EXPERIMENT NO. Object: Measurement of low resistance Kelvins double Bridge.

Test setup: - Trainer Kit, Connecting wires, DMM, CRO, Set of patching wires, voltmeter. Theory: - Kelvin Bridge is a modification of whetstones Bridge and provides increased accuracy in measurement of low resistance. Kelvin double bridge incorporates two sets of ratio arms and the use of four terminal resistors for the low resistance arms as shown in fig (a).

The first set of ratio arms is P and Q. The second set of ratio arms, p and q is used to connect the galvanometer to a point c at the appropriate potential between points m and n to eliminate the effect of connecting lead of resistance r between the known resistance, and the standard resistance, S. The ratio p/q is made equal to P/Q. Under balance condition there is no current through the galvanometer, which means that the voltage drop between a and d , E ad is equal to the voltage drop Eamc between a and c. Now Ead= P/P+Q Eab and Eab = I{R+S (p+q)r/p+q+r} (1) Eamc=I{R+p/p+q {(p+q) r/p+q+r}} (2) For zero galvanometer deflection, Ead = Eamc Or P/P+Q I{R+S+ (p+q)r/p+q+r} = I{R+p/p+q {(p+q)r/p+q+r}} (3) R = P/Q.S+qr/p+q+r{P/Q-p/q} (4) Now, If P/Q =p/q, eqn (3) becomes R = P/Q.S Equation (4) is the usual working equation for the Kelvins bridge. It indicates that the resistance of connecting lead (r), has no effect on the measurement, provided that the two sets of ratio arms have equal ratios. Equation (3) is useful, however, as it shows the error that is introduced in case

the ratio are not exactly equal. It indicates that it is desirable to keep r as small as possible in order to minimize the errors in case there is a difference between P/Q and p/q. Procedures: 1) Study the circuit configuration given on the front panel of the trainer. 2) Switch on the power of the kit. 3) Connect the +5V to the input section from the +5V point provided on the top right hand side. 4) Connect the ground of the circuit to the GND on the top right hand side of the Trainer. 5) Connect the Input section with the bridge by shorting the Link 1 and Link 2. 6) Connect a galvanometer G externally or a voltmeter in the range of MV as indicated on the trainer. 7) Connect the unknown resistance Rx as marked on the trainer. 8) Select the value of P and Q such that P/Q = p/q = 500/50*1000 = 0.01 9) Adjust the value of S such for proper balance i.e. the indication is zero. Measure the value of S using a multi meter. 10) Calculate the value of unknown resistance Rx using the formula. Rx = (P/Q) S Observations: Result: Point of Discussion: 1. What is balance condition? 2. What will happen if we invert the direction of the current?

EXPERIMENT NO. Objective: Study of Pressure transducer. Test setup: Trainer Kit, Connecting wires, DMM, CRO, Set of patching wires etc. Theory: Pressure is the force exerted by a medium, usually a fluid, on a unit area. It differs from normal stress only in the mode of application. In Engineering, it is most commonly expressed in terms of pounds per square inch (psi).Measuring devices usually register as a differential pressure, i.e., the difference between two pressures, with atmospheric pressure as the common reference. This is termed gage pressure, psig. In this experiment we are using the C type Bourdon tube. The C type of Bourdon element is most commonly used for local indication but it is also used for pressure transmission and control application. The tube which is oval in section is formed into an arc of 2500 and hence the name C for the configuration which is shown in fig (b).

Fig.-Block Diagram of Pressure Transducer The displacement of tip is, a = 0.05 ap/E (r/t) 0.2 (x/y) 0.33 (x/t) 3 Where E is the modulus of elasticity; N/m2, P, the applied pressure, N/m2 and other terms are as depicted in fig(c). Thus relationship between the displacement of tip and the applied pressure is nonlinear i.e. each pressure increment does not produce a corresponding tip movement. However a linear relationship between the deflection of the pointer and the applied pressure is obtained using the

geared sector and pinion movement or other mechanical means. The accuracy of C type Bourdon varies from + 0.5 to + 2% or poorer. However, the normal accuracy is about +1%. The present set up consist of a air tight tank with the standard pressure gage mounted on the tank. At input side a non returnable valve along with a release valve is used to fill air only in one direction. This valve is connected to a foot pump. The air in the tank can be filled through the pump. The manual gage is fitted on the top of the tank to have rough idea of the pressure of the air inside. The pressure in the tank can be released by opening the release valve. The pressure transducer is mounted on the tank with wires going to the electronic box. The pressure transducer used here is of diaphragm type fitted with strain gauges. The strain used here are of resistance type gages. The gages are arranged in a Wheatstone format. The DC excitations to the gages are applied through the electronic box. The output of the gage is connected to the electronic box. The signal available is amplified to the desired level and displayed on the digital meter. An offset circuit is used in the electronic box to adjust the output of the transducer to zero when the pressure is not there. Once the zero offset is done properly, the output of the pressure transducer is proportional to the pressure in the tank. This electronic signal is amplified to the suitable level and displayed on the meter. Procedures: 1) Connect the four wires coming out of transducers to the Electronic box as per the colors of the wires written on the board. 2) Switch on the Board supply. 3) Open the air release valve completely. 4) Set the initial value of the display to zero (nearest zero value) by the pot provided. 5) Close the air release valve. 6) Start pumping the air in the tank using the foot pump. 7) Stop pumping when the pressure value reaches to about 2 Kg/cmm2 pressure. 8) Note the digital value on the meter. 9) Note that this value will be all most the same as that shown by the dial gage. 10) Now slowly release the air by opening the value slowly and closing at near 1.5 Kg /cm2 pressure. Again note the reading.

11) Repeat this process of releasing the pressure slowly at regular intervals and note the corresponding value of reading on the gage and digital meter. Observation: S.No. Applied Pressure Measured Pressure Difference

Result: Point for Discussion: 1. What we have used in this experiment to measure the pressure? 2. Why bourdon tube is used? 3. Why the zero offset should be done properly.

EXPERIMENT NO. Objective: - To study of temperature sensors- Thermocouple & RTD. Test setup: - Temperature trainer Kit, RTD PT-100, Digital multimeter and Connecting Wires. Theory: - RTD are made of a suitable length of platinum, nickel or tungsten wire whose resistance increase in temperature; which has positive temperature coefficient. For RTD platinum or tungsten wire is wound on a give a resistance in the range of 10K depending on application. Tungsten is reserved for high temperature application as it is brittle and extremely difficult to work.

To first approximation, resistance variation with temperature I linear although more complex equations are used for greater accuracies. The RTD used in ST 2302 is of 100 at 0 0C (Temperature coefficient = 0.385 ohms / C).The platinum resistance temperature detector is a highly and accurate sensor. The resistance increase linearly at 0.385 ohms / C. To develop a suitable resistance should be connected between output and +5V and the wire wound potentiometer is recommended. The RTD is located in the transparent plastic heating compartment.

Thermocouple: The most common electrical method of temperature measurement uses the thermoelectric sensor, also known as thermocouple. The construction of a thermocouple is quit simple it consists of two wires of different metals twisted and brazed or welded together with each wire covered with insulation which may be either: 1. Mineral (magnesium oxide) insulation for normal duty. 2. Ceramic insulation for heavy duty. Thermocouples can be broadly classified in two categories. 1. Base metal thermocouples. 2. Rare metal thermocouples. Base metal thermocouples use the combination of pure metals and alloys of Iron, Copper and nickel and are used for thermocouple up to 1450 degree k. These are most commonly used in practice as they are more sensitive, cheaper and heavy nearly linear characteristics. Rare metal thermocouples use a combination of pure metals and alloys of platinum for temperatures up to 2000 k and tungsten, rhodium and molybdenum for temperatures up to 2900k. Procedure: 1) Switch on the power supply of the system. 2) Connect the RTD to the terminals meant for the device as marked on the board. 3) Select the RTD for the display from the switch. 4) When the RTD is not heated up, note that the display should indicate the Room Temperature and correspondingly note the voltage across the RTD using Voltmeter. 5) Now make a glass of water and dip the RTD in that. The temperature might lower a bit after a while.(This delay depends upon the thickness of the RTD outer casing) 6) Note down the temperature displayed in the kit and voltage across RTD. 7) Heat RTD with a soldering Iron by touching the tip of the Iron on the RTD bottom side. 8) Now draw the characteristics of RTD by drawing a graph of voltage across RTD v/s Temperature of Bath.

Observation: S.No. Voltage across RTD Temprature

Result: Precaution: 1. Connection should not be loose. 2. Reading should be taken carefully. 3. Heat the RTD properly.

EXPERIMENT

AIM: To design and implement the circuit of second order low Pass filter of 12KHz.

EQUIPMENTS AND COMPONENTS REQUIRED:

Analog Trainer Kit, IC 741, Resistors (1K,100), Capacitor (0.01f), Connecting wires, Multimeter, CRO etc.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

THEORY: Low pass filters are those one which allows the low frequency signal to pass through (i.e. frequency below than cut off frequency) them while attenuating the rest of all other frequencies. The second order low pass filter consists of RC network connected to the non-inverting input terminal of the operational amplifier. At low frequencies, Xc1 and Xc2 are very much larger than R 1 and R2; consequently, they have no significant effect on the circuit. Input signals are reproduced at the output with zero attenuation. At high frequencies, when the capacitive impedances are very smaller than the resistance values, C1 effectively shorts the voltage follower input to ground, producing ground level at the output, and C 2 shorts the junction of R1 and R2 to the output. Consequently, input signals are severely attenuated. The gain of filter is set by R 1 and R2 while the cut of frequency f c is determined by R2R3C2 and C3 and other component values are calculated from these equations:

Then,

C1 = 2C1

And

R1 = R2 = 0.5(R1 + R2) R3 R 1 + R 2

And,

PROCEDURE:

Step 1. Study the given circuit diagram. Step 2. Implement the circuit on the bread board or Analog Trainer Kit. Step 3. Now switch ON the power supply of the Trainer Kit. Step 4. Connect the instruments as per requirement (CRO, Function generator etc). Step 5. Apply the input signal (sinusoidal) of 1V from function generator. Step 6. Observe the output and measure the amplitude on different frequencies. on the screen of CRO

GRAPH:

RESULT:

PRECAUTIONS: 1. All the connections should be tight. 2. Implement the circuit carefully. 3. Handle the lab equipments carefully. 4. Proper switch OFF the equipments after using.

EXPERIMENT-

AIM: To realize and study the circuit of Digital to analog converter. EQUIPMENTS AND COMPONENTS REQUIRED:

Analog Trainer Kit, IC 741, Resistors (1.25K, 2.5 K, 5 K, 10 K, 1 K), Op-amp (IC-741), Connecting wires, CRO etc.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

THEORY:

A D/A Converter is used when the binary output from a digital system is to be converted into its equivalent analog voltage or current. The binary output will be a sequence of 1s and 0s. Thus they may be difficult to follow. But, a D/A converter help the user to interpret easily. Basically, a D/A converter have an op-amp. It can be classified into 2 types. They are. Digital to Analog Converter using Binary-Weighted Resistors 2) Digital to Analog Converter using R2R Ladder network. Digital to Analog Converter using Binary-Weighted Resistors A D/A converter using binary-weighted resistors is shown in the figure below. In the circuit, the op-amp is connected in the inverting mode. The op-amp can also be connected in the noninverting mode. The circuit diagram represents a 4-digit converter. Thus, the number of binary inputs is four. 1)

We know that, a 4-bit converter will have 24 = 16 combinations of output. Thus, a corresponding 16 outputs of analog will also be present for the binary inputs.

Four switches from b0 to b3 are available to simulate the binary inputs: in practice, a 4-bit binary counter such as a 7493 can also be used. Working The circuit is basically working as a current to voltage converter.

b0 is closed

It will be connected directly to the +5V. Thus, voltage across R = 5V Current through R = 5V/10kohm = 0.5mA Current through feedback resistor, Rf = 0.5mA (Since, Input bias current, IB is negligible) Thus, output voltage = -(1kohm)*(0.5mA) = -0.5V

b1 is closed, b0 is open

R/2 will be connected to the positive supply of the +5V. Current through R will become twice the value of current (1mA) to flow through Rf. Thus, output voltage also doubles.

b0 and b1 are closed

Current through Rf = 1.5mA Output voltage = -(1kohm)*(1.5mA) = -1.5V Thus, according to the position (ON/OFF) of the switches (bo-b3), the corresponding binaryweighted currents will be obtained in the input resistor. The current through Rf will be the sum

of these currents. This overall current is then converted to its proportional output voltage. Naturally, the output will be maximum if the switches (b0-b3) are closed V0 = -Rf *([b0/R][b1/(R/2)][b2/(R/4)][b3/(R/8)]) Where, each of the inputs b3, b2, b1, and b0 may either be HIGH (+5V) or LOW (0V). The graph with the analog outputs versus possible combinations of inputs is shown below.

Output Graph The output is a negative going staircase waveform with 15 steps of -).5V each. In practice, due to the variations in the logic HIGH voltage levels, all the steps will not have the same size. The value of the feedback resistor Rf changes the size of the steps. Thus, a desired size for a step can be obtained by connecting the appropriate feedback resistor. The only condition to look out for is that the maximum output voltage should not exceed the saturation levels of the op-amp. Metalfilm resistors are more preferred for obtaining accurate outputs.
PROCEDURE:

Step 1. Study the given circuit diagram. Step 2. Then implement the circuit on the bread board or Analog Trainer Kit.

Step 3. Now switch ON the power supply of the Trainer Kit. Step 4. Connect the instruments as per requirement (CRO, Function generator etc). Step 5. Observe the output on the CRO.

RESULT:

PRECAUTIONS:

1. All the connections should be tight. 2. Implement the circuit carefully. 3. Handle the lab equipments carefully. 4. Proper switch OFF the equipments after using.