3.

5 OPTO-ISOLATORS
The opto-isolator is a device with a light source coupled to a light sensor. It transmits while maintaining a high degree of isolation between its input and output. Previously this job was accomplished by relays, isolation transformers, and blocking capacitors. The opto-isolator replaces these devices and adds better reliability and function. There are three basic opto-isolator types (See figure 3.22). These are the LED-photodiode, the LED-phototransistor, and the LEDphoto-Darling-ton. In each of these cases the LED is the electroluminescent device, whereas the diode and transistors are the detectors. Input leads are supplied from a current source, while output leads may be tied to a variety of electronic circuits, which we shall discuss later on in this section.

Figure 3.22 Opto-Isolator Types (Courtesy Litronix, Inc.)

With no external optic characteristics, opto-isolators are specified as electrical devices. There are functionally two parameters that define the opto-isolator. These are how well they transfer information from input to output and how efficiently they maintain electrical isolation from input to
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output. Transfer efficiency is the ratio of output current to input current expressed as a decimal. The current transfer ratio (CTR) varies with temperature and input current. Cross Sections of an Opto-Isolator A basic opto-isolator consists of a gallium arsenide (GaAs) infrared diode (IR LED) and a silicon phototransistor mounted together in a dual in-line package. When forward current is passed through the IR LED, it emits infrared radiation at about 900 nanometers wavelength. This radiant energy is transmitted through an optical coupling medium and falls on the base surface of the phototransistor. Phototransistors are designed to have a very large base region and therefore a very large base-col1ector junction area with a small emitter area. Some incident energy in the form of photons causes the formation of electron-hole pairs in the base region. Referring to figure 3.23(a), the emitter arid the base are grounded. A positive voltage is applied to the collector. This enables the device as a photo diode. The high field across the collector-base junction quickly draws the electrons across into the collector region. The holes drift toward the base terminal and attract electrons from the terminal. It is in this manner that electron current flows between the base and collector causing a voltage drop across the load resistor ( R L ). A time constant is developed with the junction capacitance( C cb )and the lead resistor( R L ). with a corresponding output voltage rise time. The output current in this configuration is quite small and therefore this configuration is seldom used. The most common lashup is the open base connection as in figure 3.23(b).

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Figure 3.23 Cross Section of an Opto-IsoIator (Courtesy Litronix, Inc.) In this configuration, the base is left open and the emitter is grounded. Holes generated in the base region cause the base potential to rise, forward biasing the base-emitter junction. Electrons are injected into the base from the emitter to neutralize, the excess holes. Because of the close proximity of the collector, the probability of electrons recombining with these holes is remote and most of the injected electrons are immediately drawn into the collector region. Collector current increases as in any forward-bias transistor, depending on the current gain (beta) of the transistor. Current gain for the B configuration is several hundred times greater than in the A configuration. The current gain, however, is beta times as great as in the A configuration, which causes the rise time to increase by a factor of beta. Increasing Opto-Isolator Speed The speed at which an opto-isolator responds to a signal depends almost entirely on the detector (sensor). Switching time is a function of the base storage time and the RC time constant of the output. The larger the collector-base region, the more sensitive the sensor and the larger the open circuit collector-base capacitance. This results in long storage time and slow switching time. In schematic A of figure 3.24, a base-to-emitter bleed resistor is added. The bleed resistor provides an external path for removal of the stored charge. This decreases the phototransistors turn-off time, but reduces sensitivity and current transfer ratio (CTR). In schematic B of figure 3.24, a cascode amplifier is illustrated, in this case the phototransistor is the current source and the effective load resistance R L , is made up of the cascoded isolation amplifier emitter resistance. This emitter resistance may be only a few ohms. The cascoded transistor is chosen with a low open-circuit capacitance. In schematic C of figure 3.24, an operational amplifier is placed in the output circuit. The phototransistor is used as a current source driving the summing point of a general-purpose operational amplifier. This has the same effect as the cascode circuit. It lowers the effective R 1, with resulting higher speeds. Circuit Applications Using Opto-Isolators Opto-isolators have a select group of applications. Although most designers are well aware of their distinct capability, there may be a reluctance to utilize them in everyday design. There are three major categories in which the opto-isolator is a standout device because of its unique properties: level translating circuits, remotely actuated switching circuits, and circuits requiring a high degree of electrical isolation. The last category is the most obvious. A prime application of this type would be the electrocardiograph amplifier, which provides the high degree of isolation necessary to ensure patient safety in medical electronics. A
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second use for an opto-isolator is with anisolated voltage operated potentiometer. The opto-isolator makes the potentiometer totally independent of the control-voltage reference supply. In remotely actuated switching circuits, the opto-isolator is used as a polar switch. The opto-isolator can also be

Figure 3.24 Increasing Speed of Opto-isolator Response (Courtesy Litroriix, Inc.)

used as class B amplifier, a convenient means of inputting data to a calculator chip, and as a highvoltage series regulator. Lets look at several basic circuits to see their hookups. One of the simplest uses that can be made of opto-isolators is with transistor-transistor logic (TTL). There are two ways that TTL can be utilized, either driven by or as a driver for the opto-isolator. The matching of the two devices can be handled quite easily within the parameters of the devices. Figure 3.25 illustrates opto-isolators being used as output driver circuits. In illustration A, two TTL active low circuits are suggested. In the upper circuit, a gate is driven by an opto-isolator with a 12kpull-up resistor. This circuit is recommended for DTL and TTL digital interfaces. In the lower circuit, a gate is driven by an opto-isolator with a 3 pull-up resistor. Figure 3.25B
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illustrates two TTL active high circuits. Both circuits utilize OR gates. The upper circuit is recommended if both positive and negative power supplies are available. The lower circuit is suggested if there is no negative supply.

Figure 3.25 TTL Logic Being Driven by 0pto-Isolators (Courtesy Litronix, Inc.) Figure 3.26 represents an opto-isolator used in a logic operation. In the illustration, a pair of optoisolators are used to perform logical OR functions. This circuit is equally compatible with DTL or TTL logic families. There are two ways in which TTL may be used as a driver for the opto-isolator (see figure 3.27). In the A illustration the TTL is used in an active level high or a current source mode. The output of the TTL is placed on the anode of the LED. In the B illustration, the TTL is used as an active level low or a current sink mode. The output of the TTL is placed on the cathode of the LED. Care must be taken when using logic gates with opto-isolators that the logic mathematical expression he maintained. A high out of a gate used as a current source would turn the LED on. A high out of the same type gate used as a current sink would turn the LED off. Figure 3.28 illustrates three examples of linear circuit applications. The first utilizes a differential amplifier. In the A circuit the LED must be forward-biased to a suitable current flow. Modulating signals may then be impressed on that dc bias. In the B circuit a feedback amplifier is utilized to lower the impedance of the input from the opto-isolator. In the C circuit a high-speed operational amplifier is used to provide lower effective load resistance, therefore higher speeds.
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Figure 3.26 Opto-Isolator Used to Perform a Logic Function (Courtesy Litronix, Inc.)

Figure 3.27 TTL Logic Driving Opto-isolators (Courtesy Litronic,Inc)

Figure 3.28 TTL Logic Driving Opto-Isolators (Courtesy Litronix, Inc.)

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To repeat a previous note, the opto-isolator has two basic requirements to live up to, efficient transfer of information from input to output and the maintenance of electrical isolation from input to output. Typical Opto-Isolators Typical of the opto-isolators are the Litronix IL1 and the ILQ series (see figure 3.29). The IL1 is a 6-pin device while the ILQ is a 16-pin device. The IL1 houses a single opto-isolator. The ILQ houses 4 separate opto-isolators. A connection diagram is provided in figure 3.30.

Figure 3.29 PIN Connections for Litronix IL-1 and ILQ Opto-Isolators (Courtesy Litronix, Inc.)

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(c)

Figure 3.30 Linear Circuit Applications (Courtesy Litronix, Inc.)

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