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Theoretical Perspectives On Gender: The Nature of Scientific Theories
Theoretical Perspectives On Gender: The Nature of Scientific Theories
Theoretical Perspectives On Gender: The Nature of Scientific Theories
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Id Ego Superego
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Castration anxiety
Father unattainable
Outcome Feminine identification Masochism Concern with sexual attractiveness Desire for child Sense of inferiority Contempt for women Weak superego
Accepts childhood sexuality Accepts homosexuality, bisexuality as natural (though not typical) outcomes Phallocentric Difficult to subject to empirical testing
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Moved from biological inferiority to cultural and social factors that devalue women Reconceptualized penis envy as womb envy Gynocentric Foundation for feminist psychoanalytic theory Addressed homosexuality Advocated cross-cultural research Not subject to empirical testing
Fusion: Childhood identification and socialcultural factors Mens sphere (public) and womens sphere (private) Powerful emotions directed toward primary caregivers (women) Process of individuation at ages 3-5
Evolutionary Theories
Darwinian principles
Members of species compete for resources Individual differences in variability (variability hypothesis) Success in reproduction evidence of fitness
Through process of natural selection adaptive attributes becomes more common in gene pool
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Evolutionary Theories
Sex differences in parental investment Differential parental investment results in different sexual strategies Evolution of attributes that provide reproductive advantage Intra/intersexual competition Again result in different sexual strategies
Desirable males opt for short-term mating strategies; undesirable males opt for long-term (or not at all) Women likely to benefit from either short-term or long-term mating
Considers gender roles to result from biological x environmental interaction Critics say circular reasoning, neglect role of culture Whereas considerable cross-cultural difference supportive, reanalysis of data fail to be supportive
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Gender roles result of physical sex differences x sexual division of labor Status/power differentials favor men and boys Gender roles based on gender stereotypes learned through experience
Sexual Dimorphism Sexual Division of Labor, Gender Hierarchy Social Structure Socialization: Gender Roles Gender Stereotypes Gendered Behavior
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Evaluation
As women enter the workforce, gender roles become more nontraditional (Diekman, Eagly, Mladinic, & Ferreira, 2005) Gender differences in mate preferences only among women and men who endorse traditional gender roles (Eastwick, et al., 2006) Evolutionary psychologists argue neglect role of evolution, sexual strategies
Emphasis on sociocultural factors that define gender roles Nature of gender roles: contradictory and inconsistent Violation of gender roles leads to personal/interpersonal consequences
Work versus home roles Consequences of role violation more severe for males Some aspects of roles psychologically dysfunctional
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Discrepancy results from failure to conform to gender roles Hypermasculinity: example of overconformity Masculinity ideologies: internalization of male gender role
Evaluation
Though Pleck argues for diversity in masculinities, critics assert focus on European American middle class Basis of considerable research on adolescent boys high-risk behaviors and substance abuse Little cross-cultural research, but some research with American multi-ethnic samples
Social-Cognitive Theories
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Gender identity (age 3-4 years) Gender constancy (age 4-6 years) Gender stereotypes develop over age
Valued due to gender identity Become more flexible with age Regulate childrens behavior
Evaluation
Habituation studies Childrens ability to match toy w/gender Sex-segregated play, attitudes toward sissies, tomboys
Developmental sequence established through research but less evidence constructs necessarily related to behavior
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Environmental Factors Social institutions Culture Media Home environments Play environments
Sources of Influence
Modeling
Abstract content of gender roles Situations in which gender roles appropriate Develop gender stereotypes Imitate same-sex models, if behavior appropriate for situation
Process of Self-Regulation
Self-monitor Observe reactions of others Evaluate self Adjust/modify behavior Importance of self-efficacy
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Environmental Influences
Parental encouragement of gendered play Media Division of chores in family Sex-segregated play, behavior of peers
Evaluation
Supported by huge number of research studies Useful in addressing cross-cultural differences and similarities Acknowledges active role of child, life-long process of acquisition Critics argue fails to consider development of cognitive skills
Direct attention Facilitate recall Facilitate information processing (speed and organization)
Gender schemas specialized Sex typing gender schemas become associated with self-concept
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Bem (1981)
Recall of masculine, feminine, neutral words Categorizing of masculine, feminine neutral words (like me vs. not like me)
Sex-typed participants clustered more words on recall test Sex-typed participants responded faster on sex-congruent than sex-incongruent words
Similar responses found for same-sex typed and other-sex typed individuals (schematic) Androgynous and undifferentiated participants aschematic Study of who said what? (Frable & Bem, 1985)
If you are gender schematic, all members of the opposite sex look alike
Evaluation
Some (but not consistent) cross-cultural support Critics assert that we see little relationship between gender schema and behavior
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