GABA

Glutamate excitatory transmitter NMDA receptor open ion channel and lets +ions into the cell the channels can be blocked by alcohol, solvents and some hallucinogens Peptides opioid type peptides enkephalins (5 amino acids) endorphines (16 to 30 amino acids) Receptor subtypes mu, kappa and delta

The Nervous System

Central Nervous System (CNS) brain and spinal cord Peripheral Nervous system (PNS) everything else

somatic NS conscious senses and voluntary muscles transmitter is Ach and uses nicotinic receptors
autonomic NS unconscious senses and involuntary muscles transmitter is Ach with muscarinic receptors.

Autonomic NS sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions Parasympathetic always active, controls daily vegetative functions Ach major transmitter some drugs have anticholinergic side effects, e.g dry mouth and blurry vision

Sympathetic active at times of fear and anger fight - flight response epinephrine (E) major transmitter

CNS spinal cord Brain 100 billion neurons. each has 100 synapses on other neurons and receives 10,000 synapses from other neurons

Spinal cord

Brain

Medulla:
Autonomic control centre: Respiratory centre controls breathing

Vomiting centre
Cardiac functions Very sensitive to depressant drugs like alcohol, opioids and barbiturates Brain damage caused by drug overdose is a result of lack of oxygen

RAS and Raph System

RAS - arousal - many interconnected centres - diffuse projection to cortex and higher centres Raph System - many independent centres - serotonin - medial forebrain bundle projects forward - sleep - mood

Locus Coeruleus

mood: fear, panic, anger primarily NE, (50 to 75% NE neurons in the brain) stimulated by monoamines inhibited by GABA active during panic attack

Cerebellum:

Coordination of motor control

Receives input from the motor areas of the cortex and the muscles and coordinates smooth muscle movement.

Coordinates eye movements.

Basal Ganglia: Input side: striatum caudate nucleus and putamen - input from thalamus and cortex Output side: globus palladus - output side with feedback to thalamus Motor loop coordination of motor control - DA input from substantia nigra - DA receptors - DA deficiency - Parkinsons Disease - extrapyramidal motor system

Periaquiductal gray:
pain control - mu receptors and morphine-like transmitters punishment system

Limbic system: hypothalamus - eating and drinking control medial forebrain bundle --- reinforcement (pleasure?) centres mesolimbic system (DA) ventral tegmental area (VTA, mu receptors) nucleus accumbens hippocampus - learning and memory

amygdala and septum - serotonergic input from the Raph system Aggression and emotion Inhibited by GABA

Cortex
Cortex

sensory input areas motor control output areas language memory and thinking
glutamate - excitatory transmitter GABA - inhibitory transmitter

Frontal and prefrontal cortex

Frontal and prefrontal cortex: monitors relationship between cues and reinforces (outcomes of behavior), inhibition of behavior and the expression of emotion. Orbitofrontal cortex: learning and behavior control Prefrontal cortex: working memory, attention, decision making, reasoning, planning and judgment. Dorsolateral prefrontal cortex: maintenance of attention and manipulation Anderior cingulate cortex: attention, response selection, response suppression, drug seeking and craving.

Development
Formation of neurons Migration

Attachment and axon projection

Growth cone

Development and teratology

Extension of axons is controlled by trophic factors, chemical signals that guide it to its target.

These signals can be easily disrupted by drugs and cause incorrect wiring of the CNS Eg: fetal; alcohol syndrome only 4 layers rather than the normal 6 in the cortex. Teratology: disruption of normal anatomical development, e.g thalidomide

Functional teratology: a disruption of normal behavioral development.