Contents

Section 1 - Steam/Condensate and Water Engineering Data

Section 2 - Steam Consumption and Heating
Section 3 - Humidification
Section 4 - Metering
Section 5 - Controls
Section 6 - Standards and Materials
Section 7 - Sundries
Section 8 - Compressed Air Engineering Data
Index

SECTION 1 - Steam/Condensate and Water Engineering Data

Steam tables
Quantity of flash steam
Table of saturated steam pipeline capacities at specific velocities
Steam pipeline sizing chart (velocity method)
Steam pipeline sizing chart (pressure drop method)
Condensate pipeline sizing table (frictional resistance method)
Steam pressure reduction and potential for superheat
Condensate pipeline sizing (flash steam velocity method)
Steam mains consumption
Warming up losses
Running losses
Masses of steel pipe
Heat emission from single horizontal steel pipes freely exposed in
surroundings at 20oC
One hour warm up/running loads (kg/h) per 50m of steam main
Pressure powered pump/float trap combination
Stall chart
Sizing the pressure powered pump/float trap combination
Steam/energy wastage through leaks
Energy requirements of steam traps
Water and water treatment
pH value
Hardness
pH chart
External (to the boiler) water treatment (ion exchange)
Softening
Dealkalization
Demineralization
Internal (in the boiler) water treatment
Boiler water TDS measurement
Calculating the boiler blowdown rate
Controlling the total dissolved solids level

SECTION 2 - Steam Consumption and Heating

Comparison of steam, high temperature hot water and high temperature
oil systems
Categories of hot water heating systems
Steam consumption.
Tanks and vats
Air heater batteries
Heating calorifiers
Hot water storage calorifiers
Air heating pipes
Drying cylinders
Steam loads
Estimating steam tracer loads
Estimating steam flowrates for water heating
Specific heats and relative densities of various materials
Specific heats and relative densities of liquids
Specific heats of gases and vapours
Space heating information
Units
Rule of thumb heat loss
Heat losses
U values, definitions and symbols
U values
Typical HWS storage and boiler power
System characteristics
- Pumps
- Effects of various condition alterations to pump characteristics
- The flow of fluids in pipes and ducts
- The flow of water at 75oC in black steel pipes
- Values of velocity head factor for pipe fittings
and equipment

SECTION 3 - Humidification
Psychrometric chart
The psychometric chart explained.
Calculating humidification loads
Chart showing relationship of effective temperature, wet-bulb/dry bulb
temperatures and relative humidity
Relative humidity in percentage terms
Steam .v. water humidification

SECTION 4 - Metering
Steam meter terminology
Density compensation
Errors due to absence of density compensation

SECTION 5 - Controls
Controls terminology
Typical mix of process control devices with system elements
Flow coefficients (Capacity indices Av, Kv and Cv)
Conversion factors
Kv sizing formulae
Table DN. v. Kvs for control valves
Kv steam (saturated and superheated) sizing chart
Kv water sizing chart
Valve authority
Control valve characteristics
Inherent valve characteristics
Installed valve characteristics
Rangeability
Valve leakage rates
Control modes.
On/off control
Proportional control (P control)
Floating control
Integral control (I control)
Derivative control (D control)
Combinations of basic modes
- P + I control
- P + I + D control
Summary of control mode characteristics
Matching control modes and plant characteristics
PN controls-combinations of valve and actuator actions
Safety valve selection and sizing
Relationship of system design pressure to safety valve set pressure etc

SECTION 6 - Standards and Materials

Relevant national, european and international standards
Products section
- Steam traps
- Pressure vessels (blowdown/flash vessels and separators)
- Control valves
- Isolating valves
- Pressure gauges and thermometers
- Safety valves
General section
- Quality systems
- Boilers
- Water treatment
- Piping systems
- Enclosures
Relevant guidance notes
End connections
Flanges
- Size
- Pressure
- Flange facings
- Dimensions
- Steel
- Cast iron
- Sg (ductile) iron
- Copper alloy
Screwed
Welded ends
- Socket weld
- Butt weld
Quick reference materials comparison
Typical mechanical properties - SG iron, gunmetal, cast steel and cast iron
Stainless steels - properties and composition
Austenitic steels - comparison table
Product limitations (pressure/temperature)
Pressure/temperature rating
Pressure/temperature rating for group B austenitic steel flanges

SECTION 7 - Sundries
Cost of steam
Calorific value of various fuels
Reasonable average steam produced per unit of fuel
Area of circles
SI system of units
Base and supplementary quantities and units.
Derived units
Prefixes
Conversion tables
Summary table of approximate conversion factors
IP classification of enclosures (BS EN 60 529)
Graphical symbols
Valves actuating methods
Valves specific types
Trap functions
Pipeline flexibility
Pipeline features and general equipment

Electrical circuit symbols and notations

Conductors
Switches, fuses and contacts
Circuit components
Thermal expansions of pipes
Corrosion resistance of metals and elastomers

SECTION 8 - Compressed Air Engineering Data

Power required to compress air
Discharge of air through an orifice
Condensation in the compressed air system
Ratio of compression
Air receiver sizing
Distribution system (mains and interconnecting pipework)
Drainage
Separators
Sizing
- Velocity method
- Pressure drop method
Volume of compressed air carried by medium grade steel pipes
to BS 1387 at given velocities
Resistance of pipe fittings in equivalent length terms
Interconnecting pipework
Pressure drop in steel pipes 15 - 100mm (nomogram)
Pressure drop in pipes and tubes 2.5 - 15mm (nomogram)
Pipe carrying capacities at varying velocities (nomogram)
Standard pipe/tube dimensions
Typical air consumption of pneumatic tools and appliances at 5.5 bar g
Typical compressed air installation

Steam/Condensate
& Water
Engineering Data

Steam tables
Pressure

Specific
Volume
Evaporation (hfg ) Steam (hg ) Steam
kJ/kg
kJ/kg
m3/kg
Specific Enthalpy

Temperature
C

Water (hf)
kJ/kg

30.0
50.0
75.0
95.0

69.10
81.33
91.78
98.20

289.23
340.49
384.39
411.43

2336.1
2305.4
2278.6
2261.8

2625.3
2645.9
2663.0
2673.2

5.229
3.240
2.217
1.777

0
10.0
20.0
30.0
40.0
50.0
60.0
70.0
80.0
90.0
100.0
110.0
120.0
130.0
140.0
150.0
160.0
170.0
180.0
190.0
200.0
220.0
240.0
260.0
280.0
300.0
320.0
340.0
360.0
380.0
400.0
450.0
500.0
550.0
600.0
650.0
700.0
750.0
800.0
850.0
900.0
950.0
1000.0
1050.0
1100.0

100.00
102.66
105.10
107.39
109.55
111.61
113.56
115.40
117.14
118.80
120.42
121.96
123.46
124.90
126.28
127.62
128.89
130.13
131.37
132.54
133.69
135.88
138.01
140.00
141.92
143.75
145.46
147.20
148.84
150.44
151.96
155.55
158.92
162.08
165.04
167.83
170.50
173.02
175.43
177.75
179.97
182.10
184.13
186.05
188.02

419.04
430.2
440.8
450.4
459.7
468.3
476.4
484.1
491.6
498.9
505.6
512.2
518.7
524.6
530.5
536.1
541.6
547.1
552.3
557.3
562.2
571.7
580.7
589.2
597.4
605.3
612.9
620.0
627.1
634.0
640.7
656.3
670.9
684.6
697.5
709.7
721.4
732.5
743.1
753.3
763.0
772.5
781.6
790.1
798.8

2257.0
2250.2
2243.4
2237.2
2231.3
2225.6
2220.4
2215.4
2210.5
2205.6
2201.1
2197.0
2192.8
2188.7
2184.8
2181.0
2177.3
2173.7
2170.1
2166.7
2163.3
2156.9
2150.7
2144.7
2139.0
2133.4
2128.1
2122.9
2117.8
2112.9
2108.1
2096.7
2086.0
2075.7
2066.0
2056.8
2047.7
2039.2
2030.9
2022.9
2015.1
2007.5
2000.1
1993.0
1986.0

2676.0
2680.2
2684.2
2687.6
2691.0
2693.9
2696.8
2699.5
2702.1
2704.5
2706.7
2709.2
2711.5
2713.3
2715.3
2717.1
2718.9
2720.8
2722.4
2724.0
2725.5
2728.6
2731.4
2733.9
2736.4
2738.7
2741.0
2742.9
2744.9
2746.9
2748.8
2753.0
2756.9
2760.3
2763.5
2766.5
2769.1
2771.7
2774.0
2776.2
2778.1
2780.0
2781.7
2783.3
2784.8

1.673
1.533
1.414
1.312
1.225
1.149
1.083
1.024
0.971
0.923
0.881
0.841
0.806
0.773
0.743
0.714
0.689
0.665
0.643
0.622
0.603
0.568
0.536
0.509
0.483
0.461
0.440
0.422
0.405
0.389
0.374
0.342
0.315
0.292
0.272
0.255
0.240
0.227
0.215
0.204
0.194
0.185
0.177
0.171
0.163

bar

kPa

absolute
0.30
0.50
0.75
0.95
gauge
0
0.10
0.20
0.30
0.40
0.50
0.60
0.70
0.80
0.90
1.00
1.10
1.20
1.30
1.40
1.50
1.60
1.70
1.80
1.90
2.00
2.20
2.40
2.60
2.80
3.00
3.20
3.40
3.60
3.80
4.00
4.50
5.00
5.50
6.00
6.50
7.00
7.50
8.00
8.50
9.00
9.50
10.00
10.50
11.00

EDB/1

1.01

Steam tables
Specific Enthalpy
Pressure
bar
11.50
12.00
12.50
13.00
13.50
14.00
14.50
15.00
15.50
16.00
17.00
18.00
19.00
20.00
21.00
22.00
23.00
24.00
25.00
26.00
27.00
28.00
29.00
30.00
31.00
32.00
33.00
34.00
35.00
36.00
37.00
38.00
39.00
40.00
41.00
42.00
43.00
44.00
45.00
46.00
47.00
48.00
49.00
50.00
51.00
52.00
53.00
54.00
55.00
56.00

1.02

gauge

Temperature
kPa
1150.0
1200.0
1250.0
1300.0
1350.0
1400.0
1450.0
1500.0
1550.0
1600.0
1700.0
1800.0
1900.0
2000.0
2100.0
2200.0
2300.0
2400.0
2500.0
2600.0
2700.0
2800.0
2900.0
3000.0
3100.0
3200.0
3300.0
3400.0
3500.0
3600.0
3700.0
3800.0
3900.0
4000.0
4100.0
4200.0
4300.0
4400.0
4500.0
4600.0
4700.0
4800.0
4900.0
5000.0
5100.0
5200.0
5300.0
5400.0
5500.0
5600.0

189.82
191.68
193.43
195.10
196.62
198.35
199.92
201.45
202.92
204.38
207.17
209.90
212.47
214.96
217.35
219.65
221.85
224.02
226.12
228.15
230.14
232.05
233.93
235.78
237.55
239.28
240.97
242.63
244.26
245.86
247.42
248.95
250.42
251.94
253.34
254.74
256.12
257.50
258.82
260.13
261.43
262.73
264.00
265.26
266.45
267.67
268.84
270.02
271.20
272.33

Water (hf )
kJ/kg
807.1
815.1
822.9
830.4
837.9
845.1
852.1
859.0
865.7
872.3
885.0
897.2
909.0
920.3
931.3
941.9
952.2
962.2
972.1
981.6
990.7
999.7
1008.6
1017.0
1025.6
1033.9
1041.9
1049.7
1057.7
1065.7
1072.9
1080.3
1087.4
1094.6
1101.6
1108.6
1115.4
1122.1
1228.7
1135.3
1142.2
1148.1
1154.5
1160.8
1166.6
1172.6
1178.7
1184.6
1190.5
1196.3

Evaporation (hfg)
kJ/kg
1979.1
1972.5
1965.4
1959.6
1953.2
1947.1
1941.0
1935.0
1928.8
1923.4
1912.1
1901.3
1890.5
1880.2
1870.1
1860.1
1850.4
1840.9
1831.4
1822.2
1813.3
1804.4
1795.6
1787.0
1778.5
1770.0
1761.8
1753.8
1745.5
1737.2
1729.5
1721.6
1714.1
1706.3
1698.3
1691.2
1683.7
1676.2
1668.9
1666.6
1654.4
1647.1
1639.9
1632.8
1626.9
1619.0
1612.0
1605.1
1598.2
1591.3

Specific
Volume
Steam (hg ) Steam
kJ/kg
m3/kg
2786.3
2787.6
2788.8
2790.0
2791.1
2792.2
2793.1
2794.0
2794.9
2795.7
2797.1
2798.5
2799.5
2800.5
2801.4
2802.0
2802.6
2803.1
2803.5
2803.8
2804.0
2804.1
2804.2
2804.1
2804.1
2803.9
2803.7
2805.5
2803.2
2802.9
2802.4
2801.9
2801.5
2800.9
2799.9
2799.8
2799.1
2798.3
2797.6
2796.9
2796.6
2795.2
2794.4
2793.6
2792.6
2791.6
2790.7
2789.7
2788.7
2787.6

0.157
0.151
0.146
0.141
0.136
0.132
0.128
0.124
0.119
0.117
0.110
0.105
0.100
0.0949
0.0906
0.0868
0.0832
0.0797
0.0768
0.0740
0.0714
0.0689
0.0666
0.0645
0.0625
0.0605
0.0587
0.0571
0.0554
0.0539
0.0524
0.0510
0.0498
0.0485
0.0473
0.0461
0.0451
0.0441
0.0431
0.0421
0.0412
0.0403
0.0394
0.0386
0.0378
0.0371
0.0364
0.0357
0.0350
0.0343

EDB/1

Steam tables
Pressure
bar
57.00
58.00
59.00
60.00
61.00
62.00
63.00
64.00
65.00
66.00
67.00
68.00
69.00
70.00
71.00
72.00
73.00
74.00
75.00
76.00
77.00
78.00
79.00
80.00
81.00
82.00
83.00
84.00
85.00
86.00
87.00
88.00
89.00
90.00
92.00
94.00
96.00
98.00
100.00
102.00
104.00
106.00
108.00
110.00
112.00
114.00
116.00
118.00
120.00

EDB/1

gauge

kPa
5700.0
5800.0
5900.0
6000.0
6100.0
6200.0
6300.0
6400.0
6500.0
6600.0
6700.0
6800.0
6900.0
7000.0
7100.0
7200.0
7300.0
7400.0
7500.0
7600.0
7700.0
7800.0
7900.0
8000.0
8100.0
8200.0
8300.0
8400.0
8500.0
8600.0
8700.0
8800.0
8900.0
9000.0
9200.0
9400.0
9600.0
9800.0
10000.0
10200.0
10400.0
10600.0
10800.0
11000.0
11200.0
11400.0
11600.0
11800.0
12000.0

Temperature
o

C
273.45
274.55
275.65
276.73
277.80
278.85
279.89
280.92
281.95
282.95
283.95
284.93
285.90
286.85
287.80
288.75
289.69
290.60
291.51
292.41
293.91
294.20
295.10
295.96
296.81
297.66
298.50
299.35
300.20
301.00
301.81
302.61
303.41
304.20
305.77
307.24
308.83
310.32
311.79
313.24
314.67
316.08
317.46
318.83
320.17
321.50
322.81
324.10
325.38

Specific Enthalpy
Water (hf )
kJ/kg
1202.1
1207.8
1213.4
1218.9
1224.5
1230.0
1235.4
1240.8
1246.1
1251.4
1256.7
1261.9
1267.0
1272.1
1277.3
1282.3
1287.3
1292.3
1297.2
1302.3
1307.0
1311.9
1316.7
1321.5
1326.2
1330.9
1335.7
1340.3
1345.0
1349.6
1354.2
1358.8
1363.3
1367.8
1376.8
1385.7
1394.5
1403.2
1411.9
1420.5
1429.0
1437.5
1445.9
1454.3
1462.6
1470.8
1479.0
1487.2
1495.4

Evaporation (hfg)
kJ/kg
1584.5
1577.7
1571.0
1564.4
1557.6
1550.9
1544.3
1537.3
1531.2
1524.7
1518.1
1511.6
1501.1
1498.7
1492.2
1485.8
1479.4
1473.0
1466.6
1460.2
1453.9
1447.6
1441.3
1435.0
1428.7
1422.5
1416.2
1410.0
1403.8
1397.6
1391.3
1385.2
1379.0
1372.7
1360.3
1348.0
1335.7
1323.3
1310.9
1298.7
1286.3
1274.0
1261.7
1249.3
1237.0
1224.6
1212.2
1199.8
1187.3

Specific
Volume
Steam (hg) Steam
kJ/kg
m3/kg
2786.6
0.0337
2785.5
0.0331
2784.4
0.0325
2783.3
0.0319
2782.1
0.0314
2780.9
0.0308
2779.7
0.0303
2778.5
0.0298
2777.3
0.0293
2776.1
0.0288
2774.8
0.0283
2773.5
0.0278
2772.1
0.0274
2770.8
0.0270
2769.5
0.0266
2768.1
0.0262
2766.7
0.0258
2765.3
0.0254
2763.8
0.0250
2762.5
0.0246
2760.9
0.0242
2759.5
0.0239
2758.0
0.0236
2756.5
0.0233
2754.9
0.0229
2753.4
0.0226
2751.9
0.0223
2750.3
0.0220
2748.8
0.0217
2747.2
0.0214
2745.5
0.0211
2744.0
0.0208
2742.3
0.0205
2740.5
0.0202
2737.1
0.0197
2733.7
0.0192
2730.2
0.0187
2726.5
0.0183
2722.8
0.0178
2719.2
0.0174
2715.3
0.0170
2711.5
0.0166
2707.6
0.0162
2703.6
0.0158
2699.6
0.0154
2695.4
0.0150
2691.2
0.0147
2687.0
0.0144
2682.7
0.0141

1.03

Quantity of flash steam

'Flash steam' is released from hot condensate when its pressure is lowered rather than by the
further addition of heat. The steam released by the flashing process is exactly the same as 'live
steam' emanating from a boiler - steam is steam!
How much flash steam
The quantity of flash steam is readily determined by calculation or it can simply be read from tables
or charts. The calculation is best illustrated by an example: consider hot condensate at 7 bar g
and 170.5 oC. It has an enthalpy of 721.4 kJ/kg (derived from steam tables hf@ 7 bar g). After
passing through the steam trap, the pressure on the condensate is 0 bar g. At this pressure the
enthalpy of saturated water hf is 419.0 kJ/kg and its temperature is 100 oC. If a kilogram of saturated
water at 0 bar g was supplied with an additional (721.4 - 419.0 kJ/kg) 302.4 kJ, then this enthalpy
would evaporate some of the water. The enthalpy of evaporation hfg at 0 bar g is 2257 kJ/kg and
the addition of 302.4 kJ must therefore evaporate (302.4/2257) 0.134 kg or 13.4% of the water
into steam.
This can be expressed as a formula:
% Flash Steam = (hf

high pressure

- hf

hfg

1.04

low pressure

) x 100%

low pressure

EDB/1

Saturated steam pipeline capacities at specific velocities

Pressure
bar g

0.4

0.7

1.0

2.0

3.0

4.0

5.0

6.0

7.0

8.0

10.0

14.0

Velocity
m/s 1 5
mm
15
7
25
10
40
17
15
7
25
12
40
18
15
8
25
12
40
19
15
12
25
19
40
30
15
16
25
26
40
41
15
19
25
30
40
49
15
22
25
36
40
59
15
26
25
43
40
71
15
29
25
49
40
76
15
32
25
54
40
84
15
41
25
66
40
104
15
50
25
85
40
126

20
mm
14
25
35
16
25
37
17
26
39
25
43
64
37
56
87
42
63
116
49
81
131
59
97
157
63
114
177
70
122
192
95
145
216
121
195
305

25
mm
24
40
64
25
45
68
29
48
71
45
70
115
60
100
157
70
115
197
87
135
225
105
162
270
110
190
303
126
205
327
155
257
408
205
331
555

kg/h
32
40
mm
mm
37
52
62
92
102 142
40
59
7 2 100
106 167
43
65
7 2 100
112 172
7 0 100
112 162
178 275
9 3 127
152 225
250 375
108 156
180 270
295 456
128 187
211
308
338
495
153
225
253
370
405
595
165
260
288
450
455
690
190
285
320
465
510
730
250
372
405
562
615
910
310
465
520
740
825 1210

50
mm
99
162
265
109
182
298
112
193
311
182
295
475
245
425
595
281
450
796
352
548
855
425
658
1025
445
785
1210
475
810
1370
626
990
1635
810
1375
2195

65
mm
145
265
403
166
287
428
182
300
465
280
428
745
385
632
1025
432
742
1247
526
885
1350
632
1065
1620
705
1205
1865
800
1260
2065
1012
1530
2545
1270
2080
3425

80
mm
213
384
576
250
430
630
260
445
640
410
656
1010
535
910
1460
635
1080
1825
770
1265
1890
925
1520
2270
952
1750
2520
1125
1870
3120
1465
2205
3600
1870
3120
4735

100 125
mm
mm
394 648
675 972
1037 1670
431 680
716 1145
1108 1712
470 694
730 1160
1150 1800
715 1125
1215 1755
1895 2925
925 1505
1580 2480
2540 4050
1166 1685
1980 2925
3120 4940
1295 2105
2110 3540
3510 5400
1555 2525
2530 4250
4210 6475
1815 2765
3025 4815
4585 7560
1990 3025
3240 5220
5135 8395
2495 3995
3825 6295
6230 9880
3220 5215
5200 8500
8510 13050

150
mm
917
1457
2303
1006
1575
2417
1020
1660
2500
1580
2520
4175
2040
3440
5940
2460
4225
7050
2835
5150
7870
3400
6175
9445
3990
6900
10880
4540
7120
12470
5860
8995
14390
7390
12560
18630

Note: the nominal bore of the pipeline varies with the schedule of the pipe. The capacities shown
in the table approximate to Schedule 80 pipe.
The formula shown below can be used to determine the nominal carrying capacity of pipelines at
various velocities. The specific volume is read from steam tables at the relevant pressure whilst
the bore of the pipe D depends on the pipe schedule:
DN

15
Sch 40 15.8
Bore (mm) Sch 80 13.8
Sch 160 11.7

20
21.0
18.9
15.6

25
26.6
24.3
20.7

32
35.1
32.5
29.5

40
40.9
38.1
34.0

50
52.5
49.2
42.8

65
62.7
59.0
53.9

80
100
77.9 102.3
73.7 97.2
66.6 87.3

125
128.2
122.3
109.5

150
154.1
146.4
131.8

W kg/h = 0.002827 D2V

Where D = Pipe bore mm

V = Steam Velocity m/s
= specific volume m3/kg
Re-arranging the formula enables the pipeline velocity to be determined for any given mass flowrate
and pipeline diameter
V =

EDB/1

W
0.002827 D2

1.05

Steam pipeline sizing chart (velocity method)

Example: It is required to size a pipeline to handle 20 t/h of superheated steam at 15 bar
g and 300 oC. The maximum acceptable steam velocity is 60 m/s.
Method: Draw a vertical line from 300 oC (point A) on the temperature scale to 15 bar g
(point B) on the pressure scale. From B draw a horizontal line to the steam mass flow rate
of 20,000 kg/h (point F). Now draw a vertical line to the steam velocity of 60 m/s (point G).
From G draw a horizontal line across to the pipe diameter scale (point H). A pipe with a
bore of 150 mm will suffice in this case.

Steam pipeline sizing chart (pressure drop method)

Example: Determine the pressure drop when 20,000 kg/h of superheated steam at 15 bar
g/300 oC flows through a 150 mm diameter pipeline.
Method: Draw a vertical line from 300 oC (point A) on the temperature scale to 15 bar g
(point B) on the pressure scale. From this point draw a horizontal line across to 20,000
kg/h (point C). Now draw a vertical line to the pipe diameter of 150 mm (point D). From
point D draw a horizontal line to the pressure drop scale. The pressure drop in this case
is 1 bar/100m length.

Condensate pipeline sizing (frictional resistance method)

(Starting load i.e. Running load x 2)
Approximate Frictional Resistance in mbar per m of Travel Heavy Steel Tube
nominal
0.3
0.5
0.6
0.8
1.0
1.4
bore
(30 Pa)
(50 Pa)
(60 Pa)
(80 Pa)
(100 Pa)
(140 Pa)
15 mm
95
130
140
160
180
220
20 mm
220
290
320
370
420
500
25 mm
410
540
600
690
790
940
32 mm
890
1180
1300
1500
1700
2040
40 mm
1360
1790
2000
2290
2590
3100
50 mm
2630
3450
3810
4390
4990
6000
65 mm
5350
6950
7730
8900
10150
12100
80 mm
8320
10900
12000
13800
15650
18700
100 mm
17000
22200
24500
28200
31900
38000

Where the steam pressure on the steam traps is greater than 4 bar g then a significant percentage
of the condensate is likely to flash to steam at low pressure as it enters the condensate pipeline.
This will have a large specific volume. It is therefore recommended to size the condensate
pipelines on the basis of flash steam velocity - see page 1.09.

Steam pressure reduction and potential for superheat

The fact that it is very difficult in most practical cases to find a steam supply which is dry enough
to produce superheat through a drop in pressure, is familiar to us all. The enthalpy content is
substantially the same at the outlet from a control valve orifice as it is at the inlet. The text books
show how the throttling effect of passing dry saturated steam through an orifice leads to superheat
conditions at the outlet; however unless the pressure drop is very great, a very small amount of
wetness in the high pressure steam means that the steam is a little drier but not superheated after
the pressure reduction.
Example: dry steam at 12.5 bar g is passed through a pressure reducing valve to a service
operating at 2 bar g. From steam tables:
Total enthalpy of 1 kg of steam at 12.5 bar g =
Total enthalpy of 1 kg of steam at 2.0 bar g =
Difference =

2788.8 kJ (hg)
2725.5 kJ (hg)
63.3kJ

This surplus enthalpy at the lower pressure is sufficient to superheat the steam to about 163oC,
which means some 30oC of superheat. Alternatively, as steam is rarely dry saturated, a more
practical consideration is the case where the steam has a dryness fraction of less than one prior
to pressure reduction. To determine the limiting dryness such that superheat does not occur
on the low pressure side; from tables, the specific enthalpy of water (hf) at 12.5 bar g is 822.9
kJ/kg and that of evaporation (hfg) is 1965.4 kJ/kg. If the 2 bar g steam at the exit of the orifice
is not to be superheated then its maximum enthalpy shall be that of dry saturated steam, i.e. 2725.5
kJ/kg (hg). We are now able to equate enthalpy before pressure reduction to that after it and to
resolve the limiting dryness fraction:
hg 2 bar g = hf 12.5 bar g + xhfg 12.5 bar g
(where x is the dryness fraction)
2725.5kJ/kg = 822.9kJ/kg + x1965.4kJ/kg
x = 0.968
In other words if the dryness fraction prior to pressure reduction is 0.968 or less, then the low
pressure steam will not be superheated.
Note: immediately after reasonably large reductions in steam pressure as that illustrated above,
the steam will be initially in a meta stable state. It is therefore recommended that where superheat
is likely or known to cause problems (e.g. in animal foodstuff pelletizers) a length of unlagged steam
main is installed to promote a degree of condensation and generate stable conditions.

EDB/1

1.08

Condensate line sizing where pressure at traps > 4 bar g

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

From pressure upstream of trap move horizontally to pressure in return line - A.

Drop vertically to condensate load in kg/h - B.
Follow curve to right hand scale and across to same return line pressure - C.
Move upward to return line flash velocity - say 25 m/s maximum - D.
Read return line size.

1.09

EDB/1

Steam mains consumption

In any steam system, account must be taken of the steam consumption of the mains themselves.
During the warming up period, the rate of condensation will be at its highest and this will govern
the sizing of steam traps for mains drainage. With the steam main in use there will be a smaller
but continuous heat loss due to convection and radiation from the pipe.
Warming up losses
Heat will be required initially to bring the cold pipe up to working temperature. The warming up rate
will depend on the time which is allowed and this should be based on a practical assessment. If
20 minutes is accepted instead of 10 minutes, then the steam flow rate is cut by half and the system
may benefit from reduced stresses. A warming up time of 30 minutes would cut the warming up
rate yet again. Warming up rate can be expressed as:

Q = 60W (T - t) Sp
Lm
Where Q =
W =
T =
t =
Sp =
L =
m =

Rate of condensation ........................................ kg/h

Total mass of pipe plus flanges and fittings ....... kg
Steam temperature .............................................. oC
Ambient temperature ........................................... oC
Specific heat capacity of steel ........... 0.49 kJ/kg oC
Specific enthalpy of evaporation (hfg) ............. kJ/kg
Warm up time .............................................. minutes

Refer to page 1.11 for typical masses of steel pipe, flanges, valves etc
Since any main may be warmed through more quickly than anticipated, a factor of 3 should be
applied to the calculated warming up rate for the purpose of sizing steam traps. Proper provision
must also be made to vent the air contained in the pipework at start up.
Example: find the rate of condensation in warming up 91.5m of 100mm steel main which includes
18 flanged joints and one stop valve. The starting temperature (ambient) is 8 oC and the steam
pressure is 14 bar g. The time taken to warm up the steam main is 30 minutes.
From steam tables the specific enthalpy of evaporation (hfg) is 1947 kJ/kg and the saturation
temperature is 198.5 oC. First find the total mass of steel in the main:
W = (91.5m x 14.9 kg/m) + (18 x 16.1 kg) + (1 x 34 kg)
= 1687 kg
Rate of condensation Q kg/h = 1687 kg x (198.5 - 8 oC) x 0.49 kJ/kgoC x 60 min/h
1947 kJ/kg x 30 min
= 162 kg/h

EDB/1

1.10

Running losses
Once a steam main has warmed up, condensation will continue as heat is lost through convection
and radiation, the rate depending on the steam temperature, ambient temperature and the
efficiency of the insulation.
If the main is flanged, each pair of flanges will have approximately the same surface area as 0.3m
of pipe of the same size.
Distribution mains will usually be insulated and it will obviously be an advantage if flanges are also
included. The effect of this on heat losses will depend on the type and thickness of the insulation
and on its general condition. For most practical purposes it can be taken that steam lines will reduce
the heat loss to 20% or below that of an uninsulated line. The heat loss from insulated mains can
therefore be expressed as:
Q = 3.6 E 1
5L
Where Q = Rate of condensation ......................................... kg/h
E = Heat emission from table (page 1.12) ............... W/m
l = Effective length of pipe,
allowing for flanges and fittings .............................. m
L = Specific enthalpy of evaporation (hfg) .............. kJ/kg

Masses of steel pipe, flanges and valves

mm
15
20
25
32
40
50
65
80
100
150

1.11

Pipe Size
inches
1

/2
/4

1
11/4
11/2
2
21/2
3
4
6

Approx mass of
steel pipe
kg/m
1.5
2.2
3.0
4.5
5.2
6.7
8.9
11.2
14.9
24.5

Approx mass per pair

of flanges including
bolts and nuts
kg
2.8
2.9
3.1
4.5
5.0
7.0
9.3
12.0
16.1
31.3

Typical mass
of flanged steel
stop valves
kg
4.0
4.6
5.7
7.2
9.6
12.4
17.6
23.2
34.0
72.0

EDB/1

Heat emission from single horizontal steel pipes freely exposed in

surroundings at 20 oC
Temperature
difference between
pipe surface and
ambient-oC
40
50
60
70
80
100
120
140
160
180
200
220
240

Heat Emission W/m

Nominal Pipe Size mm
15
42
55
69
84
100
135
173
215
261
311
366
425
490

20
51
67
84
103
122
164
211
262
318
380
447
520
600

25
62
81
102
125
149
200
257
320
389
465
547
637
735

32
75
99
125
152
181
244
314
391
476
569
670
781
902

40
84
111
140
170
203
273
352
438
534
638
753
878
1010

50
65
102
125
135
165
169
207
206
253
246
301
331
406
427
523
532
653
648
796
776
954
916 1130
1070 1320
1240 1520

80
143
189
238
290
345
466
600
750
915
1100
1300
1510
1750

100
179
236
297
362
431
582
750
937
1140
1370
1620
1900
2200

125
214
281
354
432
515
695
897
1120
1370
1650
1950
2280
2650

150
248
327
411
502
598
808
1040
1310
1600
1920
2270
2660
3090

Note: the above table applies to an air velocity of 0 m/s. Emission is increased with rise in air velocity
+ 4% at 0.5 m/s, + 12% at 1 m/s and + 20% at 2 m/s.
Example: using the data in the example on page 1.10, determine the heat losses (running) from
the pipe.
First determine the equivalent length of pipe - assume that a flange surface area is equivalent to
0.3 m length of pipe and that a stop valve is about 1.2 m. Insulation efficiency is 80%.
Equivalent length of pipe (m) = 91.5 + (18 x 0.3) + 1.2
= 98.1 m
Rate of condensation due to heat losses (Q) kg/h = * 1495 W/m x 98.1 m x 3.6
1947 kJ/kg x 5
(* linear interpolation for the nominal 190 oC difference)

= 54 kg/h

One hour warm up/running loads (kg/h) per 50m of steam main
Steam
Pressure
bar g
1
5
7
10
14
18

EDB/1

Nominal Pipe Size mm

50
5.4
4.8
8.2
7.3
8.7
8.2
9.9
9.8
10.9
11.2
17
15

65
8.6
5.4
13
8.9
13.8
10.2
16
12
17
14
23
16

80
11.2
6.8
17
10.5
18
12
20
15
23
17
31
19

100
16
8.5
24
13
26
15
29
17
32
20
45
24

125
22
10.3
33
17
35
19
40
21
44
26
62
30

150
28
13
42
20
45
23
51
25
57
30
84
36

200
44
16
63
24
68
28
77
33
85
39
127
44

250
60
19
70
30
97
35
109
41
120
49
187
55

300
80
23
119
36
128
42
144
49
160
58
255
66

350
94
25
142
40
151
46
171
54
189
64
305
72

400
123
28
185
46
198
52
224
62
247
73
393
82

1.12

Pressure powered pump/float trap combination

The use of a condensate pump/trap combination enables complete condensate drainage from
the steam space to be achieved under any load condition. It is relevant on any application
where the steam supply is temperature controlled and it will ensure stable control, prevent
corrosion problems caused by incomplete drainage allied to possible freezing damage in cold
climates and reduce the risk of waterhammer.
In simple terms, Heat Flow Rate Q can be expressed as:Q= UA T
Where

U is the overall heat transfer coefficient

A is the area of heat transfer surfaces
T is the mean temperature difference between T1, the temperature of the heating
medium (steam) and T2, the mean temperature of the fluid being heated.
i.e. T= T1 T2

To obtain condensate discharge through a steam trap there must be a differential pressure
between the trap inlet and trap outlet. The pressure at the trap outlet may be increased by a rise
in the discharge line, or by pressure in the return system.
A reduction in the inlet pressure to the trap (and, therefore, the differential pressure across it) will
be caused by the action of the temperature control valve as it throttles towards the closed position
in response to a signal for a decreased heat output. The lower pressure means that T1 in the above
equation, is being lowered. At some point the pressure differential reaches zero and condensate
will not be discharged through the steam trap. This is known as the "stall" point. Further throttling
action of the control valve will lead to sub-atmospheric conditions within the steam space.
Partial, or even complete, flooding will result with the attendant dangers outlined above.
The use of the "Stall Chart" enables these conditions to be plotted. The use of the
Pump /Trap Combination allows complete condensate drainage under all load variations.

1.13

EDB/1

39.0

240

33.0

230

27.0

220

22.0

210

18.0

200

14.5

190

11.6

180

9.0

170

7.0

160

5.2

150

3.8

140

2.6

130

1.7

120

1.0

110

0.4

100

90

0.7

80

0.5

70

0.3

60

0.2

50

0.12

40

0.07

30

0.05

20
10
0
-10
-20

Pressure bar gauge

250

Pressure - bar absolute (vacuum)

Temperature oC

Stall chart

-30
-40
-50
0

100

EDB/1

10

20

30

90

80

70

40
50
60
70
Turndown percentage
60

50

40

Percentage load

30

80

90

20

10

100

1.14

Sizing the pressure powered pump/float trap combination

1. Using the stall chart, determine the % load at which the stall condition will occur.
2. Select the pressure powered pump based on the stall load, the motive pressure
available and the back pressure.
3. Select the float type steam trap to operate at the maximum differential pressure but
capable of handling 5 times the stall load at a differential pressure of 0.5 bar. This size trap will
allow the pump to operate at its maximum capacity.
The following example, (under case 1 on page 1.16 ) should help.
How to use the stall chart
1. Plot incoming secondary medium temperature (T3) and outgoing secondary
medium temperature (T4) from left to right at bottom of chart.
2. Plot steam supply pressure (P1) at left side of chart and connect line from P1 to T4.
3. Plot point where line P1 to T4 intersects with system backpressure (P2) and drop
straight down to bottom of chart to determine percentage of load at which stall
condition will occur.

Sizing the pump and the trap

1. Determine stall load from stall
chart. (Multiply maximum load of
equipment by percentage at which
stall will occur).
2. Select pressure powered pump
based on available motive steam
pressure and system
backpressure (P2) at stall load.
3. Select float type steam trap
which operates at maximum P
(P1 P2) and passes 5
times the stall load at 0.5 bar P.
Example
Max steam load
= 600 kg/h
Steam supply pressure (P1)
= 7 bar g
System backpressure (P2)
= 2 bar g
Incoming medium temp (T3)
= 25oC
Outgoing medium temp (T4)
= 80oC
Available motive pump pressure
= 7 bar g
1. Stall load = 600 x 60% = 360 kg/h
2. Pump must be capable of
passing 360 kg/h with 7 bar g
motive pressure and 2 bar g
back pressure.
3. Trap must be able to operate at 5
bar g
(7 bar 2 bar) and must pass
5 x 360 = 1,800 kg/h at 0.5 bar
P.

1.15

EDB/1

Other examples of how to use the stall chart

Case I
Turndown means the secondary fluid inlet
temperature increases, so reducing the
heat load to be met.
Step 1
Mark full load steam temperature and
secondary fluid inlet temperature at
design condition, on left axis.
Step 2
Mark control temperature and
temperature of steam at pressure equal
to back pressure, on right axis.
Step 3
Draw horizontal through temperature of
steam at back pressure. (e.g. at 100oC
for atmospheric discharge).
Step 4
Join secondary inlet temperature to
control temperature.
Step 5
Join control temperature to steam
temperature at full load.
Step 6
Where this line intersects back pressure
line, drop a vertical to base line.
Results
This vertical crosses line 4 at inlet
temperature giving stall condition, and
meets base line at corresponding
turndown percentage.

EDB/1

Case II
Turndown means the secondary flowrate
is reduced, so reducing the heat load to
be met.
Steps 1 to 4
As for Case I.
Step 5
Find midpoint of line 4 at 50% ordinate.
Draw a horizontal from this point to right
axis, as mean secondary temperature.
Step 6
Join mean secondary temperature on
right axis to full load steam temperature.
Step 7
As step 6 in case I
Results
This vertical meets base line at
corresponding turndown percentage.
(Note: line 6 must be cut off at control
temperature).

1.16

Steam/fuel wastage through leaks

From chart read off energy loss in kg/h of steam from sharp edged
orifice. Average orifice sizes in traps are:
15mm
20mm
25mm
40mm
50mm

Trap
Trap
Trap
Trap
Trap

=
=
=
=
=

3mm orifice
5mm orifice
7.5mm orifice
10.0mm orifice
12.5mm orifice

Actual energy loss is approximately 50% of sharp edged orifice.

Energy requirements of steam traps (in kg/h of steam equivalent)

Thermostatic
Float
I.B.
Thermodynamic

Through
Trap
0.5
Nil
0.5
0.5

NO LOAD
From
Trap
0.5
1.4
1.2
0.25

Total
1.0
1.4
1.7
0.75

REASONABLE LOAD
Through
From
Total
Trap
Trap
Nil
0.5
0.5
Nil
1.4
1.4
Nil
1.2
1.2
Nil
0.25
0.25

Water and water treatment

pH value
pH is a measure of the degree of acidity or alkalinity of water related to the concentration of hydrogen
ions. In water of absolute purity at 21oC the concentrations of hydrogen and hydroxyl ions are equal
and each may be expressed as 10-7 g/l. It is convenient to use the logarithm to base 10 of this value
and to change the sign; thus the hydrogen ion content of pure water at 21oC is stated as pH 7, the
neutral condition. Water having a deficit of hydrogen ions (pH >7) is alkaline and water having an
excess of hydrogen ions (pH < 7) is acidic. The pH scale extends from 0 to 14. See pH chart for
various liquids- page 1.19.

Hardness
Analysis of the total solids taken into solution as water percolates through a catchment area
reveals various mineral salts. Only salts having soap-destroying properties, namely those of
calcium and magnesium, are considered in the quantitative evaluation of hardness.
Hardness has traditionally been expressed in terms of temporary and permanent components,
the former being that proportion of the total precipitated by boiling. Current practice tends towards
the substitution of a more precise evaluation of water characteristics as carbonate and noncarbonate hardness. Numerically, the carbonate hardness is usually identical with the alkalinity
of the water.
The traditional unit of hardness, the Degree Clark (grains of calcium carbonate per imperial gallon),
has been replaced either by parts per 100,000 or parts per million. The latter scale has the
advantage of being synonymous with the metric equivalent mg/l.
Conversion factors for scales of hardness.
Parts per
million
Units
(mg/l)
One part per million as CaCO3 *
1.0

Parts per
100 000
0.10

Grains per
imperial
gallon
0.07

Grains per
U.S.
gallon
0.058

10.0
1.00
0.70
0.58
One part per 100 000 as CaCO3
One grain per imperial gallon as CaCO3
(= 1 degree Clark)
14.3
1.43
1.00
0.83
17.1
1.71
1.20
1.00
One grain per U.S. gallon as CaCO3
* The convention 'as CaCO3' is arbitrary and expresses the soap-destroying properties of the
water, due to both calcium and magnesium salts, as though they were all due to the presence of
calcium carbonate.

EDB/1

1.18

pH chart
pH: a scale of acidity and alkalinity: pH7= neutral, pH>7= acidic, pH<7= alkaline.
The following chart illustrates typical pH values of various liquids.

pH

Lemon juice 2.3

Wine 2.8 to 3.8
Vinegar 3.1

0.1 Hydrochloric acid (3.6% HCI)

0.3 Sulphuric acid (4.9% H2SO4)

1.1 Hydrochloric acid (0.36% HCI)

1.2 Sulphuric acid (0.49% H2SO4)

2.0 Hydrochloric acid (0.036% HCI)

2.1 Sulphuric acid (0.049% H2SO4)
2.4 Acetic acid (6% CH3COOH)

2.9 (Acetic acid 0.6% CH3COOH)

3.4 Acetic acid (0.6% CH3COOH)

Fruit juice 3.5 to 4.0

Marshy water 4.0

Beer 4.0 to 5.0

5.2 Boric acid (0.2% H3BO3)

6
Milk 6.3 to 6.6
Water, chemically
pure 7.0

8
Sea water 8.3

8.4 Sodium hyd. carb. solution (0.42% NaHCO3)

9
9.2 Borax solution (1.9% Na2B407)

10
10.6 Ammonia solution (0.017% NH3)

11

Lime-water,
saturated 12.3

12

11.1 Ammonia solution (0.17% NH3)

11.3 Sodium carb. solution (0.53% Na2CO3)
11.6 Ammonia solution (1.7% NH3)
12.0 Potassium hyd. solut. (0.056% KOH)
12.0 Sodium hydroxide solut. (0.04% NaOH)

13

13.0 Potassium hydroxide solut. (0.56% KOH)

13.0 Sodium hydroxide solution (0.4% NaOH)

14

14.0 Potassium hyd. sol. (5.6% KOH)

14.0 Sodium hydroxide solution (4% NaOH)

1.19

EDB/1

External (to the boiler) water treatment

Ion change treatment
An ion exchanger is an insoluble material normally made in the form of resin beads of 0.5/1.0 mm
diameter. The resin beads are usually employed in the form of a packed bed contained in a glass
reinforced plastic pressure vessel. The resin beads are porous and hydrophilic - that is, they
absorb water. Within the bead structure are fixed ionic groups with which are associated mobile
exchangeable ions of opposite charge. These mobile ions can be replaced by similarly charges
ions from the salts dissolved in the water surrounding the beads.

Softening
Removal of all the calcium and magnesium ions as defined by the term 'total hardness' can be
achieved by the use of a strong-acid cation resin in the sodium form. This process is commonly
called base exchange softening but is more correctly sodium ion exchange. The process merely
converts calcium and magnesium salts in the water into the corresponding sodium salts. It should
be noted that there is no reduction in the total alkalinity of the water or in the total dissolved solids
level. All sodium salts are soluble and remain in solution at high temperatures and concentrations
- conditions that exist in steam boiler plant. Water softening is one of the simplest forms of external
water treatment and is probably the most widely used for low pressure steam boilers
(e.g < 10 bar g).
Regeneration of the sodium ion exchanger is achieved by passing a solution of sodium chloride
(common salt) through the bed and then by rinsing with raw water. Regeneration is usually carried
out automatically by the operation of solenoid valves and timers. It is triggered by a water meter
and/or a timer. At the design stage the water treatment engineer determines the number of cubic
metres of water that can be passed through the softener (i.e. considering the analysis of the raw
water and the amount of sodium ions held in the resin bed) and then sets up the water meter
accordingly. Note that as the TDS level remains unchanged with this process, it is not possible
to use a conductivity meter to trigger regeneration as the efficiency of the bed falls off . Typical
installations usually have a duty and a standby column.

Brine regeneration
Raw water
TDS = 200ppm

Ca(HCO3) 2
Calcium bicarbonate
MgCI2
Magnesium chloride
Na 2SO 2
Sodium sulphate

2
SAC - Strong acid cation resin
Na+ - Sodium form

SAC
(Na+)

2NaHCO 3
Sodium bicarbonate
2NaCI
Sodium chloride
Na 2SO 2
Sodium sulphate

2 Softened Water TDS = 200ppm

EDB/1

1.20

Dealkalization
Where the alkalinity of the raw water constitutes a high proportion of the total dissolved solids, the
use of a simple softener could result in an undesirably high level of hydroxide and carbonate
alkalinity in the boiler. Additionally, the carbon dioxide formed by the breakdown of sodium
bicarbonate in the boiler will be released into the steam system and on mixing with the condensate
(carbonic acid) could cause corrosion of the condensate return system. In these cases a more
sophisticated ion exchange plant is called for - a dealkalization plant.
Removal of alkaline (or temporary) hardness can be accomplished by passing the raw water
through an ion exchange column containing a weak acid cation resin. Calcium and magnesium
ions, in concentration equivalent to the bicarbonate alkalinity, are exchanged for hydrogen ions
(H+) and these combine with bicarbonate ions (HCO3 ) to form the weakly dissociated carbonic
acid. On leaving the unit the treated water contains only calcium and magnesium due to non-alkaline
hardness and dissolved carbon dioxide equivalent to the alkaline hardness removed. The pH at
this stage is low, typically 4.4-5, owing to the high CO2 content and low total alkalinity. The water
leaving the cation column is then passed to a degassing tower where the carbon dioxide is removed
by the use of mechanical separation and an extraction fan. The third and final stage of the process
is to pass the treated water through a water softener where the non-alkaline hardness and residual
alkaline hardness is removed.
Note that when the cation exchange bed is exhausted, the alkalinity of the water leaving it starts
to rise, at this point a simple pH meter is used to trigger regeneration. Regeneration is effected
by passing a dilute solution of mineral acid through the column followed by flushing with raw water,
prior to returning the column to service.

Ca(HCO3) 2
MgCI2
Na 2SO 4
pH 7.6

2H2CO3
MgCI2
Na 2SO 4
pH 4.5-5.0

H2 O
MgCI2
Na 2SO 4
pH 4.5-5.0

H2 O
MgCI2
Na 2SO 4

H2 O
2NaCl
Na 2SO 4
pH 7.5-8.5

Acid regeneration

Brine regeneration

SAC = Strong acid

cation resin
Na+ = Sodium form

WAC = Weak acid

cation resin

H+ = Hydrogen form

WAC
(H+)

SAC
(Na+)

3
2

Softened water

Add NaOH to raise pH 7.5-8.5

1.21

EDB/1

Demineralization
The complete removal of all dissolved solids can be achieved by ion exchange using a combination
of cation and anion exchange resins. The operation of all ion exchange demineralizers is
conversion of the mineral salts into their corresponding acid by treatment of the water in a strong
acid cation exchanger and the subsequent removal of the acids by degassing and treatment in
an anion exchanger.
Anion exchangers differ from cation exchangers in that the resin is charged with mobile hydroxyl
ions (OH-) which can be changed for any other anion present in the water. Thus salts such as
sodium chloride are 'split' with the chloride ion being deposited onto the resin and the hydroxyl ion
associating with the sodium ion to form sodium hydroxide. Alternatively, when the OH- ion
combines with the H+ ion of the original acid, then water is actually produced. The acid is in effect
eliminated and the water thus demineralized. The type of water treatment is reserved for very
high pressure steam plant such as power stations; alternatively when water of such purity is
required for other process requirements, then it is often used as boiler water make-up. With mixed
bed demineralization (combined cation and anion resins in a common vessel) 'absolute' water
purity down to a conductivity of 0.05 s/cm can be achieved.

Na OH
regeneration

Acid regeneration

Raw water
TDS 300ppm

Cation
resin

Anion
resin

SAC
(H+)

SBA
(OH-)

SAC = Strong acid

cation resin
H+ = Hydrogen form

3
4

EDB/1

SBA = Strong base

anion resin
OH- = Hydroxide form

Ca(HCO3) 2
MgCl2
Na 2SO 4
Na 2SIO 3
pH 7.6

2H2CO3
2NCI
H 2SO4
H 2SIO3
pH 2.0-2.5

H2 O
2HCI
H 2SO4
H 2SIO3
pH 2.0-2.5

H2 O
H2 O
H2 O
H2 O
pH 8.5-9.0

Treated water with almost all

salts removed TDS<5ppm

1.22

Internal (in the boiler) water treatment

Internal treatment may be by carbonate or phosphate control. In the former, sodium carbonate
or sometimes sodium hydroxide is added directly to the boiler water to maintain a controlled reserve
of carbonate alkalinity. This serves to precipitate the hardness salts as calcium carbonate,
magnesium hydroxide or silicate in the form of a mobile non-adherent sludge.
With phosphate control, trisodium phosphate and sodium carbonate (or hydroxide) are dosed
directly into the boiler water. By maintaining a reserve of soluble phosphate in the boiler water
together with a caustic alkalinity of 10/15% of the TDS concentration, the calcium hardness is
caused to precipitate as a calcium phosphate and the magnesium as hydroxide or silicate - soft
sludges.
There is no guarantee that the precipitate formed by internal treatment will have no scale forming
tendencies and indeed will be of adequate mobility since so much depends upon the crystalline
form and the relative proportions of the various precipitates produced. Sludge conditioners such
as organic polymers are often added to the carbonate control to ensure mobility and non-adherent
properties.
In order to reduce corrosion in the boiler it is essential to reduce the level of dissolved oxygen in
the feedwater to a minimum. The first step is taken outside the boiler through the use of deaerators
or simply by keeping the feedtank at as high a temperature as possible - the solubility of oxygen
in water reduces with increased temperature. The second step involves the addition of sodium
sulphite to the boiler which serves to eliminate any residual oxygen and to assist the alkalinity of
the boiler water in creating a protective magnetite film on the metal surfaces. One problem with
the use of sodium sulphite is that it adds to the TDS of the boiler water; an alternative which has
been used for many years especially for high pressure plant is hydrazine, this is toxic however
and cannot be used in food processing plants.

Boiler water TDS measurement

The actual method of measuring the concentration of dissolved solids is not too important since
it is simply a method of predicting the onset of carryover which we require. In practice the modern
method of measuring boiler water dissolved solids is to use a portable conductivity instrument. The
reading obtained in micro Siemens per centimetre (s/cm) is normally converted to total dissolved
solids (TDS) as follows:
Conductivity (s/cm) x 0.7 = TDS in parts per million (ppm).
(The total in total dissolved solids simply indicates that it is the sum or total of all the various
dissolved salts in the sample.)
There is nothing absolute about this relationship, but the factor of 0.7 is approximately valid for a
sample temperature of 25oC and a neutral (ie. not acid or alkaline) pH 7 solution. At higher
temperatures the conductivity increases at the rate of about 2% per oC. Similarly with either acid
or alkaline solutions the conductivity increases for a given TDS so for typical boiler waters which
are maintained alkaline it is necessary to neutralise the sample before measuring its conductivity.
Deciding on the required boiler water TDS
Conventional shell boilers are normally operated with the TDS in the range of 2000 ppm for very
small boilers up to about 3500 ppm for larger boilers. Provided the boiler is operating near to its
design pressure, that the steam load conditions are not too severe and that other boiler water
conditions are correctly controlled, blowing down the boiler to maintain these TDS levels should
ensure that reasonably clean and dry steam is delivered to the plant.
By gradually increasing the boiler water TDS and by measuring the TDS of the condensate from
the first steam trapping point along the steam main the onset of carryover can be determined. The
boiler water TDS should then be controlled below this figure.

1.23

EDB/1

Calculating the required blowdown rate

Before it is possible to select a suitable boiler blowdown TDS control system it is necessary to
estimate the amount of boiler water which has to be blown down. The following information is
required:
1. The required boiler water TDS in parts per million (as decided on page 1.23).
2. The feedwater TDS in parts per million. An average value may be obtained by looking at water
treatment records or a sample of feedwater may be obtained and its conductivity measured.
As with boiler water TDS measurement:
Conductivity (s/cm) x 0.7 = TDS in parts per million (ppm).
Note that the sample of feedwater which is required is from the boiler feed line or from the feed
tank, not a sample of the make-up feedwater.
3. The quantity of steam which the boiler generates, usually measured in kg/h or lb/h. For selecting
a blowdown system, the most important figure is usually the maximum quantity of steam that
the boiler can generate at full load.
When the above information is available the required blowdown rate can be calculated as follows:
Blowdown rate =

F x S
(B - F)

where F = feedwater TDS in ppm

B = required boiler water TDS in ppm
S = steam generation rate in kg/h or lb/h
The blowdown rate is then given in kg/h or lb/h.

Controlling the TDS

The boiler water TDS could obviously be controlled by regular manual testing and manual operation
of the blowdown valve. For reasonably good control on most boilers, however, it would be
necessary to take samples two or three times a day. Most people would consider this unreasonable
and it is the main reason that automatic TDS control systems are installed. Different systems are
available to suit particular boilers but they all offer the following main advantages:
1. Maintain the boiler water TDS near the maximum allowable to minimise heat losses and water
treatment costs.
2. Prevent too high a TDS which would cause dirty steam, product contamination and blocked
steam traps.
3. Help to maintain a clean boiler without scale by ensuring predictable water conditions which can
be correctly treated.
4. Provide these advantages with the minimum of manual attention.

EDB/1

1.24

Steam
Consumption
and Heating

Comparison of steam, high temperature hot water and high

temperature oil systems
STEAM
1 High heat content.
Specific heat of evaporation
approximately 2100 kJ/kg
2 Cheap but some water
treatment cost.
3 Good heat transfer
coefficients.
4 High pressure required for
high temperatures.
5 No circulating pump required.
6 Small pipes.
7 Easy to control with 2-way
valves.
8
9
10
11
12
13
14

HOT WATER
Moderate heat content.
Specific heat capacity
4.2 kJ/kgoC
Cheap. Only occasional
dosing.
Moderate heat transfer
coefficients.
High pressure required for
high temperatures.
Circulating pump required.
Large pipes.
Less easy- 3-way valves or
differential pressure valves
may be required.
Temperature breakdown easy Temperature breakdown
through reducing valve.
less easy.
Steam traps required.
No steam traps.
Condensate to be handled.
No condensate handling.
Flash problems.
No flash problems.
Blowdown loss.
No blowdown loss.
Corrosion problems
Less corrosion.
Reasonable pipework
Searching medium, welded
required.
or flanged joints usual.

15 No fire risk.
16 System flexible.

No fire risk.
System less flexible.

HT OIL
Poor heat content.
Specific heat capacity
1.69 2.93 kJ/kgoC
Expensive.
Relatively poor heat
transfer coefficients.
Low pressures only to
get high temperatures.
Circulating pump required.
Larger pipes.
Less easy- 3-way valves
or differential pressure
valves may be required
Temperature breakdown
less easy.
No steam traps.
No condensate handling.
No flash problems
No blowdown loss.
Negligible corrosion.
Very searching medium,
welded or flanged joints
usual.
Fire risk.
System less flexible.

Categories of hot water heating systems (CIBSE* definition)

Category
LTHW
(Low Temperature Hot Water)
MTHW
(Medium Temperature Hot Water)
HTHW
(High Temperature Hot Water)

Flow Temperature
up to 100oC
100oC 120oC
Over 120oC

*UK-Chartered Institution of Building Services Engineers.

EDB/1

2.01

Steam consumption
Tanks and vats
Any tank or vat which is holding a liquid at a higher temperature than ambient will lose heat. Also,
many applications require the contained liquid to be raised from one temperature to another and
others are open tanks into which articles are dipped for processing. Therefore there are often
differences between start up and running loads. The heat load can be made up of some or all of the
following components:
1. The heat required to raise the temperature of the liquid from cold to its running level.
2. The heat required to raise the temperature of the tank structure from cold to its running level.
3. Heat losses from the surfaces of the tank.
4. Heat loss from the liquid surface.
5. Heat absorbed by cold articles dipped into the tank when the plant is running.
When calculating the starting load, the time that this takes must be determined. After the plant shuts
down at weekends, it is desirable to bring the tanks up to operating temperature as quickly as
possible on a Monday morning. However, unless the operating temperature is low, it may not be
feasible to have sufficient heating surface in the tank to warm up the contents very quickly. In
addition, the effect on the boiler plant and mains of a sudden peak heating up load must not be
overlooked, particularly in cold weather when heating systems will be on as well. Taking these
factors into account, a good average heating up time, in practice, is about 3 to 4 hours. Let us now
consider each component of the total heat load.
Raising the liquid temperature
Q = M x Cp x (T-t)
Where Q =
M =
Cp =
t =
T =

Heat load .................................................. kJ

Mass of liquid ............................................ kg
Specific heat capacity of the liquid .. kJ/kg oC
Initial temperature ..................................... oC
Final temperature ..................................... oC

Both the relative density and the specific heat capacity of plating solutions are taken to be that of
water. The rate of heat input is then the heat required divided by the warming up time.
Raising the tank structure temperature
Heat is also required to raise the temperature of the tank structure and any conveyors used to carry
articles through the liquid. In the majority of cases this is so small in comparison with the other heat
requirements that it can be ignored.
Heat emission from plane surfaces
Heat transfer coefficients from flat vertical surfaces to air
o
Temperature difference C
30
50
70
90
110
130
150
170
o
Heat loss (approx) W/m2 C diff 10.7
11.5
12.4
13.3
14.3
15.5
16.7
17.9
For plain horizontal surfaces losing heat upwards, multiply the above figures by 1.3. For plain
horizontal surfaces losing heat downwards multiply by 0.65.
Heat losses from liquid surface
These are best determined by the use of the chart on page 2.03.
How to use the chart
Select the water surface temperature from the top scale and project a line downwards to the heat
loss curve. For still air conditions project a line horizontally from the intersection and read off the
heat loss from the left hand scale. If the air velocity is known, then project the horizontal line right
or left until it cuts the required velocity line, then project vertically down to the bottom scale from which
the heat loss can be read.

2.02

EDB/1

Heat absorbed by material being processed

This is readily calculated from the formula:
Heat absorbed = mass of material x specific heat capacity x temperature rise
Warming up
Total Heat Load = Heat to raise solution temperature + heat loss from tank surfaces + heat loss from
solution surface.
Running load
Total Running Load = Heat absorbed by immersed product (if applicable) + heat loss from tank
surfaces + heat loss from solution surface.

Heat loss from water surfaces

Bulk oil storage tanks

Heat losses from tanks

Position
Tank sheltered
Tank exposed
Tank in pit

EDB/1

Oil temperature
Up to 10oC
Up to 27oC
Up to 38oC
Up to 10oC
Up to 27oC
Up to 38oC
All temperatures

Heat transfer coefficient in W/m2 oC

temperature difference between oil
and surrounding air
Unlagged
Lagged
6.81
1.70
7.38
1.84
7.95
1.99
7.95
1.99
8.52
2.13
9.08
2.27
6.81

2.03

Warming up load
QS = m x Cp x ( T- t )
Where QS
m
Cp
T
t

=
=
=
=
=

Heat required .......................................................... kJ

Mass of oil .............................................................. kg
Specific heat capacity of oil .......................... kJ/kg OC
Final oil temperature .............................................. OC
Initial oil temperature .............................................. OC

Running load
Qr = U x A x ( T- ta )
Where Qr
U
A
T
ta

= Heat required ............................................................ kW

= Overall heat transfer coefficient ...................... W/m2 OC
= Heat transfer surface area ......................................... m2
= Tank temperature ..................................................... OC
= Ambient air temperature ........................................... OC

The running losses will be affected by:

(a) Average temperature of the tank and its contents. Note: during the warm up period an arithmetic
mean of initial and final temperatures is normally used.
(b) The effect of lagging the tank.
(c) The effect of exposure to wind.
The influence of these can be accounted for by changing the overall heat transfer coefficient.

Steam coil sizing

The coil surface area required is calculated using the formula:Q = U x A x ( T1 - T2 )
Where Q
U

=
=

A
T1
T2

=
=
=

Rate of heat output from the coil to the liquid ................ W

Heat transfer coefficient from the steam
in the coil to the liquid .......................................... W/m2 OC
The surface area of coil ................................................ m2
The mean temperature of the heating surface .............. OC
Mean temperature of the liquid ...................................... OC

Heat transfer coefficients from pipes submerged in oils/fats

Published Overall Heat Transfer Rates
W/m2 OC
Tank Coils, Steam/light oils - natural convection
170
Tank Coils, Steam/light oils - forced convection
568
Tank Coils, Steam/medium oils - forced convection
341
Tank Coils, Steam/heavy oils - natural convection
85 - 113
Tank Coils, Steam/heavy oils - forced convection
170
Tank Coils, Steam/fats* - natural convection
28 - 57
Tank Coils, Steam/molasses + - forced convection
85
* certain materials such as tallow and margarine are solid at normal temperatures but have quite
low viscosities in the molten state.
+ commercial molasses frequently contains water and the viscosity is much lower.

2.04

EDB/1

Heat transfer coefficients from pipes submerged in water

W/m2 OC
568 to 1277
993 to 1703
1277 to 2697

Published Overall Heat Transfer Rates

Tank Coils, Steam/Water (Temperature difference 28OC)
Tank Coils, Steam/Water (Temperature difference 56OC)
Tank Coils, Steam/Water (Temperature difference 111OC)

Surface areas of steel pipes

Nominal bore
10 mm (3/8")
Surface m2/m length
0.054

15 mm (1/2")
0.067

20 mm (3/4")
0.085

25 mm (1")
0.106

32 mm (11/4")
0.134

Nominal bore
40 mm (11/2") 50 mm (2")
Surface m2/m length
0.152
0.189

65 mm (21/2")
0.239

80 mm (3")
0.279

100 mm (4")
0.358

Air heater batteries steam consumption

Most manufacturers of unit heaters and air heater batteries quote the output of their heaters in W.
From this the condensation rate can be calculated by dividing the heat output by the specific heat
of evaporation (hfg) at the relevant steam pressure. Thus a 44,000W unit heater operating at 3.5
bar g will condense:
44,000 W x 3.6 = 74.7 kg/h
2120 kJ/kg
Note: to enable the condensation rate to be expressed in kg/h instead of g/s, the constant 3.6 has
been added to the calculation.
If the manufacturers figures are not available, but the volume of air being heated, the temperature
rise and the steam pressure are known, the approximate condensation rate can be calculated from
the following formula:
W = V x 60 x t x Cp
hfg
Where W
V
t
Cp
hfg

=
=
=
=
=

Steam consumption ............................................. kg/h

Volume of air heated .................................. m3/minute
Temperature rise .................................................... OC
Specific heat of air at constant pressure 1.3 kJ/m3 OC
Specific enthalpy of evaporation ....................... kJ/kg

Heating calorifiers
Manufacturers usually declare the ratings of their heating calorifiers in W or kW and from this rating
the condensation rate can be calculated as for air heater batteries; however care should be taken
as calorifiers are often too large for the systems they are asked to serve. The initial heat load
calculations for the building will have included safety factors and the calorifier itself will have been
selected from a standard range with the probability that it will have a somewhat larger output than
the design figure. An idea of the actual load at any time can sometimes be obtained if flow and return
temperatures and the pumping rate are known.

EDB/1

2.05

Hot water storage calorifiers

Hot water storage calorifiers are designed to raise the temperature of the entire contents from cold
to the storage temperature within a specified period. The average rate at which steam is condensed
during the recovery period is calculated using the following formula:Q=WxCxt
hfg x H
Where Q = Rate of condensation .......................................... kg/h
W = Mass of water heated ............................................. kg
C = Specific heat capacity of water ........... 4.186 kJ/kg OC
t
= Temperature rise .................................................... OC
hfg = Specific enthalpy of evaporation ....................... kJ/kg
H = Recovery time .......................................................... h

Air heating pipes

These are simple pipes with steam passing through them - the most simple form of heat exchanger.
The pipes are commonly used to provide background heating and may be in the form of single or
multiple pipes arranged horizontally or vertically. Pipes arranged into horizontal coils with several
rows of pipes one above the other and without any means of blowing air over them, become less
efficient as the number of pipes increase. A table covering such efficiency factors is shown below.
Heating pipes installed vertically are also less efficient than horizontal pipes - see table below. When
a fan is used to blow air over the pipe coils the heat emission is improved and the rate of condensation
is increased. The table below shows the increase factor. The steam consumption can be
determined using the formula:
Q = E x l x 3.6
hfg
Where Q = Rate of condensation ......................................... kg/h
E = Heat emission from page 1.11 ............................ W/m
l
= Effective length of pipe ........................................... m
hfg = Specific enthalpy of evaporation at the
steam pressure .................................................. kJ/kg
3.6 = constant to give Q in kg/h
Approximate reduction in efficiency of banked pipes
No. of pipes high
1
2
3
4
5
Efficiency factor
1.0 0.96 0.91 0.86 0.82
Approximate reduction in efficiency of vertical pipes
Pipe size
1/2" 3/4"
1"
11/4"
Efficiency factor
0.76 0.80 0.82 0.84

11/2"
0.86

6
0.78

7
0.74

2" 21/2"
0.88 0.91

8
0.70
3"
0.93

9
0.67
4"
0.95

10
0.63
6"
1.0

Approximate effect of air movement on heat emission from fully exposed pipes
Air velocity
Heat emission factor
m/min
m/s
km/h
Still
Still
Still
1.0
60
1
3.6
1.4
180
3
10.8
2.1
300
5
18.0
2.7
420
7
25.2
3.3
540
9
32.4
3.9
660
11
39.6
4.3
780
13
46.8
4.7
900
15
54.0
5.1

Drying cylinders
Drying cylinders vary considerably and it is generally best to consult the manufacturer for details of
steam consumption or alternatively measure it directly by practical test. However, where the amount
of moisture to be removed is known, the steam consumption can be calculated from the following
formula, assuming that the wet and dry masses of the material being handled are known.

2.06

EDB/1

Q = 1.5 ( MW - Md ) x 2550 + 1.26 Md ( T - t )

hfg
Where Q
MW
Md
T
t
hfg

=
=
=
=
=
=

Mass flow rate of steam ..................................... kg/h

Wet mass of material .......................................... kg/h
Dry mass of material .......................................... kg/h
Temperature of material leaving machine ............. OC
Temperature of material on to machine ................. OC
Specific enthalpy of evaporation (steam) .......... kJ/kg

Constants
1.5 = Factor applied to cylinder dryers.
2550 = Average enthalpy required to evaporate moisture.
1.26 = Average specific heat capacity of material.

Steam loads
Almost all heat loads fall into one of two categories. Either some material is to be heated from a lower
temperature to a higher one - or is to be maintained at a high temperature while heat is supplied at
a rate sufficient to balance the heat losses. In the first case the amount of heat needed to produce
the change in temperature is given by:
Q = M x C x t
Where Q
M
C
t

=
=
=
=

Heat load ................................................................ kJ

Mass of material .................................................... kg
Specific heat capacity .................................. kJ/kg OC
Temperature rise ................................................... OC

More usefully, since the steam flow rate is sought, rather than the mass of steam:
q = Q = M x C x t
h
h
Where q
h

=
=

Heat flow rate ................................................ kJ/h

time available .................................................... h

Then if hfg

Specific enthalpy of evaporation of the steam at the relevant pressure, then

QS = M x C x t
hfg x h

QS =
hfg =

Mass flow rate of steam ............................... kg/h

Specific enthalpy of evaporation ................. kJ/kg

The second case is the supply of heat at a rate which balances the heat losses, and here the heat
load is given by:
qr = U x A x t
Where qr = Heat flow rate ................................................ kJ/h
U = Heat transfer rate coefficient
(through the surface involved) .............. kJ/m2 OCh
t = Temperature difference
(across surface involved) ................................ OC
A = Area of surface involved .................................. m2
Then if hfg =

Specific enthalpy of evaporation of the steam at the relevant pressure,

Qr = U x A x t
hfg

Where Qr =

EDB/1

Mass flow rate of steam ............................... kg/h

2.07

Relative densities/specific heat capacities of various materials

Material

Relative
Density
2.55-2.8

Aluminium
Andalusite
Antimony
Apatite
Asbestos
2.1-2.8
Augite
Bakelite, wood filler
1.38
Bakelite, asbestos filler
Barite
4.5
Barium
3.5
Basalt rock
2.7-3.2
Beryl
Bismuth
9.8
Borax
1.7-1.8
Boron
2.32
Cadmium
8.65
o
Calcite 0 - 37 C
o
Calcite 0 - 100 C
Calcium
4.58
Carbon
1.8-2.1
Carborundum
Cassiterite
Cement, dry
Cement, powder
Charcoal
Chalcopyrite
Chromium
7.1
Clay
1.8-2.6
Coal
0.64-0.93
Cobalt
8.9
Concrete, stone
Concrete, cinder
Copper
8.8-8.95
Corundum
Diamond
3.51
Dolomite rock
2.9
Fluorite
Fluorspar
Galena

2.08

SHC
o
kJ/kg C
0.92
0.71
0.2
0.83
0.83
0.79
1.59
0.46
2.93
0.83
0.83
0.12
1.0
1.29
0.25
0.79
0.83
0.62
0.71
0.66
0.37
1.54
0.83
1.0
0.54
0.5
0.92
1.08-1.54
0.46
0.79
0.75
0.37
0.41
0.62
0.92
0.92
0.87
0.2

Relative
Material
Density
Garnet
Glass, common
2.4-2.8
Glass, crystal
2.9-3.0
Glass, plate
2.45-2.72
Glass, wool
Gold
19.25-19.35
Granite
2.4-2.7
Haematite
5.2
Homblende
3.0
Hypersthene
o
Ice, -79 C
o
Ice, -40 C
o
Ice, -20 C
o
Ice, 0 F
Iridium
21.78-22.42
Iron, cast
7.03-7.13
Iron, wrought
7.6-7.9
Labradorite
Lava
Lead
11.34
Limestone
2.1-2.86
Magnetite
3.2
Magnesium
1.74
Malachite
Manganese
7.42
Marble
2.6-2.86
Mercury
13.6
Mica
Molybdenum
10.2
Nickel
8.9
Oligloclose
Orthoclose
Plaster of Paris
Platinum
21.45
Porcelain
Potassium
0.86
Pyrexglass
Pyrolusite
Pyroxylin plastics

SHC
o
KJ/kg C
0.75
0.83
0.5
0.5
0.66
0.12
0.79
0.66
0.83
0.79
1.46
1.79
1.96
2.05
0.12
0.5
0.5
0.79
0.83
0.12
0.92
0.66
1.04
0.75
0.46
0.79
0.12
0.87
0.25
0.46
0.87
0.79
4.77
0.12
1.08
0.54
0.83
0.66
1.42-1.59

EDB/1

Relative densities/specific heat capacities of various materials

Material

Relative
Density
2.5-2.8

Quartz, 12.8-100C
Quartz, 0C
Rock salt
Rubber
Sandstone
2.0-2.6
Serpentine
2.7-2.8
Silk
Silver
10.4-10.6
Sodium
0.97
Steel
7.8
Stone
Stoneware
Talc
2.6-2.8

SHC
kJ/kgC
0.79
0.71
0.92
2.0
0.92
1.08
1.38
0.25
1.25
0.5
0.83
0.79
0.87

Material
Tar
Tellurium
Tin
Tile, hollow
Titanium
Topaz
Tungsten
Vanadium
Vulcanite
Wood
Wool
Zinc blend
Zinc

Relative
Density
1.2
6.0-6.24
7.2-7.5
4.5
19.22
5.96
0.35-0.99
1.32
3.9-4.2
6.9-7.2

SHC
kJ/kgC
1.46
0.2
0.2
0.62
0.58
0.87
0.16
0.5
1.38
1.33-2.0
1.38
0.46
0.37

Relative densities/specific heat capacities of various liquids

Liquid

Relative
SHC
Density kJ/kgC
Acetone
0.790
2.13
Alcohol, ethyl, 0C
0.789
2.30
Alcohol, ethyl, 40C
0.789
2.72
Alcohol,methyl, 4-10C
0.796
2.46
Alcohol,methyl, 15-21C 0.796
2.51
Ammonia 0C
0.62
4.6
Ammonia 40C
4.85
Ammonia 80C
5.39
Ammonia 100C
6.19
Ammonia 114C
6.73
Anilin
1.02
2.17
Benzol
1.75
Calcium chloride
1.20
3.05
Castor oil
1.79
Citron oil
1.84
Diphenylamine
1.16
1.92
Ethyl ether
2.21
Ethylene Glycol
2.21
Fuel oil
0.96
1.67
Fuel oil
0.91
1.84

EDB/1

Liquid

Relative
Density
0.86
0.81

Fuel oil
Fuel oil
Gasoline
Glycerine
1.26
Kerosene
Mercury
19.6
Naphthalene
1.14
Nitrobenzole
Olive oil
0.91-0.94
Petroleum
Potassium hydrate
1.24
Sea water
1.0235
Sesame oil
Sodium chloride
1.19
Sodium hydrate
1.27
Soybean oil
Toluol
0.866
Turpentine
0.87
Water
1
Xylene
0.861-0.881

SHC
kJ/kgC
1.88
2.09
2.21
2.42
2.0
1.38
1.71
1.5
1.96
2.13
3.68
3.93
1.63
3.3
3.93
1.96
1.5
1.71
4.18
1.71

2.09

Specific heat capacities of gases and vapours

Gas or vapour
Acetone
o
Air, dry, 10 C
o
Air, dry, 0 - 199 C
o
Air, dry, 20 - 440 C
o
Air, dry, 20 - 461 C
o
Air, dry, 20 - 798 C
Alcohol, C2 H5 OH
Alcohol, CH3 OH
Ammonia
Argon
Benzene, C6 H6
Bromine
Carbon dioxide
Carbon monoxide
Carbon disulphide
Chlorine

2.10

Specific heat
capacity
o
kJ/kg C
(constant pressure)
1.31
0.71
0.72
0.74
0.77
0.78
1.66
1.53
1.76
0.3
0.98
0.19
0.62
0.71
0.55
3.43

Specific heat
capacity
o
Gas or vapour
kJ/kg C
(constant pressure)
Chloroform
0.54
Ether
1.95
Hydrochloric acid
0.56
Hydrogen
10.0
Hydrogen sulphide
0.79
Methane
1.86
Nitrogen
0.71
Nitric oxide
0.69
Nitrogen tetroxide
4.59
Nitrous oxide
0.69
Oxygen
0.65
o
Steam, 0.68 bar 49 - 315 C
1.46
o
Steam, 1 bar 104 - 315 C
1.5
o
10 bar 182 - 315 C
1.76
Sulphur dioxide
0.49

EDB/1

Heat transmission of jacketed vessels: overall coefficients

Overall U *
o
W/m2 C
850-1700
450-1140
285-850
340-910
57-285

Jacketed Fluid
Steam
Steam
Steam
Steam
Steam

Heated Fluid
Water
Aqueous solution
Organics
Light Oil
Heavy Oil

Wall Material
Stainless steel
Stainless steel
Stainless steel
Stainless steel
Stainless steel

Brine
Brine
Brine
Brine
Brine

Water
Aqueous solution
Organics
Light Oil
Heavy Oil

Stainless
Stainless
Stainless
Stainless
Stainless

steel
steel
steel
steel
steel

230-1625
200-850
170-680
200-740
57-170

Water
Aqueous solution
Organics
Light oil
Heavy oil

Stainless
Stainless
Stainless
Stainless
Stainless

steel
steel
steel
steel
steel

285-1140
230-965
170-680
200-740
57-230

Steam
Steam
Steam
Steam
Steam

Water
Aqueous solution
Organics
Light oil
Heavy oil

Glass
Glass
Glass
Glass
Glass

lined
lined
lined
lined
lined

CS
CS
CS
CS
CS

400-570
285-480
170-400
230-425
57-230

Brine
Brine
Brine
Brine
Brine

Water
Aqueous solution
Organics
Light oil
Heavy oil

Glass
Glass
Glass
Glass
Glass

lined
lined
lined
lined
lined

CS
CS
CS
CS
CS

170-450
140-400
115-340
140-370
57-170

Water
Aqueous solution
Organics
Light oil
Heavy oil

Glass
Glass
Glass
Glass
Glass

lined
lined
lined
lined
lined

CS
CS
CS
CS
CS

170-450
140-400
140-370
115-400
57-200

Heat
Heat
Heat
Heat
Heat

Heat
Heat
Heat
Heat
Heat

transfer
transfer
transfer
transfer
transfer

transfer
transfer
transfer
transfer
transfer

oil
oil
oil
oil
oil

oil
oil
oil
oil
oil

* Values listed are for moderate nonproximity agitation. CS = carbon steel.

Estimating steam tracer loads

Data needed for calculation
It is necessary to specify:
a) The size and length of the process line to be traced.
b) The temperature to be maintained, Tp.
c) The thickness of the insulation.
d) The minimum ambient temperature, t m.
e) The steam pressure to be used in the tracer, and its temperature. Tt.
Note that the method allows for wind of 32 km/h (20 mph) which increases the heat loss from the
line. Where the line is within a building, the loss is reduced by a factor which varies with pipe and
insulation thickness but is usually only about 5%.
Method
Step 1) Find the mean of the process pipe and tracer line temperatures. Tpt ave = 1/2 (Tp + Tt)
Step 2) Subtract the minimum ambient temperature. T1 = Tpt ave. t m
Step 3) Locate ] T1, in the abscissa of Fig. 1, and follow a vertical from this point to the intersection
with the process pipe size. Read, to the left, the Heat Loss in W/m. (This heat loss is on the
basis of 2" 50mm insulation thickness).

EDB/1

2.11

Step 4) Locate in Fig. 2 the intersection of the actual insulation thickness and the pipe size. Read,
to the left, a multiplying factor F1.
Step 5) Find the average temperature of the insulation, T1 ave = 1/2 (Tpt + t m).
The conductivity of the insulation varies with this temperature.
Step 6) Locate in Fig. 3 the intersection of T1 ave and the sloping line and read, to the left, a
multiplying factor F2.
Step 7) Multiply the heat loss from Step 3 by F1 and F2. Corrected Heat Loss = W/m x F1 x F2. This
amount of heat must be supplied through the tracer. Multiplying by the length of the line in
m will give the total heat flow in W. Dividing this value by the specific enthalpy of evaporation
in J/kg gives the total steam load in kg/s.
Step 8) Subtract the temperature to be maintained, Tp, from the steam temperature Tt.
T2 = Tt Tp.
Step 9) In Fig. 4 follow a vertical from T2 to the required heat input in W/m, and read the number
and size of tracers next about the intersection point. Tracer outputs in Fig. 4 are based on
steel pipe, in inch sizes, or copper tube in mm sizes. The output from SS tube although a little
less than that of copper tube is sufficiently close that Fig.4 may be used in either case.

Fig. 1 Heat loss in W/m, at T1

Fig. 3 Correction for insulation temperature

2.12

EDB/1

Fig. 2 Correction for insulation thickness

Fig. 4 Tracer heat flow

EDB/1

2.13

No. of 1/ 2" Tracers from local distribution header

Header Size
20mm 3/ 4"
25mm 1"
40mm 11/ 2"
50mm 2"

No. of 15mm/1/2" Tracers

2
35
6 - 15
16 30

Steam connection size for jacketed lines

Product Line
65mm 21/ 2"
80mm 3"
100mm 4"
150mm 6"
200mm 8"
250mm 10"

2.14

Jacket Diameter
100mm 4"
150mm 6"
150mm 6"
200mm 8"
250mm 10"
300mm 12"

Steam Connection
1
15mm
/ 2"
3
20mm
/4"
3
20mm
/4"
3
20mm
/4"
25mm
1"
25mm
1"

EDB/1

Estimating steam flowrates for water heating

The following chart enables an estimate to be made of the steam flowrate required to heat up a tank
in one hour or to produce a particular temperature rise in a boiler feedtank. For boiler feedtanks note
that Feedwater flowrate = Steam Generation Rate + Blowdown Rate.

Examples:
1. My tank size is 1.5 x 2 x 1.5m high. I want to heat it up from 20 to 40oC in an hour. Assume the
tank is full. The tank volume = 4.5 m3 = 4500 l (4500 kg). From the graph the required injected steam
rate = 155 kg/h.
2. My tank is the same as example 1, but I want to heat it up in 20 minutes. Since it is required to
heat it up 3 times faster, then the injected steam rate will be three times as great i.e. 465 kg/h.
3. I want to heat up my boiler hotwell from 30 to 90oC. I have two boilers steaming all year round.
They are each generating a maximum of 10 000 lb/h and my blowdown rate is 5%. Total steam
generation rate = 20 000 lb/h. Total blowdown rate = 5% of 20 000 = 1 000 lb/h. Hence, feedwater
flowrate = 20 000 + 1 000 = 21 000 lb/h. From the graph the required injected steam rate = 1 000
kg/h.

EDB/1

2.15

Space heating information

Units
The specific heat capacity of a substance is defined as the heat required to raise unit mass (1 kg)
through 1oC. Units are J/kgoC more commonly used in kJ/kgoC form.
Note: Water has a specific heat capacity of 4187 J/kgoC = 4.187 kJ/kgoC.
Intensity of Heat Flow Rate or
Density of Heat Flow Rate
Heat Transfer Coefficient or
Thermal Conductivity
Flow rate, mass
Flow rate, volume
Heat per unit mass

W/m2
W/m2 oC
kg/s
m3/s or l/s
kJ/kg

Rule of thumb heat loss

Dwellings
Buildings up to 3000m3
Buildings above 3000m3

40 to 60 W/m3
30 to 40 W/m3
15 to 30 W/m3

Heat losses
The rate of heat loss due to air change is normally obtained from:Q = V x c x (t1 t2)
Where:- V = rate of ventilation m3/s
c = Specific heat capacity J/m3 oC
Q = Rate of heat loss J/s or W
Note: Specific heat of air is 1200 J/m3 oC.
Using standard values this simplifies to:
Q = 0.33 N V (t1 t2)
where:- N
V
t1
t2

=
=
=
=

number of air changes

room volume m3
internal temperature
external temperature

Typical air infiltration rates for normal winter heating excluding mechanical ventilation
Building
Art Gallery
Bank
Church

1
1 1

Restaurant

Flats
Living rooms
Bedrooms

Offices
Shops

2.16

Air infiltration rate (change/ h)

1
1

EDB/1

Ventilation requirements (mechanical ventilation) for various building types

Building

Air changes/ h

Boiler houses

15/30

Banks

Conference rooms

6/10

Dining halls/ restaurants

10/15

Kitchens (Industrial/hotel)

20

Laundries

10/15

Libraries, museums and galleries

3/4

Theatres

6/10

U values, definitions and symbols

Thermal conductivity

Thermal resistivity

1/k

The thermal transmission in unit time through unit area

of a slab, of a uniform homogeneous material of unit
thickness, when unit difference of temperature is
established between its surfaces (W/moC)
The reciprocal of thermal conductivity (moC/W)

Thermal conductance = k/L

The thermal transmission in unit time through unit area

of a uniform structural component or structure of thickness
L, per unit of temperature difference between the hot and
cold surfaces (W/m2 oC)

Thermal resistance

The reciprocal of thermal conductance (m2 oC/W)

Thermal transmittance

The thermal transmission in unit time through unit area

of a given structure (e.g. a wall consisting of bricks,
thermal insulation, cavities etc.) divided by the difference
between the environmental temperature on either side
of the structure (W/m2 oC)

Standard thermal transmittance

The value for the thermal transmittance of a building

element (standard U value) related to standard conditions
(W/m2 oC)

Design thermal transmittance

(Design U value)

A value of the thermal transmittance of a building element

for the prevailing design conditions (W/m2 oC)

EDB/1

2.17

U values for external walls (Masonry construction)

Construction

U value (W/m2 oC)

Normal
Sheltered (standard) Severe

Brickwork
Solid wall, unplastered .......................................... 105 mm
.............................................................................. 220 mm
.............................................................................. 335 mm

3.0
2.2
1.6

3.3
2.3
1.7

3.6
2.4
1.8

Solid wall, with 16mm plaster on inside face

(a) With dense plaster ........................................... 105 mm
............................................................................. 220 mm
.............................................................................. 335 mm
(b) With lightweight plaster .................................... 105 mm
.............................................................................. 220 mm
............................................................................. 335 mm

2.8
2.0
1.6
2.3
1.8
1.4

3.0
2.1
1.7
2.5
1.9
1.5

3.2
2.2
1.8
2.7
2.0
1.6

Solid wall, with 10mm plasterboard lining fixed to

brickwork with plaster dabs ................................... 105 mm
.............................................................................. 220 mm
............................................................................. 335 mm

2.6
1.9
1.5

2.8
2.0
1.6

3.0
2.1
1.7

Cavity wall (unventilated) with 105mm outer and

inner leaves with 16mm plaster on inside face ...... 260 mm
(a) With dense plaster ........................................................
(b) With lightweight plaster .................................................

1.4
1.3

1.5
1.3

1.6
1.3

As 4, but with 230mm outer leaf and

105mm inner leaf 375 mm
(a) With dense plaster ........................................................
(b) With lightweight plaster .................................................

1.2
1.1

1.2
1.1

1.2
1.1

Brickwork/lightweight concrete block

Cavity wall (unventilated), with 105mm brick outer leaf
100mm lightweight concrete block inner leaf and with
16mm dense plaster on inside face ....................... 260 mm

0.93

0.96

0.98

As 6, but with 13mm expanded polystyrene board

in cavity ..............................................................................

0.69

0.70

0.71

Lightweight concrete block

Solid wall, 150mm aerated concrete block, with tile
hanging externally and with 16mm plaster on
inside face ..........................................................................

0.95

0.97

1.0

Cavity wall (unventilated), with 75mm aerated concrete

block outer leaf, rendered externally, 100mm aerated
concrete block inner leaf and with 16mm plaster on inside
face 50mm cavity ...............................................................

0.82

0.84

0.86

10. Concrete Cast ........................................................ 150mm

............................................................................... 200mm

3.2
2.9

3.5
3.1

3.9
3.4

11. Cast, 150mm thick, with 50mm woodwool slab

permanent shuttering on inside face finished with
16mm dense plaster ...........................................................

1.1

1.1

1.1

12. As 11, but 200mm thick ......................................................

1.1

1.1

1.1

13. Pre-cast panels, 75mm thick ..............................................

3.9

4.3

4.8

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

2.18

EDB/1

U values for external walls (Masonry construction) (cont'd)

Construction

U value (W/m2 oC)

Normal
Sheltered (standard) Severe

14. As 13, but with 50mm cavity and sandwhich lining

panels, composed of 5mm asbestos-cement sheet,
25mm expanded polystyrene and 10mm plasterboard ......

0.79

0.80

0.82

15. Pre-cast sandwhich panels comprising 75mm dense

concrete, 25mm expanded polystyrene and 150mm
lightweight concrete. ..........................................................

0.71

0.72

0.73

16. Pre-cast panels 38mm on timber battens and framing

with 10mm platerboard lining and 50mm glass-fibre
insulation in cavity
(Assumed 10% area of glass fibre bridged by timber) ........

0.61

0.62

0.63

U values for external walls (Curtain wall construction)

Construction

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

Composite cladding panels

Comprising 25mm expanded polystyrene between 5mm
asbestos- cement sheets set in metal framing, 50mm
cavity, 100mm lightweight concrete block inner wall,
finished with 16mm plaster rendering on inside face ..........
(Assumed 5% area of expanded polystyrene bridged by
metal framing)

U value (W/m2 oC)

Normal
Sheltered (standard) Severe

0.79

0.81

0.83

Obscured glass, 38mm expanded polystyrene cavity

100mm lightweight concrete back-up wall,
dense plaster ......................................................................

0.51

0.51

0.52

Stove-enamelled steel sheet, 10mm asbestos board,

cavity, 100mm lightweight concrete back-up wall,
dense plaster ......................................................................

1.1

1.1

1.1

Curtain walling panelling with 5% bridging by metal

mullions, 150 mm x 50 mm wide
With mullion projecting outside, flush inside:
Panel construction 2 ...........................................................
Panel construction 3 ..........................................................

0.8
1.4

0.9
1.4

0.9
1.5

With mullion projecting inside and outside:

Panel construction 2 ...........................................................
Panel construction 3 ..........................................................

1.3
1.9

1.5
2.1

1.8
2.4

Curtain walling panelling with 10% bridging by

metal mullions 150 mm x 50 mm wide
With mullion projecting outside, flush inside:
Panel construction 2 ...........................................................
Panel construction 3 ..........................................................

1.2
1.7

1.2
1.7

1.3
1.8

With mullion projecting inside and outside:

Panel construction 2 ...........................................................
Panel construction 3 ...........................................................

2.2
2.7

2.5
3.1

3.0
3.6

EDB/1

2.19

U values for external walls (Framed construction)

Construction

1.

Tile Hanging
On timber battens and framing with 10mm plasterboard
lining, 50mm glass-fibre insulation in the cavity and
building paper behind the battens .......................................
(Assumed 10% area of glass fibre bridged by timber)

U value (W/m2 oC)

Normal
Sheltered (standard) Severe

0.64

0.65

0.66

0.61

0.62

0.63

4.7

5.3

6.1

As 3, but with cavity and aluminium foil-backed

plasterboard lining ...............................................................

1.7

1.8

1.9

Double-skin asbestos-cement with 25mm glass-fibre

insulation in between ..........................................................

1.1

1.1

1.1

As 5, but with cavity and aluminium foil-backed

plasterboard lining ...............................................................

0.76

0.78

0.79

Aluminium:
(a) Bright surface outside and inside ..................................
(b) Dull surface outside, bright surface inside .....................

2.4
2.6

2.6
2.8

2.9
3.0

As 7, but with cavity and aluminium foil-backed

plasterboard lining:
(a) Bright surface outside ...................................................
(b) Dull surface outside .......................................................

1.7
1.8

1.8
1.9

1.9
2.0

Plastic-covered steel ..........................................................

5.0

5.7

6.6

10. As 9, but with cavity and aluminium foil-backed

plasterboard lining ...............................................................

1.8

1.9

2.0

2.

3.

4.
5.
6.
7.

8.

9.

Weatherboarding
On timber framing with 10mm plasterboard lining, 50mm
glass-fibre insulation in the cavity and building paper
behind the boarding ............................................................
(Assumed 10% area of glass fibre bridged by timer)
Corrugated sheeting
5mm thick asbestos-cement ...............................................
(No allowance has been made for effect of corrugations on
heat loss)

2.20

EDB/1

U values for flat or pitched roofs

Construction
1.

U value (W/m2 oC)

Normal
Sheltered (standard) Severe

Asphalt 19mm thick or felt/bitumen layers * on solid

concrete 150mm thick (treated as exposed) ......................

3.1

3.4

3.7

As 1, but with 50mm lightweight concrete screed and

16mm plaster ceiling ..........................................................

2.1

2.2

2.3

3.

As 2, but with screed laid to falls, average 100mm thick ....

1.7

1.8

1.9

4.

Asphalt 19mm thick or felt/bitumen layers * on 150mm

thick autoclaved aerated concrete roof slabs .....................

0.87

0.88

0.89

Asphalt 19mm thick or felt/bitumen layers * on hollow tiles

150mm thick .......................................................................

2.1

2.2

2.3

As 5, but with 50mm lightweight concrete screed and

16mm plaster ceiling ..........................................................

1.5

1.6

1.7

7.

As 6, but with screed laid to falls, average 100mm thick ....

1.4

1.4

1.5

8.

Asphalt 19mm thick or felt/bitumen layers * on 13mm

cement and sand screed, 50mm woodwool slabs on
timber joists and aluminium foil-backed 10mm
plasterboard ceiling, sealed to prevent moisture
penetration .........................................................................

0.88

0.90

0.92

As 8, but with 25mm glass-fibre insulation laid between

joints ...................................................................................

0.59

0.60

0.6

10. Asphalt 19mm thick or felt/bitumen layers * on 13mm

cement and sand screed on 50mm metal edge
reinforced woodwool slabs on steel framing, with vapour
barrier at inside ...................................................................

1.4

1.4

1.5

11. As 10, but with cavity and aluminium foil-backed 10mm

plasterboard ceoling below steel framing (Bridging effect
of framing neglected. Assumed that aluminium foil acts
as vapour barrier) ...............................................................

0.88

0.90

0.92

12. Asphalt 19mm thick or felt/bitumen layers * on 13mm

fibre insulation board on hollow or cavity asbestoscement decking, with vapour barrier at inside ....................

1.4

1.5

1.6

13. As 12, but with 25mm glass-fibre insulation in cavity,

with vapour barrier ..............................................................

0.72

0.73

0.74

14. Felt/bitumen layers * on 25mm expanded polystyrene on

hollow or cavity asbestos decking, with vapour barrier ......

0.85

0.87

0.89

15. Asphalt 19mm thick or felt/bitumen layers * on 13mm

fibre insulation board on metal decking, with vapour barrier

2.1

2.2

2.3

16. Felt/bitumen layers * on 25mm expanded polystyrene on

metal decking, with vapour barrier ......................................

1.1

1.1

1.1

2.

5.
6.

9.

* The difference between the thermal resistance values of 19mm asphalt and three layers of roofing
felt set in bitumen is sufficiently small to be ignored.
EDB/1

2.21

U values for pitched roofs (35 o Slope)

U value (W/m2 oC
Normal
Sheltered (standard) Severe

Construction
1.

Tiles on battens, roofing felt and rafters, with roof space

and aluminium foil-backed 10mm plasterboard ceiling on
joists ...................................................................................

1.4

1.5

1.6

2.

As 1, but with boarding on rafters .......................................

1.3

1.3

1.3

3.

As 2, but with 50mm fibre-glass insulation between joists ..

0.49

0.50

0.51

4.

Corrugated asbestos-cement sheeting ...............................

5.3

6.1

7.2

5.

As 4, but with cavity and aluminium foil-backed 10mm

plasterboard lining ..............................................................

1.8

1.9

2.0

Corrugated double-skin asbestos-cement sheeting with

25mm glass-fibre insulation between (No allowance has
been made for effect of corrugations on heat loss ..............

1.1

1.1

1.1

As 6, but with cavity and aluminium foil-backed 10mm

plasterboard lining; ventilated air space .............................

0.79

0.80

0.82

8. Corrugated aluminium sheeting ..........................................

3.3

3.8

4.3

As 8, but with cavity and aluminium foil-backed 10mm

plasterboard lining ..............................................................

1.8

1.9

2.0

10. Corrugated plastic covered steel sheeting ..........................

5.7

6.7

8.1

11. As 10, but with cavity and aluminium foil-backed 10mm

plasterboard lining; ventilated air space .............................

1.9

2.0

2.1

6.

7.

9.

U values for solid floors in contact with the earth with four exposed edges
Dimensions of floor

U values
(W/m2 C of inside/outside temperature difference)

Very long x 30m broad ..................................................................................... 0.16*

Very long x 15m ............................................................................................... 0.28*
Very long x 1.5m .............................................................................................. 0.48*
150m x 60m .................................................................................................. 0.11
150m x 30m .................................................................................................. 0.18
60m
60m
60m
30m
30m
30m
15m
15m
7.5m
3m

x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x

60m
30m
15m
30m
15m
7.5m
15m
7.5m
7.5m
3m

.................................................................................................. 0.15
.................................................................................................. 0.21
.................................................................................................. 0.32
.................................................................................................. 0.26
.................................................................................................. 0.36
.................................................................................................. 0.55
.................................................................................................. 0.45
.................................................................................................. 0.62
.................................................................................................. 0.76
.................................................................................................. 1.47

* Applies also for any floor of this breadth and losing heat from two parallel edges. (Breadth here
is the distance between the exposed edges).

2.22

EDB/1

U values for solid floors in contact with the earth having two exposed
edges at right angles.
Dimensions of floor

U values
(W/m2 oC of inside/outside temperature difference)

Very long x 30m broad ..................................................................................... 0.09

Very long x 15m ............................................................................................... 0.16
Very long x 5.5m .............................................................................................. 0.28
150m x 60m .................................................................................................. 0.06
150m x 30m .................................................................................................. 0.10
60m x 60m .................................................................................................. 0.08
60m x 30m .................................................................................................. 0.12
60m x 15m .................................................................................................. 0.18
30m x 30m .................................................................................................. 0.15
30m x 15m .................................................................................................. 0.21
30m x 7.5m .................................................................................................. 0.32
15m x 15m .................................................................................................. 0.26
15m x 7.5m .................................................................................................. 0.36
7.5m x 7.5m .................................................................................................. 0.45
3m x

3m .................................................................................................. 1.07

U values for suspended timber floors directly above ground.

U values
(W/m2 oC of inside/outside temperature difference)
Actual dimensions of floor

Bare or with linoleum,

plastic or rubber tiles *

With carpet, parquet or

cork tiles

Very long x 30m broad ....................... 0.18 ................................................... 0.18

Very long x 15m .................................. 0.33 ................................................... 0.33
Very long x 7.5m ................................. 0.53 ................................................... 0.52
150m x 60m ...................................... 0.14 ................................................... 0.14
150m x 30m ...................................... 0.21 ................................................... 0.21
60m
60m
60m
30m
30m
30m
15m
15m
7.5m
3m

x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x

60m
30m
15m
30m
15m
7.5m
15m
7.5m
7.5m
3m

...................................... 0.16
...................................... 0.24
...................................... 0.37
...................................... 0.28
...................................... 0.39
...................................... 0.57
...................................... 0.45
...................................... 0.61
...................................... 0.68
...................................... 1.05

................................................... 0.16
................................................... 0.24
................................................... 0.36
................................................... 0.27
................................................... 0.38
................................................... 0.55
................................................... 0.44
................................................... 0.59
................................................... 0.65
................................................... 0.99

* Assuming Rs = 0.20. Assuming Rs = 0.26.

EDB/1

2.23

U values for intermediate floors.

U values
o
(W/m2 C)
Construction

Heat flow
downwards

Heat flow
upwards

Wood
20mm wood floor on 100mm x 50mm joists, 10mm ..............
plasterboard ceiling, allowing for 10% bridging by joists ......

1.5
1.4

1.7
1.6

Concrete
150mm concrete with 50mm screed .....................................
with 20mm wood flooring ......................................................

2.2
1.7

2.7
2.0

1.7
1.6
1.5

2.0
1.9
1.8

1.4
1.3
1.2

1.6
1.5
1.4

Hollow tile floors

With 50mm dense concrete over and between tiles
tile thickness .............................................................. 150mm
.................................................................................. 200mm
.................................................................................. 250mm
as above with 20mm wood flooring
tile thickness .............................................................. 150mm
.................................................................................. 200mm
.................................................................................. 250mm

U values for glazing (without frames)

U value
o
(W/m2 C)
Construction

Normal
Sheltered (standard)

Severe

Single window glazing ..........................................................

5.0

5.6

6.7

Double window glazing with air space ................................

20mm or more .............................................................. ( in)
12mm ........................................................................... ( in)
6mm .............................................................................. ( in)
3mm .............................................................................. (1/ 8 in)

2.8
2.8
3.2
3.6

2.9
3.0
3.4
4.0

3.2
3.3
3.8
4.4

Triple window glazing with air space

20mm or more .............................................................. ( in)
2mm .............................................................................. ( in)
6mm .............................................................................. ( in)
3mm .............................................................................. (1/ 8 in)

1.9
2.0
2.3
2.8

2.0
2.1
2.5
3.0

2.1
2.2
2.6
3.3

Roof glazing skylight ............................................................

5.7

6.6

7.9

Horizontal laylight with skylight or lantern light over

Ventilated ................................................................................
Unventilated ............................................................................

3.5
2.8

3.8
3.0

4.2
3.3

2.24

EDB/1

U values for typical windows.

Fraction of area
U values for stated exposure
o
occupied by
(W/m2 C)
frame
Sheltered
Normal
Severe

Window type

Single glazing :
Wood frame ......................................... 30%
Metal frame ......................................... 20%

3.8
5.0

4.3
5.6

5.0
6.7

Double glazing: Wood frame ............ 30%

2.3

2.5

2.7

Metal frame with thermal break ........ 20%

3.0

3.2

3.5

Note: Where the proportion of frame differs appreciably from the above tabulated values, particularly
with wood or plastic, the U values should be calculated (metal members have a U value similar to
glass).

Typical HWS storage and boiler power

Storage at 65oC (litre/person)

Boiler power at 65oC (kW/person)

25

0.7

Day School

0.1

Factories

1.2

Hotels
First class
Average

4.5
3.5

1.2
0.9

0.1

Building
Boarding School

Offices

System characteristics
In the piping system, there is resistance to water flow because of pipe friction. This frictional
resistance will vary with the amount of flow. If we try to push more water through a given size of pipe,
the frictional resistance will increase, as will the velocity at which it is pushed through the pipe. The
resistance varies with the amount of flow approximately in proportion to the square of the velocity
of the water. This relationship can be shown graphically, using the formula:P Q2 where:- P = pressure (kPa)
Q = capacity (kg/s)
P1
P2
Where:-

Q1
Q2

P1 = loss of pressure at flow Q1

P2 = loss of pressure at flow Q2

Pumps
Pump laws
Certain laws govern the relative performance of centrifugal pumps which can be stated briefly as
follows:1. Capacity delivered varies directly as the speed of rotation.
Q2
Q1

N2
N1

2. Pressure developed varies as the speed of rotation squared.

H2
H1

EDB/1

N2
N1

2.25

3. Power absorbed varies as the speed of rotation cubed.

P2
P1

N2
N1

where:- Q = Capacity
N = Speed of rotation of impeller
H = Pressure
P = Power

Pump performance curve

Pumps in series

2.26

Steep and flat performance curves

Pumps in parallel

EDB/1

Effects of various condition alterations to pump characteristics

Alteration

Condition

Result

Pump Response to Throttling of Discharge

Pressure
Power

Increase
Decrease

Result of Increasing the Pressure

Capacity
Power

Decrease
Decrease

Result of Decreasing the Pressure

Capacity
Power

Increase
Increase

The flow of fluids in pipes and ducts

NOTES AND FORMULAE
Straight Pipes and Ducts
The head lost due to friction may be best determined by the use of a rational formula:
4 fl2f ........................................................................ 1
H = 2gd
where H
f
l

g
d

=
=
=
=
=
=

Head lost, metres of fluid flowing ............................ m

Coefficient of friction ............................ dimensionless
Length of pipe .......................................................... m
Velocity ................................................................. m/s
Acceleration due to gravity .................................. m/s2
Internal diameter of pipe .......................................... m

The pressure loss per unit length of pipe (specific pressure loss) is given by:
p =

P
Hg ............................................................... 2
=
I
I

Where P =
p =

Pressure loss ......................................................... Pa

Pressure loss per metre run of pipe or
specific pressure loss ........................................ Pa/m
Density of fluid flowing ....................................... kg/m3

Combination of equations 1 and 2 gives:

p =

2 f v2
d

The coefficient of friction f, is a variable dependent upon:

a) The physical characteristics of the fluid flowing, the velocity of flow and the internal diameter of
the pipe, which three components may be combined for consideration in terms of Reynolds Number,
a dimensionless quantity:
(Re) =

d = d

Where (Re)=
=
=
=

Reynolds Number.
Density of fluid .................................................. kg/m3
Absolute viscosity of fluid ................................. kg/ms
Kinematic viscosity of fluid ................................. m2/s

b) The roughness of the pipe wall relative to the internal diameter, which is expressed in terms of
a dimensionless ratio, k8/d, where k8 is a lineal measure of absolute roughness having the same
dimensional units as the diameter.

EDB/1

2.27

The relation between the coefficient of friction f and these components involves the use of the
following expressions:
(Re) < 2000.
Here flow is streamline or laminar in character, the roughness of the pipe walls is not a significant
factor and the coefficient of friction may be calculated from the formula of Poiseuille:
16
f = (Re)
(Re) > 3000.
Here flow is turbulent and all the components previously discussed have value. The formula of
Colebrook and White has now been generally accepted as being the best theoretical approach:
1
f

= 4log10

k8
3.7d

1.255
(Re) f

The advantages accruing from the use of these two expressions for evaluation of the coefficient of
friction are that problems involving the flow of any fluid in any type of pipe or duct may be solved with
accuracy. It should be noted however, that these expressions strictly only apply to flow at constant
density ie, incompressible flow. This is the case for the majority of piped liquid systems. Compressibility
can also be ignored in typical ventilation systems since only small changes in density occur.

2.28

EDB/1

Flow of water at 75 C in black steel pipes

Pl
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
4.0
4.5 0.05
5.0
5.5
6.0
6.5
7.0
7.5
8.0
8.5
9.0
9.5
10.0
12.5
15.0
17.5
20.0
22.5
25.0
27.5
30.0
32.5
35.0
37.5
40.0
42.5 0.15
45.0
47.5
50.0
52.5
55.0
57.5
60.0
62.5
65.0

10 mm
M

Ie

0.004 0.2
0.005 0.2
0.005 0.3
0.006 0.3
0.006 0.3
0.007* 0.4
0.006 0.2
0.006 0.2
0.006 0.2
0.006 0.2
0.007 0.2
0.007 10.2
0.007 0.2
0.008 0.2
0.008 0.2
0.009 0.2
0.010 0.2
0.010 0.2
0.011 0.3
0.012 0.3
0.012 0.3
0.013 0.3
0.013 0.3
0.014 0.3
0.014 0.3
0.015 0.3
0.015 0.3
0.016 0.3
0.016 0.3
0.017 0.3
0.017 0.3
0.018 0.3
0.018 0.3
0.018 0.3
0.019 0.3

15 mm
M

0.003
0.005
0.006
0.008
0.009*
0.008
0.009
0.009
0.010
0.010
0.011
0.011
0.012
0.012
0.012
0.013
0.013
0.014
0.014
0.016
0.018
0.019
0.021
0.022
0.023
0.025
0.026
0.027
0.028
0.029
0.031
0.032
0.033
0.034
0.035
0.036
0.036
0.037
0.038
0.039
0.040

Ie

0.2
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.3
0.3
0.3
0.3
0.3
0.3
0.3
0.3
0.3
0.3
0.3
0.3
0.3
0.3
0.3
0.4
0.4
0.4
0.4
0.4
0.4
0.4
0.4
0.4
0.4
0.4
0.4
0.4
0.4
0.4
0.4
0.4
0.4
0.4
0.4
0.4

20 mm
M

0.003
0.004
0.005
0.007
0.008
0.009
0.010
0.011*
0.012
0.014
0.015
0.017
0.018
0.020
0.021
0.022
0.023
0.025
0.026
0.027
0.028
0.029
0.030
0.031
0.032
0.033
0.037
0.042
0.045
0.049
0.052
0.055
0.058
0.061
0.064
0.067
0.069
0.072
0.074
0.077
0.079
0.081
0.083
0.085
0.088
0.090
0.092
0.094

25 mm

32 mm

Ie

Ie

Ie

0.2
0.2
0.3
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.5
0.6
0.4
0.4
0.4
0.4
0.4
0.4
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.6
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.6
0.6
0.6
0.6
0.6
0.6
0.6
0.6
0.6
0.6
0.6
0.6
0.6
0.6
0.6
0.6
0.6
0.6
0.6
0.7
0.7

0.003
0.006
0.008
0.011
0.014*
0.013
0.014
0.015
0.016
0.017
0.021
0.025
0.028
0.031
0.034
0.037
0.039
0.042
0.044
0.046
0.048
0.050
0.052
0.054
0.056
0.058
0.060
0.062
0.070
0.077
0.084
0.091
0.097
0.103
0.108
0.114
0.119
0.124
0.129
0.133
0.138
0.142
0.146
0.150
0.155
0.159
0.162
0.166
0.170
0.174

0.1
0.3
0.4
0.6
0.7
0.6
0.6
0.6
0.6
0.6
0.6
0.6
0.6
0.6
0.6
0.7
0.7
0.7
0.7
0.7
0.7
0.7
0.7
0.7
0.7
0.7
0.7
0.7
0.8
0.8
0.8
0.8
0.8
0.8
0.8
0.8
0.8
0.8
0.9
0.9
0.9
0.9
0.9
0.9
0.9
0.9
0.9
0.9
0.9
0.9

0.009
0.018*
0.020
0.023
0.025
0.028
0.030
0.032
0.035
0.037
0.047
0.055
0.062
0.069
0.076
0.082
0.087
0.093
0.098
0.103
0.107
0.112
0.116
0.120
0.125
0.129
0.133
0.136
0.154
0.171
0.186
0.200
0.214
0.226
0.238
0.250
0.261
0.272
0.282
0.292
0.302
0.312
0.321
0.330
0.339
0.347
0.356
0.364
0.372
0.380

0.5
0.9
0.8
0.8
0.8
0.8
0.8
0.8
0.8
0.8
0.9
0.9
0.9
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.1
1.1
1.1
1.1
1.1
1.1
1.1
1.1
1.1
1.1
1.2
1.2
1.2
1.2
1.2
1.2
1.2
1.3
1.3
1.3
1.3
1.3
1.3
1.3
1.3
1.3
1.3
1.3
1.3
1.3
1.3

40 mm
M
0.017*
0.024
0.029
0.034
0.038
0.042
0.046
0.050
0.054
0.057
0.072
0.085
0.096
0.107
0.116
0.126
0.134
0.142
0.150
0.158
0.165
0.172
0.179
0.185
0.191
0.198
0.204
0.210
0.237
0.262
0.285
0.307
0.327
0.347
0.365
0.383
0.400
0.416
0.432
0.447
0.462
0.477
0.491
0.504
0.518
0.531
0.544
0.556
0.569
0.581

Ie
0.9
0.9
0.9
0.9
0.9
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.1
1.1
1.2
1.2
1.2
1.3
1.3
1.3
1.3
1.3
1.3
1.3
1.4
1.4
1.4
1.4
1.4
1.4
1.4
1.5
1.5
1.5
1.5
1.5
1.5
1.6
1.6
1.6
1.6
1.6
1.6
1.6
1.6
1.6
1.6
1.6
1.6
1.6
1.6
1.6

50 mm
M
0.031
0.044
0.055
0.065
0.074
0.082
0.090
0.097
0.104
0.110
0.139
0.164
0.186
0.206
0.224
0.242
0.258
0.274
0.289
0.303
0.317
0.330
0.343
0.355
0.368
0.379
0.391
0.402
0.454
0.502
0.546
0.587
0.626
0.663
0.698
0.731
0.763
0.794
0.824
0.853
0.882
0.909
0.936
0.962
0.987
1.01
1.04
1.06
1.08
1.11

Ie
1.2
1.2
1.2
1.3
1.3
1.4
1.4
1.4
1.5
1.5
1.6
1.6
1.7
1.7
1.7
1.8
1.8
1.8
1.8
1.9
1.9
1.9
1.9
1.9
1.9
1.9
1.9
2.0
2.0
2.0
2.0
2.1
2.1
2.1
2.1
2.2
2.2
2.2
2.2
2.2
2.2
2.2
2.2
2.2
2.2
2.2
2.3
2.3
2.3
2.3

Pl

0.05

0.15

0.30

0.50

0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
4.0
4.5
5.0
5.5
6.0
6.5
7.0
7.5
8.0
8.5
9.0
9.5
10.0
12.5
15.0
17.5
20.0
22.5
25.0
25.0
30.0
32.5
35.0
37.5
40.0
42.5
45.0
47.5
50.0
52.5
55.0
57.5
60.0
62.5
65.0

Heavy grade steel, water at 75oC

M= mass flow rate kg/s
le= equivalent length of pipe in metres for = 1.0
Pl pressure loss per unit length Pa/m
= velocity m/s
*(Re)= 2000 (Re) = 3000

EDB/1

2.29

Flow of water at 75C in black steel pipes (cont'd)

Pl
67.5
70.0
72.5
75.0
77.5
80.0
82.5
85.0
87.5
90.0
92.5
95.0
97.5
100
120
140 0.3
160
180
200
220
240
260
280
300
320
340
360
380 0.5
400
420
440
460
480
500
520
540
560
580
600
620
640
660
680
700
720
740
760
780
800
820

10 mm
M
Ie
0.019
0.020
0.020
0.020
0.021
0.021
0.021
0.022
0.022
0.023
0.023
0.023
0.024
0.024
0.026
0.029
0.031
0.033
0.035
0.037
0.039
0.040
0.042
0.044
0.045
0.047
0.048
0.049
0.051
0.052
0.054
0.055
0.056
0.057
0.059
6.060
0.061
0.062
0.063
0.064
0.065
0.066
0.067
0.069
0.070
0.071
0.072
0.073
0.074
0.075

0.3
0.3
0.3
0.3
0.3
0.3
0.3
0.3
0.3
0.3
0.3
0.3
0.3
0.3
0.3
0.3
0.3
0.3
0.3
0.3
0.3
0.3
0.3
0.3
0.3
0.3
0.3
0.3
0.3
0.3
0.3
0.3
0.3
0.3
0.3
0.3
0.3
0.3
0.3
0.3
0.3
0.3
0.3
0.3
0.3
0.3
0.3
0.3
0.3
0.4

15 mm
M
Ie
0.041
0.042
0.042
0.043
0.044
0.045
0.046
0.046
0.047
0.048
0.049
0.049
0.050
0.051
0.056
0.061
0.065
0.070
0.074
0.078
0.081
0.085
0.088
0.092
0.095
0.098
0.101
0.104
0.107
0.110
0.113
0.115
0.118
0.120
0.123
0.125
0.128
0.130
0.133
0.135
0.137
0.139
0.142
0.144
0.146
0.148
0.150
0.152
0.154
0.156

0.4
0.4
0.4
0.4
0.4
0.4
0.4
0.4
0.4
0.4
0.4
0.4
0.4
0.4
0.4
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5

20 mm
M
Ie

25 mm
M
Ie

32 mm
M
Ie

40 mm
M
Ie

0.096
0.098
0.099
0.101
0.103
0.105
0.107
0.108
0.110
0.112
0.113
0.115
0.117
0.118
0.131
0.142
0.152
0.162
0.172
0.181
0.189
0.198
0.206
0.213
0.221
0.228
0.235
0.242
0.248
0.255
0.261
0.267
0.273
0.279
0.285
0.291
0.296
0.302
0.307
0.312
0.318
0.323
0.328
0.333
0.338
0.343
0.347
0.352
0.357
0.362

0.177
0.181
0.184
0.188
0.191
0.194
0.197
0.201
0.204
0.207
0.210
0.213
0.216
0.219
0.242
0.262
0.282
0.300
0.317
0.334
0.349
0.364
0.379
0.393
0.407
0.420
0.433
0.445
0.457
0.469
0.481
0.492
0.503
0.514
0.524
0.535
0.545
0.555
0.565
0.575
0.584
0.594
0.603
0.612
0.621
0.630
0.639
0.648
0.656
0.665

0.388
0.395
0.403
0.410
0.418
0.455
0.432
0.439
0.446
0.452
0.459
0.466
0.472
0.479
0.527
0.572
0.614
0.654
0.691
0.727
0.761
0.793
0.825
0.855
0.884
0.913
0.941
0.970
0.994
1.02
1.04
1.07
1.09
1.12
1.14
1.16
1.17
1.21
1.23
1.25
1.27
1.29
1.31
1.33
1.35
1.37
1.39
1.41
1.42
0.44

0.592
0.604
0.616
0.627
0.638
0.649
0.659
0.670
0.680
0.691
0.701
0.711
0.721
0.731
0.805
0.873
0.937
0.997
1.05
1.11
1.16
1.21
1.26
1.30
1.35
1.39
1.43
1.47
1.51
1.55
1.59
1.63
1.66
1.69
1.73
0.77
1.80
1.83
1.87
1.90
1.93
1.96
1.99
2.02
2.05
2.08
2.10
2.14
2.17
2.19

0.7
0.7
0.7
0.7
0.7
0.7
0.7
0.7
0.7
0.7
0.7
0.7
0.7
0.7
0.7
0.7
0.7
0.7
0.7
0.7
0.7
0.7
0.7
0.7
0.7
0.7
0.7
0.7
0.7
0.7
0.7
0.7
0.8
0.8
0.8
0.8
0.8
0.8
0.8
0.8
0.8
0.8
0.8
0.8
0.8
0.8
0.8
0.8
0.8
0.8

0.9
0.9
0.9
0.9
0.9
0.9
0.9
0.9
0.9
0.9
0.9
0.9
0.9
0.9
0.9
0.9
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0

1.3
1.3
1.3
1.3
1.3
1.4
1.4
1.4
1.4
1.4
1.4
1.4
1.4
1.4
1.4
1.4
1.4
1.4
1.4
1.4
1.4
1.5
1.5
1.5
1.5
1.5
1.5
1.5
1.5
1.5
1.5
1.5
1.5
1.5
1.5
0.5
1.5
1.5
1.5
1.5
1.5
1.5
1.5
1.5
1.5
1.5
1.5
1.5
1.5
1.5

1.7
1.7
1.7
1.7
1.7
1.7
1.7
1.7
1.7
1.7
1.7
1.7
1.7
1.7
1.7
1.7
1.7
1.8
1.8
1.8
1.8
1.8
1.8
1.8
1.8
1.8
1.8
1.8
1.8
1.8
1.8
1.8
1.8
1.8
1.8
1.8
1.8
1.8
1.8
1.8
1.8
1.8
1.9
1.9
1.9
1.9
1.9
1.9
1.9
1.9

50 mm
M Ie
1.13
1.15
1.17
1.19
1.21
1.24
1.26
1.28
1.30
1.31
1.33
1.35
1.37
1.39
1.53
1.66
1.78
1.89
2.00
2.10
2.20
2.29
2.38
2.47
2.55
2.64
2.71
2.79
2.87
2.94
3.01
3.08
3.15
3.22
3.28
3.35
3.41
3.47
3.53
3.59
3.65
3.71
3.77
3.83
3.88
3.94
3.99
4.04
4.10
4.15

Pl

2.3
2.3
2.3
2.3
2.3
2.3
2.3
2.3
2.3
2.3
2.3
2.3
2.3
2.3
2.4
2.4
2.4
2.4
2.4 1.0
2.4
2.4
2.4
2.4
2.5
2.5
2.5
2.5
2.5
2.5
2.5
2.5 1.5
2.5
2.5
2.5
2.5
2.5
2.5
2.5
2.5
2.5
2.5
2.5
2.5
2.5
2.5
2.5
2.5 2.0
2.5
2.5
2.5

67.5
70.0
72.5
75.0
77.5
80.0
82.5
85.0
87.5
90.0
92.5
95.0
97.5
100
120
140
160
180
200
220
240
260
280
300
320
340
360
380
400
420
440
460
480
500
520
540
560
580
600
620
640
660
680
700
720
740
760
780
800
820

Heavy grade steel, water at 75 C

M= mass flow rate kg/s
le= equivalent length of pipe in metres for = 1.0
Pl= pressure loss per unit length Pa/m
= velocity m/s
*(Re)= 2000 (Re) = 3000

2.30

EDB/1

Flow of water at 75C in black steel pipes (cont'd)

Pl

10 mm
M

840
0.075
860
0.076
880
0.077
900
0.078
920
0.079
940
0.080
960
0.081
980
0.082
1000
0.083
1100
0.087
1200
0.091
1300 1.0 0.095
1400
0.099
1500
0.120
1600
0.106
1700
0.109
1800
0.113
1900
0.116
2000
0.119

15 mm

20 mm

25 mm

32 mm

40 mm

50 mm

Ie

Ie

Ie

Ie

Ie

Ie

0.4
0.4
0.4
0.4
0.4
0.4
0.4
0.4
0.4
0.4
0.4
0.4
0.4
0.4
0.4
0.4
0.4
0.4
0.4

0.158
0.160
0.162
0.164
0.166
0.168
0.170
0.172
0.173
0.182
0.191
0.199
0.207
0.214
0.222
0.229
0.236
0.242
0.249

0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5

0.366
0.371
0.375
0.379
0.384
0.388
0.392
0.397
0.401
0.421
0.441
0.459
0.477
0.495
0.511
0.528
0.543
0.559
0.574

0.8
0.8
0.8
0.8
0.8
0.8
0.8
0.8
0.8
0.8
0.8
0.8
0.8
0.8
0.8
0.8
0.8
0.8
0.8

0.673
0.681
0.689
0.698
0.706
0.713
0.721
0.729
0.737
0.774
0.809
0.844
0.876
0.908
0.939
0.968
0.997
1.03
1.05

1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.1
1.1
1.1
1.1
1.1
1.1
1.1
1.1
1.1
1.1

1.46
1.48
1.50
1.51
1.53
1.55
1.56
1.58
1.60
1.68
1.75
1.83
1.90
1.98
2.03
2.10
2.16
2.22
2.28

1.5
1.5
1.5
1.5
1.5
1.5
1.5
1.5
1.5
1.5
1.5
1.5
1.5
1.5
1.5
1.5
1.6
1.6
1.6

2.22
2.25
2.27
2.30
2.33
2.35
2.38
2.40
2.43
2.55
2.67
2.78
2.89
2.99
3.09
3.19
3.28
3.37
3.46

1.9
1.9
1.9
1.9
1.9
1.9
1.9
1.9
1.9
1.9
1.9
1.9
1.9
1.9
1.9
1.9
1.9
1.9
1.9

4.20
4.25
4.30
4.35
4.40
4.45
4.50
4.55
4.59
4.82
5.04
5.25
5.46
5.65
5.84
6.02

Ie

Pl

2.5
2.5
2.5
2.5
2.5
2.5
2.5
2.5
2.5
2.6
2.6
2.6
2.6
2.6
2.6
2.6 3.0

840
860
880
900
920
940
960
980
1000
1100
1200
1300
1400
1500
1600
1700
1800
1900
2000

Heavy grade steel, water at 75 C

M
= mass flow rate kg/s
= equivalent length of pipe in metres for = 1.0
le
Pl = pressure loss per unit length Pa/m

= velocity m/s
*(Re) = 2000 (Re) = 3000

EDB/1

2.31

Flow of water at 75C in black steel pipes (cont'd)

Pl

65mm

80 mm

90 mm

Ie

Ie

0.061
0.091
0.115
0.136
0.154
0.171
0.187
0.202
0.216
0.229
0.288
0.338
0.383
0.424
0.462
0.498
0.531
0.563
0.594
0.623
0.651
0.678
0.704
0.729
0.754
0.778
0.801
0.824
0.930
1.03
1.12
1.20
1.28
1.35
1.42
1.49
1.56
1.62
1.68
1.74
1.80
1.85
1.91
1.96
2.01
2.06

1.5
1.7
1.8
1.9
2.0
2.0
2.1
2.1
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.4
2.5
2.5
2.6
2.6
2.6
2.7
2.7
2.7
2.7
2.7
2.7
2.8
2.8
2.8
2.8
2.9
2.9
3.0
3.0
3.0
3.0
3.1
3.1
3.1
3.1
3.1
3.1
3.1
3.2
3.2
3.2
3.2
3.2

0.096
0.144
0.181
0.214
0.243
0.269
0.294
0.317
0.339
0.359
0.451
0.530
0.600
0.664
0.723
0.778
0.830
0.880
0.927
0.973
1.02
1.06
1.10
1.14
1.18
1.21
1.25
1.29
1.45
1.60
1.74
1.87
1.99
2.11
2.22
2.32
2.42
2.52
2.61
2.70
2.79
2.88
2.96
3.04
3.12
3.20

2.0
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
2.6
2.6
2.7
2.7
2.8
2.9
3.0
3.1
3.1
3.2
3.2
3.3
3.3
3.3
3.4
3.4
3.4
3.4
3.5
3.5
3.5
3.5
3.5
3.6
3.6
3.7
3.7
3.8
3.8
3.8
3.8
3.8
3.9
3.9
3.9
3.9
3.9
3.9
3.9
4.0
4.0

0.144
0.215
0.271
0.319
0.362
0.401
0.438
0.472
0.504
0.535
0.671
0.787
0.891
0.985
1.07
1.15
1.23
1.30
1.37
1.44
1.51
1.57
1.63
1.69
1.74
1.80
1.85
1.90
2.14
2.37
2.57
2.76
2.94
3.11
3.27
3.43
3.58
3.72
3.86
3.99
4.12
4.25
4.37
4.49
4.61
4.72

57.5
60.0
62.5
65.0
67.5

2.11
2.16
2.20
2.25
2.30

3.2
3.2
3.2
3.2
3.2

3.28
3.35
3.42
3.50
3.57

4.0
4.0
4.0
4.0
4.0

70.0
72.5
75.0
77.5
80.0
82.5
85.0
87.5

2.34
2.38
2.43
2.47
2.51
2.55
2.59
2.63

3.2
3.2
3.3
3.3
3.3
3.3
3.3
3.3

3.63
3.70
3.77
3.83
3.90
3.96
4.02
4.09

4.0
4.0
4.0
4.0
4.0
4.1
4.1
4.1

0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
4.0
4.5
5.0
5.5
6.0
6.5
7.0
7.5
8.0
8.5
9.0
9.5
10.0
12.5
15.0
17.5
20.0
22.5
25.0
27.5
30.0
32.5
35.0
37.5
40.0
42.5
45.0
47.5
50.0
52.5
55.0

0.05

0.15

0.30

0.50

Ie

125 mm

150 mm

Pl

Ie

Ie

Ie

2.5
2.7
2.9
3.0
3.1
3.2
3.2
3.3
3.3
3.4
3.6
3.7
3.8
3.8
3.9
3.9
4.0
4.0
4.1
4.1
4.1
4.2
4.2
4.2
4.2
4.2
4.3
4.3
4.4
4.4
4.5
4.5
4.6
4.6
4.6
4.6
4.7
4.7
4.7
4.7
4.7
4.7
4.8
4.8
4.8
4.8

0.200
0.298
0.375
0.442
0.501
0.556
0.606
0.653
0.698
0.740
0.928
1.09
1.23
1.36
1.48
1.59
1.70
1.80
1.90
1.99
2.08
2.16
2.24
2.32
2.40
2.48
2.55
2.62
2.96
3.26
3.54
3.80
4.05
4.28
4.50
4.71
4.92
5.12
5.31
5.49
5.67
5.84
6.01
6.17
6.33
6.49

2.9
3.3
3.4
3.6
3.7
3.8
3.8
3.9
4.0
4.0
4.2
4.3
4.4
4.5
4.6
4.6
4.7
4.7
4.8
4.8
4.9
4.9
4.9
4.9
5.0
5.0
5.0
5.0
5.1
5.2
5.2
5.3
5.3
5.4
5.4
5.4
5.4
5.5
5.5
5.5
5.5
5.5
5.6
5.6
5.6
5.6

0.362
0.544
0.685
0.805
0.913
1.01
1.10
1.19
1.27
1.34
1.68
1.97
2.23
2.46
2.68
2.88
3.07
3.25
3.42
3.59
3.75
3.90
4.05
4.19
4.33
4.46
4.60
4.72
5.32
5.87
6.37
6.84
7.28
7.69
8.09
8.47
8.84
9.19
9.53
9.86
10.2
10.5
10.8
11.1
11.4
11.6

4.1
4.5
4.7
4.9
5.0
5.1
5.2
5.3
5.4
5.5
5.7
5.9
6.0
6.1
6.2
6.3
6.3
6.4
6.4
6.5
6.5
6.6
6.6
6.6
6.7
6.7
6.7
6.7
6.8
6.9
7.0
7.1
7.1
7.1
7.2
7.2
7.3
7.3
7.3
7.3
7.4
7.4
7.4
7.4
7.4
7.4

0.600
0.889
1.12
1.31
1.49
1.65
1.79
1.93
2.06
2.18
2.73
3.20
3.61
3.99
4.34
4.66
4.97
5.26
5.54
5.81
6.06
6.31
6.55
6.78
7.00
7.2
7.43
7.63
8.60
9.47
10.3
11.0
11.7
12.4
13.0
13.6
14.2
14.8
15.3
15.9
16.4
16.9
17.4
17.8
18.3
18.8

5.3
5.8
6.1
6.4
6.5
6.6
6.7
6.8
6.9
7.0
7.3
7.5
7.6
7.7
7.9
8.0
8.0
8.1
8.2
8.2
8.3
8.3
8.4
8.4
8.4
8.5
8.5
8.5
8.7
8.8
8.8
8.9
9.0
9.0
9.1
9.1
9.1
9.2
9.2
9.2
9.3
9.3
9.3
9.3
9.3
9.4

4.83
4.94
5.05
5.16
5.26

4.8
4.8
4.8
4.8
4.9

6.64
6.79
6.94
7.08
7.22

5.6
5.6
5.6
5.7
5.7

11.9
12.2
12.5
12.7
13.0

7.5
7.5
7.5
7.5
7.5

19.2
19.6
20.0
20.5
20.9

9.4
9.4
9.4
9.4
9.4

57.5
60.0
62.5
65.0
67.5

5.36
5.46
5.56
5.65
5.75
5.84
5.93
6.02

4.9
4.9
4.9
4.9
4.9
4.9
4.9
4.9

7.36
7.50
7.63
7.77
7.90
8.02
8.15
8.27

5.7
5.7
5.7
5.7
5.7
5.7
5.7
5.7

13.2
13.5
13.7
13.9
14.2
14.4
14.6
14.8

7.5
7.5
7.5
7.5
7.6
7.6
7.6
7.6

21.3
21.7
22.0
22.4
22.8
23.2
23.5
23.9

9.4
9.5
9.5
9.5
9.5
9.5
9.5
9.5

70.0
72.5
75.0
77.5
80.0
82.5
85.0
87.5

Heavy grade steel, water at 75 C

M= mass flow rate kg/s
le = equivalent length of pipe in metres for = 1.0

2.32

100 mm

0.05

0.15

0.30

0.50

1.0

0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
4.0
4.5
5.0
5.5
6.0
6.5
7.0
7.5
8.0
8.5
9.0
9.5
10.0
12.5
15.0
17.5
20.0
22.5
25.0
27.5
30.0
32.5
35.0
37.5
40.0
42.5
45.0
47.5
50.0
52.5
55.0

Pl = pressure loss per unit length Pa/m

= velocity m/s
*(Re)= 2000 (Re) = 3000

EDB/1

Flow of water at 75C in black steel pipes (cont'd)

Pl
90.0
92.5
95.0
97.5
100.0
120.0
140.0
160.0
180.0
200.0
220.0
240.0
260.0
280.0
300.0
320.0
340.0
360.0
380.0
400.0
420.0
440.0
460.0
480.0
500.0
520.0
540.0
560.0
580.0
600.0
620.0
640.0
660.0
680.0
700.0
720.0
740.0
760.0
780.0
800.0
820.0
840.0
860.0
880.0
900.0
920.0
940.0
960.0
980.0
1000.0
1100.0
1200.0
1300.0
1400.0
1500.0
1600.0
1700.0
1800.0
1900.0
2000.0

1.0

1.5

2.0

3.0

65mm

80 mm

90 mm

125 mm

150 mm

Ie

Ie

Ie

Ie

Ie

Ie

2.67
2.71
2.75
2.79
2.82
3.11
3.37
3.61
3.84
4.05
4.26
4.46
4.65
4.83
5.00
5.17
5.34
5.50
5.65
5.80
5.95
6.09
6.24
6.37
6.51
6.64
6.77
6.90
7.02
7.15
7.27
7.39
7.50
7.62
7.73
7.85
7.96
8.07
8.17
8.28
8.39
8.49
8.59
8.69
8.80
8.89
8.99
9.09
9.19
9.28
9.74
10.2
10.6
11.0
11.4
11.8
12.2
12.5
12.9
13.2

3.3
3.3
3.3
3.3
3.3
3.3
3.4
3.4
3.4
3.4
3.4
3.4
3.4
3.4
3.5
3.5
3.5
3.5
3.5
3.5
3.5
3.5
3.5
3.5
3.5
3.5
3.5
3.5
3.5
3.5
3.5
3.5
3.5
3.5
3.5
3.5
3.5
3.5
3.5
3.6
3.6
3.6
3.6
3.6
3.6
3.6
3.6
3.6
3.6
3.6
3.6
3.6
3.6
3.6
3.6
3.6
3.6
3.6
3.6
3.6

4.15
4.21
4.27
4.32
4.38
4.82
5.22
5.60
5.95
6.29
6.60
6.91
7.20
7.48
7.75
8.01
8.27
8.51
8.75
8.99
8.99
9.44
9.66
9.87
10.1
10.3
10.5
10.7
10.9
11.1
11.3
11.4
11.6
11.8
12.0
12.2
12.3
12.4
12.6
12.8
12.9
13.1
13.3
13.5
13.6
13.8
13.9
14.1
14.2
15.1
15.1
15.8
16.4
17.0
17.6
18.2
18.8

4.1
4.1
4.1
4.1
4.1
4.1
4.2
4.2
4.2
4.2
4.2
4.2
4.2
4.3
4.3
4.3
4.3
4.3
4.3
4.3
4.3
4.3
4.3
4.3
4.3
4.3
4.3
4.3
4.3
4.3
4.4
4.4
4.4
4.4
4.4
4.4
4.4
4.4
4.4
4.4
4.4
4.4
4.4
4.4
4.4
4.4
4.4
4.4
4.4
4.4
4.4
4.4
4.4
4.4
4.4
4.4
4.4

6.11
6.20
6.29
6.37
6.46
7.10
7.69
8.25
8.76
9.25
9.27
10.2
10.6
11.0
11.4
11.8
12.2
12.5
12.8
13.2
13.6
13.9
14.2
14.5
14.8
15.1
15.4
15.7
16.0
16.3
16.6
16.8
17.1
17.3
17.6
17.8
18.1
18.4
18.6
18.8
19.1
19.3
19.6
19.8
20.0
20.2
20.5
20.7
20.9
21.1
22.2
23.2
24.1
25.0

4.9
4.9
4.9
4.9
4.9
5.0
5.0
5.0
5.0
5.0
5.1
5.1
5.1
5.1
5.1
5.1
5.2
5.2
5.2
5.2
5.2
5.2
5.2
5.2
5.2
5.2
5.2
5.2
5.2
5.2
5.2
5.2
5.2
5.2
5.2
5.2
5.2
5.3
5.3
5.3
5.3
5.3
5.3
5.3
5.3
5.3
5.3
5.3
5.3
5.3
5.3
5.3
5.3
5.3

8.40
8.52
8.64
8.75
8.87
9.75
10.6
11.3
12.0
12.7
13.3
14.0
14.5
15.1
15.6
16.2
16.7
17.2
17.7
18.1
18.6
19.0
19.5
19.9
20.3
20.7
21.1
21.5
21.9
22.3
22.7
23.1
23.4
23.8
24.1
24.5
24.8
25.1
25.5
25.8
26.2
26.5
26.8
27.1
27.4
27.7
28.0
28.3
28.6
28.9
30.4
31.7

5.7
5.7
5.7
5.8
5.8
5.8
5.8
5.9
5.9
5.9
5.9
5.9
6.0
6.0
6.0
6.0
6.0
6.0
6.0
6.0
6.0
6.0
6.0
6.0
6.0
6.1
6.1
6.1
6.1
6.1
6.1
6.1
6.1
6.1
6.1
6.1
6.1
6.1
6.1
6.1
6.1
6.1
6.1
6.1
6.1
6.1
6.1
6.1
6.1
6.1
6.1
6.1

15.0
15.3
15.5
15.7
15.9
17.5
18.9
20.3
21.6
22.7
23.9
25.0
26.0
27.0
28.0
29.0
29.8
30.7
31.6
32.4
33.2
34.0
34.8
35.6
36.3
37.1
37.8
38.5
39.2
39.9
40.5
41.2
41.9
42.5
43.1
43.7
44.4
45.0
45.6
46.2
46.7
47.3
47.9
48.4
49.0
49.6
50.1
50.6

7.6
7.6
7.6
7.6
7.6
7.7
7.7
7.7
7.8
7.8
7.8
7.8
7.9
7.9
7.9
7.9
7.9
7.9
7.9
7.9
7.9
7.9
8.0
8.0
8.0
8.0
8.0
8.0
8.0
8.0
8.0
8.0
8.0
8.0
8.0
8.0
8.0
8.0
8.0
8.0
8.0
8.0
8.0
8.0
8.0
8.1
8.1
8.1

24.2
24.6
24.9
25.2
25.6
28.1
30.4
32.6
34.6
36.5
38.4
40.1
41.8
43.4
45.0
46.5
47.9
49.4
50.7
52.1
53.4
54.7
55.9
57.2
58.4
59.5
60.7
61.8
62.9
64.0
65.1
66.2
67.2
68.2
69.2
70.2
71.2
72.2

9.5
9.5
9.6
9.6
9.6
9.6
9.7
9.7
9.7
9.8
9.8
9.8
9.8
9.9
9.9
9.9
9.9
9.9
9.9
9.9
9.9
9.9
9.9
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10

Heavy grade steel, water at 75 C

M= mass flow rate kg/s
le = equivalent length of pipe in metres for = 1.0

EDB/1

100 mm

1.5

2.0

3.0

4.0

Pl
90.0
92.5
95.0
97.5
100.0
120.0
140.0
160.0
180.0
200.0
220.0
240.0
260.0
280.0
300.0
320.0
340.0
360.0
380.0
400.0
420.0
440.0
460.0
480.0
500.0
520.0
540.0
560.0
580.0
600.0
620.0
640.0
660.0
680.0
700.0
720.0
740.0
760.0
780.0
800.0
820.0
840.0
860.0
880.0
900.0
920.0
940.0
960.0
980.0
1000.0
1100.0
1200.0
1300.0
1400.0
1500.0
1600.0
1700.0
1800.0
1900.0
2000.0

Pl = pressure loss per unit length Pa/m

= velocity m/s
*(Re)= 2000 (Re) = 3000

2.33

Values of velocity head factor for pipe fittings and equipment

These are intended to be used in conjunction with the values of unit equivalent length quoted in
the fluid flow tables.
Tees and Junctions
(based on velocity head of combined flow)
DIRECTION OF FLOW

Divergent
Flow

TO OR FROM RUN

TO OR FROM RUN
o
90 Branch

0.5
PLUS
factor for bend or
elbow as appropriate
PLUS
factor
for enlargement
or reduction where
bores differ.

0.2
PLUS
factor for an enlargement
or reduction where
appropriate

Convergent
Flow

Divergent
Flow

Convergent
Flow
SPECIAL NOTE ON CONVERGENT FLOW AT JUNCTIONS
Where the velocity of flow in one branch of a tee, at a
convergent junction, is high relative to the velocity in the
other, the factor for the latter may be negative due to the
injection effect.

TONGUE TEE. FACTOR

FOR THROUGH FLOW.

3.0

REDUCTIONS AND ENLARGEMENTS

(based on velocity head in smaller pipe)
DIAMETER RATIOS

2.34

3:2

2:1

3:1

4:1

0.3

0.4

0.4

0.5

0.4

0.7

0.9

1.0

EDB/1

PIPE SIZES

FLOWS AND BENDS

15 - 25mm
32 - 50mm
" - 1"
1" - 2"

65 - 80mm
2" - 3"

100m
4" and over

0.8

0.7

0.6

0.6

45 Malleable
C.I. Elbow

0.6

0.6

0.5

0.5

Malleable
C.I. Elbow

0.7

0.5

0.4

0.4

Screwed
M.S. Bend

0.7

0.5

0.4

0.3

Malleable C.I.
Return Bend

0.9

0.8

0.8

Flanged
C.I. Bend

0.5

0.5

0.5

0.5

Welded
M.S. Elbow

0.4

0.4

0.3

0.3

Welded
M.S. Elbow

0.4

0.3

0.3

0.2

Copper
Pipe Elbow

1.0

0.8

0.5

Panel Return
Bend R 3"

0.6

90 Malleable
C.I. Elbow

EDB/1

2.35

Valves

Parallel Slide
or Gate Valve

0.2

Angel Disc
or Globe Valve

5.0

Non-Return Valve

2.0

Pillar Tap
or Bib Cock

10
Other Items

Radiator

5.0

Sectional Boiler

2.5

Entry Into Large Vessel

1.0

Exit From Large Vessel

0.4

GENERAL NOTES
Bushes
Take as twice that of the comparable socket.
Tapers
o
Where the included angle is 10 , or less, take a factor of 0.2 for an enlargement and ignore for
a contraction.
Valves
Factor quoted are high averages. Individual designs show wide variations.
Multiple Arrangements
Factors quoted apply to isolating fittings. For bends, the factor for any item occurring subsequent
to the first, within 20 diameters run, may be taken as being approximately half of the appropriate
value quoted above.
Specialist Equipment
Manufacturers should be consulted for data regarding specialist equipment such as automatic
control valves, calorifiers, convectors, etc.

2.36

EDB/1

Humidification

Psychrometric chart

The psychrometric chart explained

To plot an air conditioning process on the chart, at least two of the following variables must be known
for the ambient air and for the desired final condition of the air.
i) The Dry Bulb temperature of the air (OC)
ii) The Wet Bulb temperature of the air (OC)
iii) The Relative Humidity of the air (%)
Given the two values, the State Point of the air can be marked on the chart. The sketch below shows
the extension lines necessary, radiating from the state point, to obtain all the information.
It should be noted that:
a) Heating and cooling (by cooler battery) takes place parallel to the base line, at constant moisture
content.
b) Humidification by steam takes place (for practical purposes) at a constant dry bulb temperature.
c) Humidification by water (at normal temperatures) takes place at constant wet bulb temperature.
This sketch shows the graphical representation of these processes:-

The diagrams below explain in outline form the various lines and scales on the chart:-

Dewpoint scale
(at 100% saturation
curve)

Moisture content
line

Moisture content
scale

Specific volume
line

Specific enthalpy
scales

Dry bulb
temperature

EDB/1

Wet bulb
temperature

Relative
humidity line

3.02

Calculating humidification loads

Using the Table below, calculate the steam required in kg/s to humidify the given air flow rate to the
specified final condition.
= 4 m3/s
Air flow (m3/s)
Final temperature and relative humidity = 22OC, 50% RH
a) Firstly, an outside air design condition has to be specified. The figures can be obtained from
meteorological data or other publications *. Assume a condition of -7OC, 100% RH.
b) Determine the moisture content of the outdoor air from the Table:Read 0.277 kg/s per 100 m3/s at -7OC, 100% RH.
c) Determine the moisture content of the air at the final condition again from the Table :- Read 0.975
kg/s per 100 m3/s at 22OC, 50% RH.
d) Moisture required - subtract b) from c) 0.975 kg/s - 0.277 kg/s = 0.698 kg/s per 100 m3/s.
e) Total steam required.
Moisture required x air flow
100

0.698 x 4
= 0.028 kg/s (100 kg/h)
100

Chart for calculating humidification loads

kg/s water vapour/100 m3/s of air at various temperatures and relative humidities.
Dry bulb
Air Temp.100% 85%
(OC)
32
31
30
29
28
27
26
25
24
23
22
21
20
19
18
17
16
15
14
13
12
11
10
5
0
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5
-6
-7
-8
-9
-10

3.394
3.218
3.048
2.887
2.733
2.586
2.446
2.313
2.186
2.058
1.950
1.840
1.736
1.639
1.542
1.453
1.373
1.289
1.212
1.139
1.070
1.005
0.944
0.683
0.487
0.450
0.415
0.383
0.354
0.326
0.301
0.277
0.255
0.234
0.215

2.885
2.734
2.590
2.454
2.323
2.198
2.079
1.965
1.858
1.755
1.657
1.564
1.475
1.391
1.312
1.236
1.167
1.095
1.030
0.968
0.910
0.854
0.802
0.581
0.414
0.381
0.353
0.325
0.301
0.277
0.256
0.235
0.217
0.200
0.183

80%

75%

70%

65%

60%

55%

50%

45%

40%

35%

30%

2.716
2.574
2.438
2.310
2.186
2.069
1.957
1.851
1.748
1.625
1.560
1.472
1.389
1.309
1.235
1.163
1.098
1.030
0.970
0.911
0.856
0.804
0.755
0.546
0.389
0.360
0.333
0.307
0.283
0.261
0.241
0.221
0.204
0.118
0.172

2.545
2.413
2.286
2.166
2.049
1.940
1.834
1.734
1.639
1.549
1.463
1.380
1.302
1.228
1.155
1.090
1.030
0.966
0.909
0.854
0.803
0.754
0.708
0.512
0.365
0.339
0.313
0.273
0.265
0.245
0.225
0.208
0.186
0.176
0.161

2.375
2.252
2.133
2.022
1.913
1.810
1.712
1.619
1.530
1.446
1.364
1.228
1.216
1.146
1.080
1.017
0.961
0.901
0.848
0.797
0.749
0.704
0.661
0.478
0.341
0.315
0.291
0.269
0.249
0.228
0.211
0.194
0.178
0.164
0.151

2.193
2.096
1.969
1.877
1.776
1.681
1.591
1.503
1.421
1.342
1.267
1.196
1.128
1.064
1.003
0.944
0.892
0.837
0.788
0.740
0.696
0.653
0.613
0.444
0.316
0.293
0.273
0.250
0.230
0.212
0.195
0.180
0.165
0.152
0.140

2.035
1.930
1.829
1.733
1.640
1.551
1.467
1.338
1.311
1.239
1.170
1.104
1.042
0.982
0.925
0.872
0.824
0.772
0.727
0.683
0.642
0.603
0.556
0.410
0.292
0.271
0.250
0.231
0.213
0.196
0.181
0.166
0.153
0.141
0.129

1.933
1.769
1.674
1.589
1.503
1.422
1.343
1.272
1.202
1.136
1.072
1.012
0.976
0.900
0.848
0.800
0.755
0.708
0.667
0.626
0.588
0.553
0.519
0.376
0.268
0.247
0.229
0.212
0.196
0.179
0.165
0.152
0.140
0.129
0.118

1.697
1.608
1.524
1.445
1.366
1.292
1.223
1.156
1.093
1.032
0.975
0.920
0.868
0.818
0.771
0.726
0.686
0.644
0.606
0.570
0.535
0.503
0.472
0.341
0.243
0.226
0.208
0.192
0.177
0.163
0.151
0.140
0.127
0.117
0.108

1.526
1.447
1.373
1.295
1.229
1.163
1.101
1.041
0.983
1.929
0.877
0.828
0.781
0.736
0.694
0.654
0.618
0.579
0.545
0.513
0.482
0.452
0.425
0.307
0.219
0.203
0.187
0.173
0.158
0.147
0.136
0.125
0.114
0.105
0.097

1.357
1.286
1.218
1.156
1.093
1.034
0.973
0.925
0.874
0.826
0.780
0.736
0.694
0.654
0.617
0.588
0.549
0.515
0.485
0.456
0.428
0.402
0.377
0.273
0.195
0.181
0.167
0.154
0.142
0.130
0.120
0.111
0.102
0.094
0.086

1.187
1.126
1.066
1.011
0.956
0.905
0.856
0.809
0.765
0.723
0.682
0.674
0.607
0.573
0.540
0.508
0.481
0.451
0.424
0.399
0.374
0.352
0.330
0.239
0.170
0.157
0.146
0.135
0.125
0.114
0.106
0.097
0.089
0.083
0.075

1.018
0.965
0.914
0.867
0.820
0.775
0.734
0.694
0.655
0.619
0.585
0.552
0.521
0.491
0.462
0.436
0.412
0.386
0.364
0.342
0.321
0.302
0.283
0.205
0.146
0.135
0.125
0.115
0.106
0.098
0.090
0.083
0.077
0.070
0.064

* such as the CIBSE guide (CIBSE- UK Chartered Institution of Building Services Engineers).

3.03

EDB/1

Chart showing relationship of effective temperature, wet-bulb/dry-bulb

temperatures and relative humidity

EDB/1

3.04

Relative humidity in percentage terms

For various room temperatures and differences between Wet and Dry-Bulb Temperatures.
Dry
Temp.
O
C
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27

Difference between Dry Bulb and Wet Bulb temperature OC

0

10

11

100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100

88
89
89
90
90
90
90
91
91
91
91
92
92
92
92
92
92
93

77
78
78
79
80
81
81
82
82
83
83
83
83
84
84
85
85
85

66
67
68
69
70
71
71
72
73
74
74
75
75
76
76
77
77
78

55
56
58
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
68
69
70
71
71
72

44
46
48
50
52
53
54
56
57
59
59
61
61
62
63
64
64
65

34
36
39
41
43
44
46
48
49
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59

25
27
29
32
34
36
37
39
41
43
44
46
47
48
49
51
52
53

15
18
21
24
26
28
30
32
34
36
38
40
41
42
43
45
46
47

6
9
12
15
17
20
22
25
27
29
31
33
34
36
37
39
40
42

0
2
3
6
8
11
14
17
20
23
25
27
28
30
31
33
34
36

0
0
0
1
2
5
8
11
13
16
18
20
22
24
26
28
29
31

Steam .v. water humidification

Humidification by steam
There is no appreciable change in air temperature when steam is used for humidification and thus
humidification takes place at constant Dry Bulb temperature. After the air has been preheated to the
desired Dry Bulb temperature, design conditions will be achieved by simply adding the correct quantity
of steam.
Humidification by water
Unlike steam, which is already a vapour, water must change its state to a vapour before it can be
absorbed. This requires heat and thus when water is used to humidify, it will absorb heat from the
preheated air and thereby reduce the Dry Bulb temperature. The air must then be reheated after
humidification by a re-heat battery.
Humidification by water follows the Wet Bulb temperature line (the Dry Bulb temperature falls as water
is added, whereas it remains constant when steam is added).

3.05

EDB/1

Metering

Steam meter terminology

Accuracy

There are two methods used to express accuracy.

(a) Measured Value or Actual Reading.
A percentage quoted in these terms is exactly as stated e.g. Accuracy 3%
of Actual Flow; Indicated Flowrate 1,000 kg/h; "uncertainty" is between
1030 and 970 kg/h.

Repeatability
Turndown
Effective Range
or Rangeability

Dryness
Fraction
Compensation

EDB/1

(b) F.S.D. or Full Scale Deflection.

Measurement error is expressed as a percentage of the maximum flow that
the meter can handle e.g. Accuracy 3% F.S.D.; Maximum meter can
handle, 1000 kg/h; Indicated Flowrate 1000 kg/h; "uncertainty" is again
between 1030 and 970 kg/h.
BUT
If Indicated Flowrate is only 100 kg/h, the "uncertainty" is now between 130
(100 + 30) and 70 (100 30) kg/h. Expressed in Measured Valve terms,
this is an accuracy of 30%.
The ability of a meter to indicate the same value for an identical flowrate on
more than one occasion. This must not be confused with accuracy
(consistently wrong values may be displayed).
This is the range of flowrates over which the meter will work within the
accuracy and repeatability tolerances given e.g. Maximum Flowrate 1000
kg/h, Minimum Flowrate 100 kg/h, Turndown Ratio is 10:1. The way of
measuring Turndown varies between manufacturers. Often the figures are
obtained on fluids at velocities up to 100m/s clearly not realistic for
steam. Accuracy claims of 1% of Measured Value and Turndown of
100:1 are nearly impossible to achieve on steam whilst remaining within the
standards of good practice.
At a fixed steam pressure, the density will vary with changes in dryness
fraction. If the steam is totally dry, the flow rate indicated by the meter will be
correct. Most steam is not totally dry so the accuracy of the meter will be
affected if there is no compensation for dryness fraction. The wetter the
steam, the greater will be the error as shown by the graph.
Example: Indicated flow, assuming Dryness fraction 1.0 =100kg/h Actual
dryness fraction 0.95 True flowrate 102.6 kg/h from graph. i.e. In this
example the meter under-reads by 2.6% due to the absence of dryness
fraction correction.

4.01

Density compensation
The specific volume of steam (m3/kg) varies with change in pressure and in most steam systems the
pressure is rarely constant. It is therefore necessary to establish steam pressure/temperature when
measuring mass flow so that density (kg/m3) can be computed and Density Compensation applied
to the measured flowrate. Charts A and B show there can be significant percentage errors in meters
without density compensation.

Errors due to absence of density compensation

Example
A vortex shedding meter specified to be used at 5.0 bar g is actually used at 4.2 bar g. What is the
resulting error?
The meter is being used 0.8 bar below the specified pressure. The vertical line from 1 intersects the
specified pressure at 2 and the horizontal line shows the error at 3 as +14.6%.

4.02

EDB/1

Example
An orifice plate and DP cell are measuring saturated steam flow. Specified line pressure is 5.0 bar g
but actual pressure is 4.2 bar g. What is the resulting error?
The meter is being used 0.8 bar below the specified pressure. The vertical line from 1 intersects the
specified pressure at 2 and the horizontal line shows the error at 3 as + 7.1%.

EDB/1

4.03

Controls

Controls terminology
Set value - The value set on the scale of the control system in order to obtain the required condition.
Control value - The value of the control condition actually maintained under steady state conditions.
Deviation - The difference between the desired value and the measured value of the controlled
condition.
Offset - Sustained deviation.
Sensor - The element which responds directly to the value of the controlled condition.
Controlled condition - The physical quantity or condition of the controlled medium which is the purpose
of the control system.
Controller - Accepts the signal from the sensor and sends a correcting (or control) signal to the actuator.
Actuator - The element that adjusts the controlled device in response to a signal from the Controller.
Controlled device - The final controlling element in a control system.

Typical mix of process control devices with system elements

MANIPULATED
VARIABLE
Compressed air
0.2-1 bar
Electric current
4-20mA
Pneumatic
actuator,
electric
actuator,
self acting
actuator

CONTROLLED
ELEMENT

SET POINT

Controller knob,
remote controller
MEASURED
VARIABLE
Pressure signal,
temperature signal

CONTROLLER

Proportional (P),
Proportional +
Integral (P+I),
Proportional +
Integral +
Derivative (P+I+D)

MEASURING
ELEMENT

MANIPULATED
VARIABLE
CONTROLLED
DEVICE
2-port valve,
3-way valve

Temperature
sensor,
pressure
sensor,
humidity
sensor

PROCESS
Autoclave
calorifier

CONTROLLED
CONDITION

Flow coefficients (capacity indices: Av Kv and Cv)

The pressure drop across a control valve at a given flowrate is a function of the flow coefficient or
capacity index. The value of the flow coefficient is published by the control valve manufacturer.
These coefficients represent the quantity of fluid which passes through a fully open control valve at
unity pressure drop. In true SI units the flow coefficient Av is the quantity of fluid in m/s that will pass
through a valve with a 1 Pa pressure drop across it. This produces rather unwieldy figures and most
manufacturers continue to use the imperial Cv or alternatively the engineering metric unit Kv. Cv
is the number of imperial gallons/min that will pass through the valve with a 1 psi pressure drop
across it. Care should be taken with American valves as the quoted Cv is likely to be based on the
smaller American gallon - the quoted flow coefficient being larger for the same valve than its imperial
cousin. Kv is the number of m3/h that pass through the control valve with a pressure drop of 1 bar.
Note: Kvs is sometimes used to denote full lift Kv.

EDB/1

5.01

Conversion factors
Cv (UK) = Kv x 0.97
Cv (US) = Kv x 1.17
A v = Kv x 28 x 10-6
These conversion factors are often a source of confusion and a word or two of explanation seems
worthwhile. Let us assume that a manufacturer has designed and subsequently confirmed by test
that a control valve has a Kv (or Kvs if you prefer) of 10. What is its capacity in Cv (UK) terms? Cv
is a bigger unit than K v and hence there will be numerically less of them, i.e. 10 x 0.97 = 9.7. In
a similar fashion, the Cv (US) unit is smaller than the Kv unit and hence there will be numerically more
of them: if the Kv of the valve = 10, then in Cv (US) terms it capacity is 11.7.

Kv Formulae
For liquids
Kv = Q
Where Q
G
p
Kv

=
=
=
=

G
p

Flow rate in m3/h

Relative density of liquid
Pressure drop across the valve in bar
Valve flow coefficient

Rearranging the formula, gives us:

Q = Kv

p
G

For saturated steam, there are a variety of formulae in existence, but a rationalised approach based
on experience is:
W = 12 Kv P 1
Where W
P1
P2
X

=
=
=
=

1 5.67 (0.42 X) 2

Mass flow rate kg/h

Upstream pressure in bar absolute
Downstream pressure in bar absolute
Pressure drop ratio P1 _ P 2
P1

Kv = Valve flow coefficient

Note: If this formula is used when P2 is below the value which gives critical flow, i.e. equal or less
than 58% P1 , then the term within the bracket (0.42 X) becomes less than zero. It is then taken
as zero and the function within the square root sign becomes 1. In other words, for critical pressure
drop the simplified formula shown below can be used:
W= 12 Kv P1

Valve authority (liquid systems)

Valve authority is a means of sizing a valve for a liquid system with due regard to economic viability
and good control. When selecting a valve size, the Valve Authority should be between 0.2 and 0.5
and preferably 0.5. This will ensure that each small valve movement will influence some authority
over the flow whilst not excessively increasing pumping power costs.
Valve Authority always relates to the variable volume circuit - see diagrams on page 5.05

5.02

EDB/1

Kv steam (saturated and superheated) sizing chart

Example: It is required to size a control valve to handle a process load of 700 kg/h. The
steam supply conditions are 9 bar g saturated. The application requires a steam pressure
of 3 bar g such that the design output is achieved.
Method: 9 bar g is approximately 10 bar abs and likewise 3 bar g is about 4 bar abs. As
P2 is less than 58% P1 abs, the pressure drop is critical. Draw a horizontal line at 10 bar
abs to the critical pressure drop line and then from the intersection, a vertical line to the
bottom of the chart.
Now draw a horizontal line from the 700 kg/h (0 OC superheat = saturated steam) to the
drawn vertical line. At this intersection, read off the Kv required; in this case a valve having
a Kvs of about 6 is required - see below for typical valve size.
Many control valve manufacturers now produce valves with flow coefficients that follow
one of the Renard Series of Preferred Numbers. The table below shows DN .v. Kvs:
DN

Kvs

15

4 (standard)
2.5 (reduced trims)
1.6
1.0
6.3 (standard)
4.0 (reduced trim)
10 (standard)
6.3 (reduced trim)
16 (standard)
10 (reduced trim)
25 (standard)
16 (reduced trim)
40 (standard)
25 (reduced trim)
63 (standard)
40 (reduced trim)
100 (standard)
63 (reduced trim)
160 (standard)
100 (reduced trim)
250 (standard)
160 (reduced trim)
400 (standard)
250 (reduced trim)

20
25
32
40
50
65
80
100
125
150

Note: in the above example a DN20 valve having a Kvs of 6.3 might suffice, however many
control engineers would select a DN25 (Kvs of 10) to gave a certain safety factor. This is
particularly important where the integrity of the 9 bar g supply cannot be guaranteed,
i.e. where steam supply pressure fluctuations occur.

EDB/1

5.03

Kv water sizing chart

Example: Size a three port diverting valve for the application shown below. The pressure
drop through the load (P2) has been calculated from tables to be 70 kPa with the design
flowrate of 2 l/s.
P1

P2

Method: firstly we need to consider Valve Authority; ideally we are looking for a figure of
0.5. Using the formula below, we can determine the pressure drop available across the
control valve:
Valve Authority N =

P1
P1 + P2

With our target N of 0.5 and P2 equal to 70 kPa, then the available pressure drop across
the valve (P1) must be 70 kPa. Using the Kv chart, draw a vertical line from 70 kPa and
a horizontal line from 2 l/s. A valve with a Kvs of about 8.6 is required. Referring to the
table of DN .v. Kvs shown on page 5.03, it can be seen that a DN25 valve is needed which
has a Kvs of 10. Installing a valve with a Kvs of 10 alters the Valve Authority somewhat
- the Kv Chart can be used to determine the pressure drop through the valve at the design
flowrate. The result is then substituted into the above formula to derive the Valve Authority.
In this case the revised P2 is 52 kPa and hence N is:
52
52 + 70
=

EDB/1

0.43

5.04

It is expressed as:N =

P1

or N =

P1 + P2
Where N
P1
P2
P3

=
=
=
=

P1
P3

Valve authority
Pressure drop across fully open control valve
Pressure drop across remainder of circuit
Pressure drop across whole circuit including control valve

P1

P2

Valve authority - two port valve application

P1

P2

Valve authority - three port mixing valve application

P1

P2

Valve authority- three port diverting valve application

EDB/1

5.05

Control valve characteristics

Inherent Characteristics
The relationship between valve spindle lift and area of valve opening is known as the inherent valve
characteristic. In the case of rotary valves, a similar relationship exists between spindle rotation
and area. There is an enormous range of possible valve characteristics but those most commonly
used are:
Linear: where the orifice area is directly proportional to the valve spindle lift.
Characterised V Port: with a characteristic falling between linear and equal percentage.
Equal percentage or similar modified parabolic: where equal increments of valve spindle lift provide
an equal percentage change of the previous area. The characteristic is represented by:
s = log V100
V0
Where:

s
V0
V100

= change in valve stroke...................%

= volume flow rate at zero stroke
if the valve was characterised to
this point.......................................m3/s
= volume flow rate with valve
fully open......................................m3/s

Quick opening: where the flow increases very rapidly from zero for small valve spindle movements,
with a fairly linear relationship between flow and spindle movement. Beyond this initial movement,
the flow rate varies more slowly with increased spindle movement. These valves are only really
suited to on/off applications.
The diagram below shows the basic valve curves described above.

100
D

A
Flow (%)
B
A Linear
B Characterised V-port
C Equal percentage
D Quick opening

0
0

valve spindle lift (%)

100

The characteristics shown above are obtained by measuring flow with a constant pressure drop
across the valve for all valve spindle positions. In other words, with a Valve Authority of unity. When
such valves are installed into systems it is highly unlikely that they will operate with such a Valve
Authority and thus the valve characteristic curves are modified. The amount of distortion is
dependent on the Valve Authority with distortion increasing as it decreases. See diagram on
page 5.07

5.06

EDB/1

Installed Characteristics

Equal percentage

-----Linear

Heater or cooler output with

different control valves

Normal heater or cooler

battery characteristic (typical)

Rangeability
This valve parameter is defined as the ratio of the maximum controllable flow to the minimum
controllable flow. In the figure below the rangeability R is equal to fmax divided by fmin. A rangeability
of 50 indicates a valve which will control to its defined characteristic down to 2% of its maximum flow.
Care should be taken to ensure that the rangeability is suitable for control at low load conditions,
particularly in light of the heat transfer characteristics of some heat exchangers at low flow rates.
Flow
100%
f = let-by
R = fmax

fmax

fmin

fmax
fmin
f

Note: where R is in the region

of 500 rather than 50-100 the
curve may be different

100%
Valve spindle lift

Valve leakage rates

Another important consideration when selecting control valves is the declared leakage rate which
is usually expressed as a percentage of the Kvs value. In British Standard 5793 Part 4 (IEC 5344), control valve leakage is categorised by a class system:
Leakage Class Designation
I
II
III
IV
V
VI

EDB/1

Maximum Allowable Leakage

As agreed buyer/supplier
0.5% of Kvs
0.1% of Kvs
0.01% of Kvs
-5
1.8 x 10 x differential pressure bar x seat diameter mm
See table on page 5.08

5.07

Valve leakage rates BS5793 (IEC 534-4) Part 4

Class VI:
Nominal Port Diameter
25
40
50
65
80
100
150
200

Leakage Rate- ml/min

0.15
0.30
0.45
0.60
0.90
1.70
4.00
6.75

Control modes
A controller can be made to operate a final control element such as a control valve in a number of
different ways in response to a signal. The way in which the final control element (control valve) acts
in response to the signal is known as the control mode. There are five principal control modes and
these can be used singly or in combination with each other. The control mode does not define the
means by which control is effected which may be through mechanical, electro-mechanical,
electrical, electronic or pneumatic systems.
The five basic control modes are: on/off, proportional control, floating control, integral control and
derivative control.
On/off control
This provides only two plant outputs - maximum (on) and minimum (off). The control sensor which
normally takes the form of an on/off thermostat, pressure switch or humidistat operates such that
below the set point the contacts open and vice versa. The reverse operation can be arranged when
the device is said to be reverse acting. There will always be an interval between the contacts
opening and closing when there is no change in the signal. This is known as the differential of the
device. It should be noted, however, that the temperature swing is wider than the differential due
to the thermal inertia of the system being controlled.

Controlled Condition

Differential

Time

Controller
Output
Signal

Time
Action of On/off Controller

5.08

EDB/1

Proportional Control (P)

This action refers to a control element having an output signal proportional to its input signal. The
proportional band is the deviation necessary to produce the full range of control action. It can be
expressed in the physical unit (e.g. oC or bar) directly or as a percentage of the controller scale. If
the scale of the controller is 80 oC and a 20 oC change is necessary to produce full controller output,
then the proportional band is 20/80 = 25%. Another way of expressing this is in terms of 'gain' - gain
is the reciprocal of the proportional band - in this case, 4. The symbol used for proportional band
is Xp (%).
80

Controlled condition
temperature oC

60

40

Set point or
desired value

Proportional
band

20

0
100
Open

75

50
Valve position%

25

0
Closed

Load

Controlled condition
Valve position %
temperature oC

Time
50
40
30

offset
Time

75
50
25
Time
Action of a proportional controller

Floating Control
A correcting element may be arranged to act at a fixed speed by means of a controller which imparts
pulses to the element. This mode of operation is dependent on the use of a dead band in the
controlled variable, in which the correcting element is not powered and remains stationary in its last
pulsed position. When the controlled variable moves outside the dead zone, the correcting element
is once again able to move - powered. This is the basis of floating control as shown on page 5.10.

EDB/1

5.09

Neutral zone

Controlled temperature

Desired value

Open
Valve position
Closed
Time

Action of a floating controller

Integral Control (I)
A correcting element may be arranged to remain stationary when the controlled medium is at the
desired value and thereafter move in a correcting manner at increasing speed proportional to the
deviation from the desired value. This form of floating action is known as Integral Action.
Derivative Control (D)
A correcting element may be set so that its speed of operation is proportional to the rate of change
of the controlled variable. This action is used to eliminate overshoot during a fast load change - a
dampening action. Derivative control is also able to make a quick correcting signal in response to
a sudden fall in the measured variable.
Combinations of Basic Modes
Proportional plus Integral Control (P+I)
This mode combines the inherent stability of proportional control with the accuracy of the integral
mode to eliminate offset The diagram below shows the action of a P+I controller in response to a
step change.
Heating load

+
Controlled
temperature

Valve movement
due to proportional
action

Valve movement
due to integral action

Action of a
P + I controller

Resultant valve
movement due
to P + I action

5.10

EDB/1

Proportional plus Integral plus Derivative Control (PID)

This form of control combines the advantages of P+I control with derivative to combat sudden load
changes, whilst maintaining a zero offset under steady state conditions. The diagram below
illustrates the action of a PID controller.

Load

Set point
P only

Overall controlled condition

Set point
P+I

Set point

PID

Action of a PID controller

Matching Control Modes and Plant Characteristics

The type of control mode selected should be determined by the plant characteristic. If we consider
a large hot water storage calorifier, the secondary capacity (stored water) is large when compared
with the primary supply side (heating coil). If the vessel is controlled by a simple on/off thermostat,
then when it is cold there will be a call for heat, the valve will open and remain open until the water
in the calorifier is heated to the required temperature. There will always be a time lag in meeting any
load change but since large storage has been provided, this should not matter and an on/off control
will perform quite satisfactorily. On/off control in general is suitable for processes where there is a
large secondary side thermal capacity.
Turning to a high duty non storage heating calorifier with steam as the primary medium, here we have
a different scenario. This type of calorifier has a very small thermal capacity on both the primary and
secondary sides. If we try to control this application using on/off control, a call for heat by the
secondary water temperature would open the steam control valve on the primary but since there is
little secondary capacity and a fast reaction rate, it would be quickly satisfied and the valve closed.
The cycle would repeat every few minutes causing rapid wear and possible early failure of the control
system, but of more concern is the potential excessive cycling in the controlled water temperature
which at worst could cause boiling and steam formation. A proportional controller would be a better
choice for this application. Where offset can not be tolerated a P+I controller is usually the first
choice.
The use of PID controllers has traditionally been restricted to applications where there are very rapid
changes in load coupled with tight limits on the desired value and where there is a need for fast
corrective action. Nowadays with the advent of economically priced modern electronic controllers
the use of PID is far more widespread than it used to be, however in the strictest technical sense,
they are seldom needed and a simpler system such as P or P+I control will often suffice.

EDB/1

5.11

Summary of control mode characteristics

On/Off

Inexpensive
Simple

Proportional

Simple
Stable
Easy to set up
Offset occurs

Proportional plus integral

No offset
Instability can occur

Proportional plus Derivative

Stable
Some offset (but less than with P-action alone)
Rapid Response to changes

Proportional plus Integral plus Derivative

Most complex
Most expensive
No offset
Will give best control but has to be set up properly
which can be complicated.

PN Controls - combinations of valve & actuator actions

Air

Air

Air

Actuator Action
Valve Action

Direct
Direct

On Air Failure

Air

Reverse
Reverse

Reverse
Direct

Valve Opens

Direct
Reverse
Valve Closed

Air

Air

Actuator Action
On Air Failure

5.12

Direct
Top Seat closes.
Bottom Seat opens

Reverse
Bottom Seat closes
Top Seat opens.

EDB/1

Safety valve selection and sizing

The selection and sizing of safety valves to protect pressurized systems from overpressure is one of the most important jobs that we undertake. It goes without saying that
we must always get it right!
With regard to boilers themselves, the safety valves are usually selected by the manufacturers and approved by the independent engineering inspection authority; we therefore
have little to do with their selection and sizing. Basically boiler safety valves are sized to
pass the full 'from and at' rating of the boiler when set at the boiler design pressure. British
Law requires that boilers with an evaporation rate of more than 3700 kg/h are fitted with
two safety valves. Also, the bore of the body seat of each safety valve connected to a boiler
shall not be less than 20mm.
We are much more concerned with the selection and sizing of safety valves for use with
pressure reducing stations than we are with boilers and as this is less regulated it warrants
further explanation.
The maximum set pressure of a safety valve is the design pressure of the system it
protects. The safety valve will commence to open at its set pressure and achieve its
declared capacity within a set over-pressure or accumulation - typically 110% of set
pressure. There should be an adequate margin between the normal operating pressure
of the system being protected and the set pressure of the safety valve to prevent nuisance
operation and premature wear of the safety valve - see diagram on page 5.14 which shows
the relationship of normal operating pressure, design pressure, accumulation etc.
The best method of explaining the selection and sizing of a safety valve is by example:

In the above application the supply steam is saturated at 25 bar g and is reduced through
a pressure reducing valve to 8 bar g. The design conditions of the downstream plant
are to PN16 with cast iron fittings and products. The Kvs of the DN50 reducing valve is
28.
Select a suitable safety valve for the application.
The first step is to determine the steam design pressure of the downstream plant. Pressure
/temperature charts reveal that PN16 cast iron products have a steam design pressure of
13 bar g. This is the maximum set pressure of the safety valve. Use the safety valve
sizing chart overleaf to determine the safety valve size. Draw a vertical line from the
set pressure of 13 bar g to the upstream pressure curve of 25 bar g. At this intersection
draw a horizontal line to the Kvs of the reducing valve (28). From this intersection, draw
a diagonal line down to the safety valve set pressure line and read off the required safety
valve size. In this case a size larger than a DN65 safety is required - i.e. DN80.

EDB/1

5.13

Relationship of system design pressure to safety valve set pressure

etc.
The chart below is derived from British Standard 5500 (Specification for unfired fusion welded
pressure vessels) and illustrates the relationship between the pressure system requirements and
the safety valve.
Design Pressure of System

Maximum Setting of Safety Valve

Safety Valve may be set

within this region

Minimum Setting of Safety Valve

Reseat Differential
= 10% of Safety Valve Set Pressure
(0.3 bar g minimum)
Maximum Operating Pressure
(no load condition)

Normal System Pressure Variation

Operating Pressure
Maximum Flow Rate

Clearly the maximum set pressure of the safety valve is the design pressure of the system it protects
and the rise in pressure above the set pressure (accumulation) in achieving the declared capacity
exceeds the design pressure of the system by as much as 10%*. Obviously the design safety factors
of the system cater for this temporary 'excess' pressure.
Another important consideration is the pressure at which the safety valve reseats after it has relieved
the excess pressure. This is below the set pressure of the valve and is known as the reseat
differential or 'blowdown' of the valve. It is typically 10%* of the set pressure.
Due to 'blowdown' considerations the maximum (no load) pressure of the pressure reducing valve
must be at least 10% below the set pressure of the safety valve. On full load, the system operating
pressure will be lower due to the proportional band of the PRV.
* based on British Standard 6759 Part 1 (Specification for safety valves for steam and hot water).

EDB/1

5.14

Standards and
Materials

Relevant national, european and international standards

Symbols have been used to indicate harmonised standards, technically equivalent standards and
respectively.
related standards - ; = and

Products section
Steam traps:
BS 6023
ISO 6552. Glossary of technical terms for automatic steam traps.
ISO 6553. Specification for marking of automatic steam traps.
BS EN 26 553
BS EN 26 554 ISO 6554. Specification for face to face dimensions for flanged automatic steam traps.
ISO 6704. Classification for automatic steam traps.
BS EN 26 704
ISO 6948. Specification for production and performance characteristic tests for
BS EN 26 948
automatic steam traps.
ISO 7841. Methods for determination of steam loss of automatic steam traps.
BS EN 27 841
BS EN 27 842 ISO 7842. Methods for determination of discharge capacity of automatic steam traps.

Pressure vessels (blowdown/flash vessels & separators)

BS 470 Specification for inspection, access and entry openings for pressure vessels.
BS 3463 Specification for observation and gauge glasses for pressure vessels.
BS 5500 Specification for unfired fusion welded pressure vessels.
BS EN 286 Specification for simple unfired pressure vessels designed to contain air or nitrogen.

Control valves

BS 5793 IEC 534 Industrial process control valves; Part 1(BS EN 60534-1) - Specification and
terminology for control valves; Part 2 (BS EN 60534-2.1/2.2/2.3) - flow capacity; Part 3 - Dimensions;
Part 4 - Specification for inspection and routine testing; Part 5 - Specification for marking; Part 6 - ;
Part 7 - ; Part 8 (BS EN 60534-8.2) - Noise Considerations.

Isolating valves (ball, butterfly, check, gate, piston etc.)

BS 5150
ISO 5996 Specification for cast iron wedge and double disk gate valves for general
purposes.
BS 5151 Specification for cast iron gate (parallel slide) valves for general purposes.
BS 5152 Specification for cast iron globe and globe stop and check valves for general purposes.
BS 5153 Specification for cast iron check valves for general purposes.
BS 5154 Specification for copper alloy globe, globe stop and check, check and gate valves.
BS 5155 Specification for butterfly valves.
BS 5158 Specification for cast iron plug valves.
ISO 7121 Specification for cast iron and carbon steel ball valves for general purposes.
BS 5159
BS 5160 Specification for steel globe valves, globe stop and check, and lift type check valves.
BS 7438 Specification for steel and copper alloy wafer check valves, single disk, spring loaded type.
ISO 5752 Metal valves for use in piping systems - face to face dimensions.
ISO 10631 Metallic butterfly valves for general purposes.

Pressure gauges and thermometers

BS 1704 General purpose thermometers
BS1780 Specification for bourdon tube pressure and vacuum gauges
BS 5253 Dial type expansion thermometers

Safety valves
BS 6759 Part 1 Specification for safety valves for steam and hot water; Part 2 Specification for safety
valves for compressed air or inert gases; Part 3 Specification for safety valves for process fluids.

EDB/1

6.01

General section
Quality systems
BS EN ISO 9000 Quality management and quality assurance standards; 9000-1 Guidelines for
selection and use; 9001 Quality systems - Model for quality assurance in design, development,
production, installation and servicing; 9002 Quality systems - Model for quality assurance in
production, installation and servicing; 9003 Quality systems - Model for assurance in final inspection
and test; 9004 Quality management and quality assurance standards; 9004-1 Guidelines.

Boilers
BS 759 Valves, gauges and other safety fittings for application to boilers and to piping installations for
and in connection with boilers.
BS 1113 Specification for design and manufacture of watertube steam generating plant (including
superheaters, reheaters and steel tube economisers).
BS 1894 Specification for design and manufacture of electrode boilers of welded construction.
BS 2790 Specification for design and manufacture of shell boilers of welded construction.

Water treatment
BS 1170 Methods for treatment of water for marine boilers.
BS 1328 Methods of sampling water used in industry.
BS 2486 Recommendations for treatment of water for land boilers.

Piping systems
BS 10 Specification for flanges and bolting for pipes, valves and fittings.
BS 21 = ISO 7/1 ISO 7/2 Specification for pipe threads for tubes and fittings where pressure tight joints
are made on the threads.
BS 806 Specification for design and construction of ferrous piping installations for and in connection
with land boilers.
BS 1306 Specification for copper and copper alloy piping systems.
BS 1387 Specification for screwed and socketed tubes and tubulars and for plain end steel tubes
suitable for welding and screwing to BS 21 pipe threads.
BS 1560 Circular flanges for pipes, valves and fittings (Class designated); Part 3 Section 3.1
Specification for steel flanges ( ISO 7005); Part 3 Section 3.2 Specification for cast iron flanges (
ISO 7005-2); Part 3 Section 3.3 Specification for copper alloy and composite flanges ( ISO 7005-3)
BS 1600 Dimensions of steel pipe for the petroleum industry.
BS 1965 Specification for butt welding pipe fittings for pressure purposes.
BS 1710 Specification for identification of pipelines.
BS 2779 = IS0 228/1 and ISO 228/2 Specification for pipe threads for tubes and fittings where pressure
tight joints are not made on the threads.
BS 3600 Specification for dimensions and masses per unit length of welded and seamless steel pipes
and tubes for pressure purposes.
BS 3601 Specification for steel pipes and tubes with specified room temperature properties for
pressure purposes.
BS 3602 Specification for steel pipes and tubes for pressure purposes: carbon and carbon manganese
steel with specified elevated temperature properties.
BS 3603 Specification for carbon and alloy steel pipes and tubes with specified low temperature
properties for pressure purposes.
BS 3604 Steel pipes and tubes for pressure purposes: ferritic alloy steel with specified elevated
temperature properties.
BS 3605 Austenitic stainless steel pipes and tubes for pressure purposes.
BS 3799 Specification for steel pipe fittings, screwed and socket welded for the petroleum industry.
BS 3974 Specification for pipe supports.
BS 4504 Part 3 Section 3.1 Specification for steel flanges; Section 3.2 Specification for cast iron
flanges ( ISO 7005-2); Section 3.3 Specification for copper alloy and composite flanges
( ISO 7005/3).

6.02

EDB/1

Enclosures

BS EN 60 529 IEC 529 Specification for degrees of protection provided by enclosures (IP code).

Guidance notes
Health and Safety Executive (UK) PM5 Automatically controlled steam and hot water boilers.
Health and Safety Executive (UK) PM60 Steam boiler blowdown systems.

End connections - flanges

Size
In British Standards, flanges are identified by the nominal size (or nominal pipe-bore size) in BS 10,
in inches, and in BS 4504, in mm. The American ANSI Standards are very similar in inches. DIN
Standards refer to the same dimension as Nennweite (NW) and AFNOR Standards use the title
diameter nominal (DN). DIN and BS standards are also now using the DN nomenclature.
Pressure
BS 10 designates pressure-temperature ratings by means of alphabetic Tables (A to T) unit of
pressure (lbf/sq. in).
In BS 4504 each rating Table has a double number reference (e.g. 10/3) : the first part of the Table
reference indicates the pressure in bar (= PN rating) while the second figure identifies the material and
type of flange (screwed, integral etc.)
DIN issue separate standards for each pressure rating or Nenndrucke (nominal pressure = ND) but
are gradually adopting PN; AFNOR are similar individual standards for each pression nominale
(nominal pressure = PN) each with dimensional tables. ANSI uses a completely different system of
eight Class ratings, Classes 125,150, 250, 300, 400, 600, 900 and 1500, the numerals representing
their respective primary service pressure ratings in lbf/sq. in at elevated temperature. Extensive tables
give dimensional details by Class and type, pressure temperature ratings for all types of material, as
well as a range of flange facings. (B16.24 bronze, B16.1 cast iron and B16.5 steel). BS 1560
is based on these ANSI standards.
Flange facings
As a general rule, flanges made in copper alloy materials are always supplied flat faced. The various
National Standard requirements on ferrous flanges are listed as follows:
BS 10:

cast iron flanges are to be supplied flat faced

steel flanges to Tables D, E . F are normally flat faced
steel flanges to Tables H, J . K-raised face is recommended in the Standard but it
is Company practice to supply flat face with raised face as an option at extra cost.
steel flanges to Tables R, S . T will be supplied with raised face.

BS 4504/DIN:

cast iron, e.g. iron and steel flanges are all supplied with raised face as standard.

ANSI B16.1:

cast iron flanges to Class 125 are required to be flat faced

cast iron flanges to Class 250 are required to have a raised face

ANSI B 16.5:

steel flanges - from Class 150 upwards all Classes will be supplied with a raised
face.

Note: above Class 300 the raised face thickness is additional to the minimum flange flange thickness.
In the following flange tables this additional amount has been added to the dimension c to give an
inclusive figure for the Classes 400, 600, 900 and 1500 see column C.
ANSI B16.42:

EDB/1

ductile cast (SG) iron flanges to Class 150 and 300 are supplied with raised faces.

6.03

Surface Finish
As standard Company products are now supplied with spiral or concentrically grooved faces as
standard. The radius of the tool used to machine the finish is either 0.4 or 0.8mm with the depth of the
serrations in the range 0.01/0.02mm. The pitch of the serrations is typically 0.4mm and the roughness
grade is in the range 3.2mm (125m or N8) to 6.3mm (250m or N9).
Flange Tolerance
As standard the Company manufactures flanges to the following tolerances:
Outside diameter (D)
Thickness (C)
Raised face diameter
Raised face height
Bolt pitch circle diameter
Bolt hole diameter

+ 2mm/ - 0.0mm
+ 2mm/ - 0.0mm
+ 0.5mm
+ 0.2mm
+ 0.5mm
+ 0.5mm/ -0.0mm

Face finish- A brief explanation

Flat Face
The joint face is over the whole area and is machined right across normally to a smooth finish.

6.04

EDB/1

Raised Face
The joint face is a raised area to specified dimensions in the centre of the flange. The joint face may
be smooth or to one of the serrated finishes shown below according to specification.

Smooth Finish
As is implied this is a straightforward smooth machined finish.
Serrated Finish
The object of serrated finish is to provide a better key for the gasket and is normally used only on high
pressures. There are two forms as follows:
a) Special Groove, Continuous Groove or sometimes, for obvious reasons referred to as Gramophone
finish. This a continuous groove to specified dimensions winding outwards from the centre to the
edge of the joint face.

EDB/1

6.05

b) Concentric Grooving: This consists of a number of concentric grooves machined on the joint face
to a specified pitch and depth: this is difficult and expensive and is rarely required.

Bolt Holes: Bolt holes as standard are drilled Off Centre.

6.06

EDB/1

End connections
L

Steel flange tables

C
f
d
K
D
(DN15 - 1/2")
Flange standard
BS 10

Rating/Class D
Table F
95.3
Table H
114.3
Table J
114.3
Table K
114.3
Table R
114.3
Table S
127.0
Table T
140.0
BS 4504*/DIN 2501
PN10
95
PN16
95
*up to PN40 only
PN25
95
PN40
95
PN64
105
PN100
105
PN250
130
BS 1560/ANSI B.16.5
150
89
300
95
400
95
600
95
900
121
1500
121
(DN20 - 3/4")
Flange standard
BS 10

Rating/Class D
Table F
101.6
Table H
114.3
Table J
114.3
Table K
114.3
Table R
114.3
Table S
127.0
Table T
140.0
BS 4504*/DIN 2501
PN10
105
PN16
105
*up to PN40 only
PN25
105
PN40
105
PN64
130
PN100
130
PN250
BS 1560/ANSI B.16.5
150
98
300
117
400
117
600
117
900
130
1500
130

EDB/1

K
66.7
82.6
82.6
82.6
82.6
89.0
101.6
65
65
65
65
75
75
90
60.3
66.7
66.7
66.7
82.6
82.6

L
14.3
17.5
17.5
17.5
17.5
22.2
22.2
14
14
14
14
14
14
18
15.9
15.9
15.9
15.9
22.2
22.2

No.
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4

Bolt
1/2"
5/8"
5/8"
5/8"
5/8"
3/4"
3/4"
M12
M12
M12
M12
M12
M12
M16
1/2"
1/2"
1/2"
1/2"
3/4"
3/4"

C
9.5
12.7
15.9
19.1
19.1
22.2
25.4
14
16
16
16
20
20
26
11.1
14.3
20.7
20.7
28.6
28.6

K
73.0
82.6
82.6
82.6
82.6
89.0
101.6
75
75
75
75
90
90

L
14.3
17.5
17.5
17.5
17.5
22.2
22.2
14
14
14
14
18
18

No.
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4

Bolt
1/2"
5/8"
5/8"
5/8"
5/8"
3/4"
3/4"
M12
M12
M12
M12
M16
M16

C
9.5
12.7
15.9
19.1
19.1
22.2
25.4
16
16
18
18
22
22

69.8
82.6
82.6
82.6
88.9
88.9

15.9
19.0
19.0
19.0
22.2
22.2

4
4
4
4
4
4

1/2"
5/8"
5/8"
5/8"
3/4"
3/4"

12.7
15.9
22.3
22.3
31.8
31.8

57.2
57.2
63.5
63.5
63.5
63.5
45
45
45
45
45
45
45
35
35
35
35
35
35

1.6
1.6
1.6
1.6
1.6
1.6
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
1.6
1.6
6.4
6.4
6.4
6.4

57.2
57.2
63.5
63.5
63.5
63.5
58
58
58
58
58
58

1.6
1.6
1.6
1.6
1.6
1.6
2
2
2
2
2
2

43
43
43
43
43
43

1.6
1.6
6.4
6.4
6.4
6.4

6.07

Steel flange tables

L
C
f
d
K
D

(DN25 - 1")
Flange standard
BS 10

Rating/Class D
Table F
121
Table H
121
Table J
121
Table K
127
Table R
127
Table S
140
Table T
146.1
BS 4504*/DIN 2501
PN10
115
PN16
115
*up to PN40 only
PN25
115
PN40
115
PN64
140
PN100
140
PN250
150
BS 1560/ANSI B.16.5
150
108
300
124
400
124
600
124
900
149
1500
149
(DN32 - 1 1/4")
Flange standard
BS 10

Rating/Class D
Table F
133.4
Table H
133.4
Table J
133.4
Table K
133.4
Table R
133.4
Table S
146.1
Table T
158.8
BS 4504*/DIN 2501
PN10
140
PN16
140
*up to PN40 only
PN25
140
PN40
140
PN64
155
PN100
155
PN250
BS 1560/ANSI B.16.5
150
117
300
133
400
133
600
133
900
159
1500
159

6.08

K
87.3
87.3
87.3
95.2
95.2
101.6
108.0
85
85
85
85
100
100
105
79.4
88.9
88.9
88.9
101.6
101.6

L
17.5
17.5
17.5
17.5
17.5
22.2
22.2
14
14
14
14
18
18
22
15.9
19.0
19.0
19.0
25.4
25.4

No.
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4

Bolt
5/8"
5/8"
5/8"
5/8"
5/8"
3/4"
3/4"
M12
M12
M12
M12
M16
M16
M20
1/2"
5/8"
5/8"
5/8"
7/8"
7/8"

C
9.5
14.3
19.1
22.2
22.2
25.4
28.6
16
16
18
18
24
24
28
14.3
17.5
23.9
23.9
35.0
35.0

K
98.4
98.4
98.4
98.4
98.4
108.0
120.6
100
100
100
100
110
110

L
17.5
17.5
17.5
17.5
17.5
22.2
25.4
18
18
18
18
22
22

No.
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4

Bolt
5/8"
5/8"
5/8"
5/8"
5/8"
3/4"
7/8"
M16
M16
M16
M16
M20
M20

C
12.7
17.5
19.1
22.2
22.2
28.6
31.8
16
16
18
18
26
26

88.9
98.4
98.4
98.4
111.1
111.1

15.9
19.0
19.0
19.0
25.4
25.4

4
4
4
4
4
4

1/2"
5/8"
5/8"
5/8"
7/8"
7/8"

15.9
19.0
27.0
27.0
35.0
35.0

63.5
63.5
76.2
76.2
76.2
76.2
68
68
68
68
68
68
68
51
51
51
51
51
51

1.6
1.6
1.6
1.6
1.6
1.6
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
1.6
1.6
6.4
6.4
6.4
6.4

76.2
76.2
76.2
76.2
82.6
82.6
78
78
78
78
78
78

1.6
1.6
1.6
1.6
1.6
1.6
2
2
2
2
2
2

64
64
64
64
64
64

1.6
1.6
6.4
6.4
6.4
6.4

EDB/1

Steel flange tables

L
C
f
d
K
D
(DN40 - 1 1/2")
Flange standard
BS 10

Rating/Class D
Table F
140
Table H
140
Table J
140
Table K
152.4
Table R
152.4
Table S
158.8
Table T
171.5
BS 4504*/DIN 2501
PN10
150
PN16
150
*up to PN40 only
PN25
150
PN40
150
PN64
170
PN100
170
PN250
185
BS 1560/ANSI B.16.5
150
127
300
156
400
156
600
156
900
178
1500
178
(DN50 - 2")
Flange standard
BS 10

Rating/Class D
Table F
165.1
Table H
165.1
Table J
165.1
Table K
165.1
Table R
165.1
Table S
171.5
Table T
184.2
BS 4504*/DIN 2501
PN10
165
PN16
165
*up to PN40 only
PN25
165
PN40
165
PN64
180
PN100
195
PN250
200
BS 1560/ANSI B.16.5
150
152
300
165
400
165
600
165
900
216
1500
216

EDB/1

K
104.8
104.8
104.8
114.3
114.3
120.6
133.3
110
110
110
110
125
125
135
98.4
114.3
114.3
114.3
123.8
123.8

L
17.5
17.5
17.5
22.2
22.2
22.2
22.2
18
18
18
18
22
22
26
15.9
22.2
22.2
22.2
28.6
28.6

No.
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4

Bolt
5/8"
5/8"
5/8"
3/4"
3/4"
3/4"
3/4"
M16
M16
M16
M16
M20
M20
M24
1/2"
3/4"
3/4"
3/4"
1"
1"

C
12.7
17.5
22.2
25.4
25.4
28.6
34.9
16
16
18
18
28
28
34
17.5
20.6
28.6
28.6
38.2
38.2

K
127
127
127
127
127
133.3
146.0
125
125
125
125
135
145
150
120.6
127.0
127.0
127.0
165.1
165.1

L
17.5
17.5
22.2
17.5
17.5
22.2
22.2
18
18
18
18
22
26
26
19.0
19.0
19.0
19.0
25.4
25.4

No.
4
4
4
8
8
8
8
4
4
4
4
4
4
8
4
8
8
8
8
8

Bolt
5/8"
5/8"
3/4"
5/8"
5/8"
3/4"
3/4"
M16
M16
M16
M16
M20
M24
M24
5/8"
5/8"
5/8"
5/8"
7/8"
7/8"

C
15.9
19.1
25.4
25.4
25.4
31.8
34.9
18
18
20
20
26
30
38
19.0
22.2
31.8
31.8
44.5
44.5

82.6
82.6
89.0
89.0
89.0
89.0
88
88
88
88
88
88
88
73
73
73
73
73
73

1.6
1.6
1.6
1.6
1.6
1.6
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
1.6
1.6
6.4
6.4
6.4
6.4

102
102
102
102
89
102
102
102
102
102
102
102
102
92
92
92
92
92
92

1.6
1.6
1.6
1.6
1.6
1.6
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
1.6
1.6
6.4
6.4
6.4
6.4

6.09

Steel flange tables

L
C
f
d
K
D

(DN65 - 2 1/2")
Flange standard
BS 10

Rating/Class D
Table F
184.2
Table H
184.2
Table J
184.2
Table K
184.2
Table R
184.2
Table S
184.2
Table T
203.2
BS 4504*/DIN 2501
PN10
185
PN16
185
*up to PN40 only
PN25
185
PN40
185
PN64
205
PN100
220
PN250
230
BS 1560/ANSI B.16.5
150
178
300
190
400
190
600
190
900
244
1500
244
(DN80 -3")
Flange standard
BS 10

Rating/Class D
Table F
203.2
Table H
203.2
Table J
203.2
Table K
203.2
Table R
203.2
Table S
203.2
Table T
235.0
BS 4504*/DIN 2501
PN10
200
PN16
200
*up to PN40 only
PN25
200
PN40
200
PN64
215
PN100
230
PN250
255
BS 1560/ANSI B.16.5
150
190
300
210
400
210
600
210
900
241
1500
267

6.10

K
146.0
146.0
146.0
146.0
146.0
146.0
165.1
145
145
145
145
160
170
180
139.7
149.2
149.2
149.2
190.5
190.5

L
17.5
17.5
22.2
22.2
22.2
22.2
25.4
18
18
18
18
22
26
26
19.0
22.2
22.2
22.2
28.6
28.6

No.
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
4
4
8
8
8
8
8
4
8
8
8
8
8

Bolt
5/8"
5/8"
3/4"
3/4"
3/4"
3/4"
7/8"
M16
M16
M16
M16
M20
M24
M24
5/8"
3/4"
3/4"
3/4"
1"
1"

C
15.9
19.1
25.4
28.6
28.6
31.8
41.3
18
18
22
22
26
34
42
22.2
25.4
35.0
35.0
47.7
47.7

K
165.1
165.1
165.1
165.1
165.1
165.1
190.5
160
160
160
160
170
180
200
152.4
168.3
168.3
168.3
190.5
203.0

L
17.5
17.5
22.2
22.2
22.2
25.4
28.6
18
18
18
18
22
26
30
19.0
22.2
22.2
22.2
25.4
33.0

No.
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
4
8
8
8
8
8

Bolt
5/8"
5/8"
3/4"
3/4"
3/4"
7/8"
1"
M16
M16
M16
M16
M20
M24
M27
5/8"
3/4"
3/4"
3/4"
7/8"
1 1/8"

C
15.9
22.2
31.8
31.8
31.8
35.0
47.6
20
20
24
24
28
36
46
23.8
28.6
38.2
38.2
44.5
48.0

114.3
114.3
114.3
114.3
102.0
114.3
122
122
122
122
122
122
122
105
105
105
105
105
105

1.6
1.6
1.6
1.6
1.6
1.6
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
1.6
1.6
6.4
6.4
6.4
6.4

127
127
127
127
114.3
127
138
138
138
138
138
138
138
127
127
127
127
127
127

1.6
1.6
1.6
1.6
1.6
1.6
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
1.6
1.6
6.4
6.4
6.4
6.4

EDB/1

Steel flange tables

L
C
f
d
K
D
(DN100 - 4")
Flange standard
BS 10

Rating/Class D
Table F
228.6
Table H
228.6
Table J
228.6
Table K
241.3
Table R
241.3
Table S
247.7
Table T
285.8
BS 4504*/DIN 2501
PN10
220
PN16
220
*up to PN40 only
PN25
235
PN40
235
PN64
250
PN100
265
PN250
300
BS 1560/ANSI B.16.5
150
229
300
254
400
254
600
273
900
292
1500
311
(DN125 -5")
Flange standard
BS 10

Rating/Class D
Table F
279.4
Table H
279.4
Table J
279.4
Table K
279.4
Table R
279.4
Table S
285.8
Table T
324.0
BS 4504*/DIN 2501
PN10
250
PN16
250
*up to PN40 only
PN25
270
PN40
270
PN64
295
PN100
315
PN250
340
BS 1560/ANSI B.16.5
150
254
300
279
400
279
600
330
900
349
1500
375

EDB/1

K
190.5
190.5
190.5
196.8
196.8
203.2
235.0
180
180
190
190
200
210
235
190.5
200.0
200.0
215.9
235.0
242.0

L
17.5
17.5
22.2
25.4
25.4
28.6
31.8
18
18
22
22
26
30
33
19.0
22.2
25.4
25.4
31.8
34.9

No.
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8

Bolt
5/8"
5/8"
3/4"
7/8"
7/8"
1"
1 1/8"
M16
M16
M20
M20
M24
M27
M30
5/8"
3/4"
7/8"
7/8"
1 1/8"
1 1/4"

C
19.1
25.4
34.9
34.9
34.9
41.3
57.2
20
20
24
24
30
40
54
23.8
31.8
41.3
44.5
50.8
54.0

K
235
235
235
235
235
235
273
210
210
220
220
240
250
275
215.9
235.0
235.0
266.7
279.4
292.0

L
22.2
22.2
25.4
25.4
25.4
25.4
31.8
18
18
26
26
30
33
33
22.2
22.2
25.4
28.6
34.9
42.0

No.
8
8
8
12
12
12
12
8
8
8
8
8
8
12
8
8
8
8
8
8

Bolt
3/4"
3/4"
7/8"
7/8"
7/8"
7/8"
1 1/8"
M16
M16
M24
M24
M27
M30
M30
3/4"
3/4"
7/8"
1"
1 1/4"
1 1/2"

C
22.2
28.6
38.1
41.3
41.3
44.5
66.7
22
22
26
26
34
40
60
23.8
34.9
44.5
50.8
57.2
73.5

152.4
152.4
152.4
152.4
159.0
114.3
158
158
162
162
162
162
162
157
157
157
157
157
157

1.6
1.6
1.6
1.6
1.6
1.6
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
1.6
1.6
6.4
6.4
6.4
6.4

178
178
178
178
190
210
188
188
188
188
188
188
188
186
186
186
186
186
186

1.6
1.6
1.6
1.6
1.6
1.6
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
1.6
1.6
6.4
6.4
6.4
6.4

6.11

Steel flange tables

L
C
f
d
K
D

(DN150 -6")
Flange standard
BS 10

Rating/Class D
Table F
304.8
Table H
304.8
Table J
304.8
Table K
304.8
Table R
304.8
Table S
323.9
Table T
374.7
BS 4504*/DIN 2501
PN10
285
PN16
285
*up to PN40 only
PN25
300
PN40
300
PN64
345
PN100
355
PN250
390
BS 1560/ANSI B.16.5
150
279
300
318
400
318
600
356
900
381
1500
395
(DN200 -8")
Flange standard
BS 10

Rating/Class D
Table F
368.3
Table H
368.3
Table J
368.3
Table K
368.3
Table R
368.3
Table S
412.8
Table T
476.3
BS 4504*/DIN 2501
PN10
340
PN16
340
*up to PN40 only
PN25
360
PN40
375
PN64
415
PN100
430
PN250
485
BS 1560/ANSI B.16.5
150
343
300
381
400
381
600
419
900
470
1500
485

6.12

K
260.3
260.3
260.3
260.3
260.3
273.0
317.5
240
240
250
250
280
290
320
241.3
269.9
269.9
292.1
317.5
317.5

L
22.2
22.2
25.4
25.4
25.4
28.6
35.0
22
22
26
26
33
33
36
22.2
22.2
25.4
28.6
31.8
39.0

No.
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
8
8
8
8
8
12
12
8
12
12
12
12
12

Bolt
3/4"
3/4"
7/8"
7/8"
7/8"
1"
1 1/4"
M20
M20
M24
M24
M30
M30
M33
3/4"
3/4"
7/8"
1"
1 1/8"
1 3/8"

C
22.2
28.6
38.1
41.3
44.5
50.8
73.0
22
22
28
28
36
44
68
25.4
36.5
47.7
54.0
62.0
83.0

K
323.9
323.9
323.9
317.5
323.9
355.6
406.4
295
295
310
320
345
360
400
298.4
330.2
330.2
349.2
393.7
393.7

L
22.2
22.2
25.4
28.6
28.6
35.0
41.3
22
22
26
30
36
36
42
22.2
25.4
28.6
31.8
38.1
45.0

No.
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
8
12
12
12
12
12
12
8
12
12
12
12
12

Bolt
3/4"
3/4"
7/8"
1"
1"
1 1/4"
1 1/2"
M20
M20
M24
M27
M33
M33
M39
3/4"
7/8"
1"
1 1/8"
1 3/8"
1 5/8"

C
25.4
31.8
41.3
47.6
50.8
63.5
88.9
24
24
30
34
42
52
82
28.6
41.3
54.0
62.0
69.9
92.0

210
210
210
210
210
229
212
212
218
218
218
218
218
216
216
216
216
216
216

1.6
1.6
1.6
1.6
1.6
1.6
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
1.6
1.6
6.4
6.4
6.4
6.4

260
260
260
260
273
298
268
268
278
285
285
285
285
270
270
270
270
270
270

1.6
1.6
1.6
1.6
1.6
1.6
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
1.6
1.6
6.4
6.4
6.4
6.4

EDB/1

Cast iron flange tables

L
C
f
d
K
D
(DN15 - 1/2")
Flange standard
BS 10

Rating/Class D
Table D
95.3
Table E
95.3
Table F
95.3
Table H
114.3
BS 4504/DIN 2501
PN10
95
PN16
95
PN25
95
BS 1560/ANSI B.16.1
125
89
(DN20 - 3/4")
Flange standard
BS 10

Rating/Class D
Table D
101.6
Table E
101.6
Table F
101.6
Table H
114.3
BS 4504/DIN 2501
PN10
105
PN16
105
PN25
105
BS 1560/ANSI B.16.1
125
98
(DN25 -1")
Flange standard
BS 10

Rating/Class D
Table D
114.3
Table E
114.3
Table F
121.0
Table H
121.0
BS 4504/DIN 2501
PN10
115
PN16
115
PN25
115
BS 1560/ANSI B.16.1
125
108
250
124
(DN32 - 1 1/4")
Flange standard
BS 10

Rating/Class D
Table D
121.0
Table E
121.0
Table F
133.4
Table H
133.4
BS 4504/DIN 2501
PN10
140
PN16
140
PN25
140
BS 1560/ANSI B.16.1
125
117
250
133

EDB/1

K
66.7
66.7
66.7
82.6
65
65
65
60.3

L
14.3
14.3
14.3
17.5
14
14
14
15.9

No.
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4

Bolt
1/2"
1/2"
1/2"
5/8"
M12
M12
M12
1/2"

C
12.7
12.7
12.7
15.9
14
14
16
11

K
73.0
73.0
73.0
82.6
75
75
75
69.8

L
14.3
14.3
14.3
17.5
14
14
14
15.9

No.
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4

Bolt
1/2"
1/2"
1/2"
5/8"
M12
M12
M12
1/2"

C
12.7
12.7
12.7
15.9
16
16
16
11

K
82.6
82.6
87.3
87.3
85
85
85
79.4
88.9

L
14.3
14.3
17.5
17.5
14
14
14
15.9
19.0

No.
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4

Bolt
1/2"
1/2"
5/8"
5/8"
M12
M12
M12
1/2"
5/8"

C
12.7
12.7
12.7
19.0
16
16
18
11.0
17.5

K
87.3
87.3
98.4
98.4
100
100
100
88.9
98.5

L
14.3
14.3
17.5
17.5
18
18
18
15.9
19.0

No.
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4

Bolt
1/2"
1/2"
5/8"
5/8"
M16
M16
M16
1/2"
5/8"

C
15.9
15.9
15.9
22.2
18
18
20
13.0
19.0

46
46
46

2
2
2

56
56
56

2
2
2

65
65
65

3
3
3

68

76
76
76

3
3
3

78

1.6

6.13

Cast iron flange tables

L
C

f
d
K
D
(DN40 - 1 1/2")
Flange standard
BS 10

Rating/Class D
Table D
133.4
Table E
133.4
Table F
140.0
Table H
140.0
BS 4504/DIN 2501
PN10
150
PN16
150
PN25
150
BS 1560/ANSI B.16.1
125
127
250
156
(DN50 - 2")
Flange standard
Rating/Class D
BS 10
Table D
152.4
Table E
152.4
Table F
165.1
Table H
165.1

K
98.4
98.4
104.8
104.8
110
110
110
98.4
114.3

L
14.3
14.3
17.5
17.5
18
18
18
15.9
22.2

No.
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4

Bolt
1/2"
1/2"
5/8"
5/8"
M16
M16
M16
1/2"
3/4"

C
15.9
15.9
15.9
22.2
18
18
20
14.5
20.5

K
114.3
114.3
127
127

L
17.5
17.5
17.5
17.5

No.
4
4
4
4

Bolt
5/8"
5/8"
5/8"
5/8"

BS 4504/DIN 2501

125
125
125
120.6
127.0

18
18
18
19.0
19.0

4
4
4
4
8

K
127.0
127.0
146.0
146.0
145
145
145
139.7
149.2

L
17.5
17.5
17.5
17.5
18
18
18
19.0
22.2

K
146.0
146.0
165.1
165.1
160
160
160
152.4
168.3

L
17.5
17.5
17.5
17.5
18
18
18
19.0
22.2

BS 1560/ANSI B.16.1
(DN65 - 2 1/2")
Flange standard
BS 10

PN10
PN16
PN25
125
250

165
165
165
152
165

Rating/Class D
Table D
165.1
Table E
165.1
Table F
184.2
Table H
184.2
BS 4504/DIN 2501
PN10
185
PN16
185
PN25
185
BS 1560/ANSI B.16.1
125
178
250
190
(DN80 -3")
Flange standard
Rating/Class D
BS 10
Table D
184.2
Table E
184.2
Table F
203.2
Table H
203.2
BS 4504/DIN 2501
PN10
200
PN16
200
PN25
200
BS 1560/ANSI B.16.1
125
190
250
210

6.14

84
84
84

3
3
3

90

C
17.5
19.0
19.0
25.4

M16
M16
M16
5/8"
5/8"

20
20
22
16.0
22.5

99
99
99

3
3
3

106.4

No.
4
4
8
8
4
4
8
4
8

Bolt
5/8"
5/8"
5/8"
5/8"
M16
M16
M16
5/8"
3/4"

C
17.5
19.0
19.0
25.4
20
20
24
17.5
25.5

118
118
118

3
3
3

125

No.
4
4
8
8
8
8
8
4
8

Bolt
5/8"
5/8"
5/8"
5/8"
M16
M16
M16
5/8"
3/4"

C
19.0
19.0
19.0
28.6
22
22
26
19.0
28.5

132
132
132

3
3
3

145

EDB/1

Cast iron flange tables

L
C
f
d
K
D

(DN100 - 4")
Flange standard
BS 10

Rating/Class D
Table D
215.9
Table E
215.9
Table F
228.6
Table H
228.6
BS 4504/DIN 2501
PN10
220
PN16
220
PN25
235
BS 1560/ANSI B.16.1
125
229
250
254
(DN125 -5")
Flange standard
Rating/Class D
BS 10
Table D
254.0
Table E
254.0
Table F
279.4
Table H
279.4
BS 4504/DIN 2501
PN10
250
PN16
250
PN25
270
BS 1560/ANSI B.16.1
125
254
250
279
(DN150 -6")
Flange standard
Rating/Class D
BS 10
Table D
279.4
Table E
279.4
Table F
304.8
Table H
304.8
BS 4504/DIN 2501
PN10
285
PN16
285
PN25
300
BS 1560/ANSI B.16.1
125
279
250
318
(DN200 -8")
Flange standard
Rating/Class D
BS 10
Table D
336.6
Table E
336.6
Table F
368.6
Table H
368.6
BS 4504/DIN 2501
PN10
340
PN16
340
PN25
360
BS 1560/ANSI B.16.1
125
343
250
381

EDB/1

K
177.8
177.8
190.5
190.5
180
180
190
190.5
200.0

L
17.5
17.5
17.5
17.5
18
18
22
19.0
22.2

No.
4
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8

Bolt
5/8"
5/8"
5/8"
5/8"
M16
M16
M20
5/8"
3/4"

C
19.0
22.2
22.2
31.8
24
24
28
24.0
32.0

K
209.5
209.5
235
235
210
210
220
215.9
235.0

L
17.5
17.5
22.2
22.2
18
18
26
22.2
22.2

No.
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8

Bolt
5/8"
5/8"
3/4"
3/4"
M16
M16
M24
3/4"
3/4"

C
20.6
22.2
25.4
35.0
26
26
30
24.0
35.0

K
235.0
235.0
260.3
260.3
240
240
250
241.3
269.9

L
17.5
22.2
22.2
22.2
22
22
26
22.2
22.2

No.
8
8
12
12
8
8
8
8
12

Bolt
5/8"
3/4"
3/4"
3/4"
M20
M20
M24
3/4"
3/4"

C
20.6
22.2
25.4
35.0
26
26
34
25.5
36.5

K
292.1
292.1
323.9
323.9
295
295
310
298.4
330.2

L
17.5
22.2
22.2
22.2
22
22
26
22.2
25.4

No.
8
8
12
12
8
12
12
8
12

Bolt
5/8"
3/4"
3/4"
3/4"
M20
M20
M24
3/4"
7/8"

C
22.2
25.4
28.6
38.1
26
30
34
28.5
41.0

156
156
156

3
3
3

176

184
184
184

3
3
3

211

211
211
211

3
3
3

246

266
266
274

3
3
3

303

6.15

SG (ductile) iron flange tables

L
C
f
d
K
D
(DN15 - 1/2")
Flange standard
BS 10

Rating/Class D
Table E
95.3
Table F
95.3
Table H
114.3
PN16
95
PN25
95
PN40
95
150
89

K
66.7
66.7
82.6
65
65
65
60.3

L
14.3
14.3
17.5
14
14
14
15.9

No.
4
4
4
4
4
4
4

Bolt
1/2"
1/2"
5/8"
M12
M12
M12
1/2"

C
12.7
12.7
15.9
14
16
16
14

Rating/Class D
Table E
101.6
Table F
101.6
Table H
114.3
PN16
105
PN25
105
PN40
105
150
98

K
73.0
73.0
82.6
75
75
75
69.8

L
14.3
14.3
17.5
14
14
14
15.9

No.
4
4
4
4
4
4
4

Bolt
1/2"
1/2"
5/8"
M12
M12
M12
1/2"

C
12.7
12.7
15.9
16
18
18
14

Rating/Class D
Table E
114.3
Table F
121.0
Table H
121.0
BS 4504/DIN 2501
PN16
115
PN25
115
PN40
115
BS 1560/ANSI B.16.42
150
108
300
124

K
82.6
87.3
87.3
85
85
85
79.4
88.9

L
14.3
17.5
17.5
14
14
14
15.9
19.0

No.
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4

Bolt
1/2"
5/8"
5/8"
M12
M12
M12
1/2"
5/8"

C
12.7
12.7
19.0
16
18
18
14.0
17.5

K
87.3
98.4
98.4
100
100
100
88.9
98.4

L
14.3
17.5
17.5
19
19
19
15.9
19.0

No.
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4

Bolt
1/2"
5/8"
5/8"
M16
M16
M16
1/2"
5/8"

C
15.9
15.9
22.2
18
18
20
15.5
19.0

BS 4504/DIN 2501

BS 1560
(DN20 - 3/4")
Flange standard
BS 10

BS 4504/DIN 2501

BS 1560
(DN25 -1")
Flange standard
BS 10

(DN32 - 1 1/4")
Flange standard
BS 10

Rating/Class D
Table E
121.0
Table F
133.4
Table H
133.4
BS 4504/DIN 2501
PN16
140
PN25
140
PN40
140
BS 1560/ANSI B.16.42
150
117
300
133

6.16

46
46
46
35

2
2
2
2

56
56
56
43

2
2
2
2

65
65
65
51
51

3
3
3
2
2

76
76
76
64
64

3
3
3
2
2

EDB/1

SG (ductile) iron flange tables

L
C

f
d
K
D
(DN40 - 1 1/2")
Flange standard
BS 10

Rating/Class D
Table E
133.4
Table F
140.0
Table H
140.0
BS 4504/DIN 2501
PN16
150
PN25
150
PN40
150
BS 1560/ANSI B.16.42
150
127
300
156
(DN50 - 2")
Flange standard
BS 10

Rating/Class D
Table E
152.4
Table F
165.1
Table H
165.1
BS 4504/DIN 2501
PN16
165
PN25
165
PN40
165
BS 1560/ANSI B.16.42
150
152
300
165
(DN65 - 2 1/2")
Flange standard
BS 10

Rating/Class D
Table E
165.1
Table F
184.2
Table H
184.2
BS 4504/DIN 2501
PN16
185
PN25
185
PN40
185
BS 1560/ANSI B.16.42
150
178
300
190
(DN80 -3")
Flange standard
BS 10

Rating/Class D
Table E
184.2
Table F
203.2
Table H
203.2
BS 4504/DIN 2501
PN16
200
PN25
200
PN40
200
BS 1560/ANSI B.16.42
150
190
300
210

EDB/1

K
98.4
104.8
104.8
110
110
110
98.4
114.3

L
14.3
17.5
17.5
19
19
19
15.9
22.2

No.
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4

Bolt
1/2"
5/8"
5/8"
M16
M16
M16
1/2"
3/4"

C
15.9
15.9
22.2
19
19
19
17.5
20.5

K
114.3
127
127
125
125
125
120.6
127.0

L
17.5
17.5
17.5
19
19
19
19.0
19.0

No.
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
8

Bolt
5/8"
5/8"
5/8"
M16
M16
M16
5/8"
5/8"

C
19.0
19.0
25.4
19
19
19
19.0
22.5

K
127.0
146.0
146.0
145
145
145
139.7
149.2

L
17.5
17.5
17.5
19
19
19
19.0
22.2

No.
4
8
8
4
8
8
4
8

Bolt
5/8"
5/8"
5/8"
M16
M16
M16
5/8"
3/4"

C
19.0
19.0
25.4
19
19
19
22.5
25.5

K
146.0
165.1
165.1
160
160
160
152.4
168.3

L
17.5
17.5
17.5
19
19
19
19.0
22.2

No.
4
8
8
8
8
8
4
8

Bolt
5/8"
5/8"
5/8"
M16
M16
M16
5/8"
3/4"

C
19.0
19.0
28.6
19
19
19
24.0
28.5

84
84
84
73
73

3
3
3
2
2

99
99
99
92
92

3
3
3
2
2

118
118
118
105
105

3
3
3
2
2

132
132
132
127
127

3
3
3
2
2

6.17

SG (ductile) iron flange tables

L
C
f
d
K
D
(DN100 - 4")
Flange standard
BS 10

Rating/Class D
Table E
215.9
Table F
228.6
Table H
228.6
BS 4504/DIN 2501
PN16
220
PN25
235
PN40
235
BS 1560/ANSI B.16.42
150
229
300
254
(DN125 -5")
Flange standard
BS 10

Rating/Class D
Table E
254.0
Table F
279.4
Table H
279.4
BS 4504/DIN 2501
PN16
250
PN25
270
PN40
270
BS 1560/ANSI B.16.42
150
254
300
279
(DN150 -6")
Flange standard
BS 10

Rating/Class D
Table E
279.4
Table F
304.8
Table H
304.8
BS 4504/DIN 2501
PN16
285
PN25
300
PN40
300
BS 1560/ANSI B.16.42
150
279
300
318
(DN200 -8")
Flange standard
BS 10

Rating/Class D
Table E
336.6
Table F
368.6
Table H
368.6
BS 4504/DIN 2501
PN16
340
PN25
360
PN40
375
BS 1560/ANSI B.16.42
150
343
300
381

6.18

K
177.8
190.5
190.5
180
190
190
190.5
200.0

L
17.5
17.5
17.5
19
23
23
19.0
22.2

No.
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8

Bolt
5/8"
5/8"
5/8"
M16
M20
M20
5/8"
3/4"

C
22.2
22.2
31.8
19
19
19
24.0
32.0

K
209.5
235
235
210
220
220
215.9
235.0

L
17.5
17.5
17.5
19
28
28
22.2
22.2

No.
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8

Bolt
5/8"
5/8"
5/8"
M16
M24
M24
3/4"
3/4"

C
22.2
25.4
35.0
19
19
23.5
24.0
35.0

K
235.0
260.3
260.3
240
250
250
241.3
269.9

L
22.2
22.2
22.2
23
28
28
22.2
22.2

No.
8
12
12
8
8
8
8
12

Bolt
3/4"
3/4"
3/4"
M20
M24
M24
3/4"
3/4"

C
22.2
25.4
35.0
19
20
26
25.5
36.5

K
292.1
323.9
323.9
295
310
320
298.4
330.2

L
22.2
22.2
22.2
23
28
31
22.2
25.4

No.
8
12
12
12
12
12
8
12

Bolt
3/4"
3/4"
3/4"
M20
M24
M27
3/4"
7/8"

C
25.4
28.6
38.1
20
22
30
28.5
41.0

156
156
156
157
157

3
3
3
2
2

184
184
184
186
186

3
3
3
2
2

211
211
211
216
216

3
3
3
2
2

266
274
284
270
270

3
3
3
2
2

EDB/1

Copper alloy flange tables

L
C
f
d
K
D
(DN15 - 1/2")
Flange standard
BS 10

Rating/Class D
Table D
95.3
Table E
95.3
Table F
95.3
Table H
114.3
Table J
114.3
BS 4504/DIN 2501
PN10
95
PN16
95
PN25
95
PN40
95
BS 1560/ANSI B.16.24
150
89
300
95
(DN20 - 3/4")
Flange standard
BS 10

Rating/Class D
Table D
101.6
Table E
101.6
Table F
101.6
Table H
114.3
Table J
114.3
BS 4504/DIN 2501
PN10
105
PN16
105
PN25
105
PN40
105
BS 1560/ANSI B.16.24
150
98
300
117
(DN25 -1")
Flange standard
BS 10

Rating/Class D
Table D
114.3
Table E
114.3
Table F
121.0
Table H
121.0
Table J
121.0
BS 4504/DIN 2501
PN10
115
PN16
115
PN25
115
PN40
115
BS 1560/ANSI B.16.24
150
108
300
124

EDB/1

K
66.7
66.7
66.7
82.6
82.6
65
65
65
65
60.3
66.7

L
14.3
14.3
14.3
17.5
17.5
14
14
14
14
15.9
15.9

No.
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4

Bolt
1/2"
1/2"
1/2"
5/8"
5/8"
M12
M12
M12
M12
1/2"
1/2"

C
6.4
6.4
7.9
9.5
15.9
6
6
8
9
8
13

K
73.0
73.0
73.0
82.6
82.6
75
75
75
75
69.8
82.6

L
14.3
14.3
14.3
17.5
17.5
14
14
14
14
15.9
19.0

No.
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4

Bolt
1/2"
1/2"
1/2"
5/8"
5/8"
M12
M12
M12
M12
1/2"
5/8"

C
6.4
6.4
7.9
9.5
15.9
6
6
8
9
9
13

K
82.6
82.6
87.3
87.3
87.3
85
85
85
85
79.4
88.9

L
14.3
14.3
17.5
17.5
17.5
14
14
14
14
15.9
19.0

No.
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4

Bolt
1/2"
1/2"
5/8"
5/8"
5/8"
M12
M12
M12
M12
1/2"
5/8"

C
7.9
7.9
9.5
11.1
19.0
8
8
9
11
9
15

6.19

Copper alloy flange tables

L
C
f
d
K
D
(DN32 - 1 1/4")
Flange standard
BS 10

Rating/Class D
Table D
121.0
Table E
121.0
Table F
133.4
Table H
133.4
Table J
133.4
BS 4504/DIN 2501
PN10
140
PN16
140
PN25
140
PN40
140
BS 1560/ANSI B.16.24
150
117
300
133
(DN40 - 1 1/2")
Flange standard
BS 10

Rating/Class D
Table D
133.4
Table E
133.4
Table F
140.0
Table H
140.0
Table J
140.0
BS 4504/DIN 2501
PN10
150
PN16
150
PN25
150
PN40
150
BS 1560/ANSI B.16.24
150
127
300
156
(DN50 - 2")
Flange standard
BS 10

Rating/Class D
Table D
152.4
Table E
152.4
Table F
165.1
Table H
165.1
Table J
165.1
BS 4504/DIN 2501
PN10
165
PN16
165
PN25
165
PN40
165
BS 1560/ANSI B.16.24
150
152
300
165

6.20

K
87.3
87.3
98.4
98.4
98.4
100
100
100
100
88.9
98.5

L
14.3
14.3
17.5
17.5
17.5
18
18
18
18
15.9
19.0

No.
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4

Bolt
1/2"
1/2"
5/8"
5/8"
5/8"
M16
M16
M16
M16
1/2"
5/8"

C
7.9
7.9
9.5
11.1
19.0
8
8
9
11
10
16

K
98.4
98.4
104.8
104.8
104.8
110
110
110
110
98.4
114.3

L
14.3
14.3
17.5
17.5
17.5
18
18
18
18
15.9
22.2

No.
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4

Bolt
1/2"
1/2"
5/8"
5/8"
5/8"
M16
M16
M16
M16
1/2"
3/4"

C
9.5
9.5
11.1
12.7
22.2
9
9
11
13
11
18

K
114.3
114.3
127.0
127.0
127.0
125
125
125
125
120.6
127.0

L
17.5
17.5
17.5
17.5
22.2
18
18
18
18
19
19

No.
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
8

Bolt
5/8"
5/8"
5/8"
5/8"
3/4"
M16
M16
M16
M16
5/8"
5/8"

C
9.5
9.5
11.1
12.7
25.4
11
11
11
13
13
19

EDB/1

Copper alloy flange tables

L
C
f
d
K
D
(DN65-2")
Flange standard
BS 10

Rating/class
Table D
Table E
Table F
Table H
Table J
BS 4504/DIN 2501
PN10
PN16
PN25
PN40
BS 1560/ANSI B.16.24
150
300

D
165.1
165.1
184.2
184.2
184.2
185
185
185
185
178
190

K
127.0
127.0
146.0
146.0
146.0
145
145
145
145
139.7
149.2

L
17.5
17.5
17.5
17.5
22.2
18
18
18
18
19.0
22.2

No.
4
4
8
8
8
4
4
8
8
4
8

Bolt
5/8"
5/8"
5/8"
5/8"
3/4"
M16
M16
M16
M16
5/8"
3/4"

C
11.1
11.1
12.7
14.3
25.4
13
13
13
14
14
21

D
184.2
184.2
203.2
203.2
203.2
200
200
200
200
190
210

K
146.0
146.0
165.1
165.1
165.1
160
160
160
160
152.4
168.3

L
17.5
17.5
17.5
17.5
22.2
18
18
18
18
19.0
22.2

No.
4
4
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
4
8

Bolt
5/8"
5/8"
5/8"
5/8"
3/4"
M16
M16
M16
M16
5/8"
3/4"

C
127
12.7
14.3
15.9
31.8
13
13
14
16
16
23

Rating/Class D
Table D
215.9
Table E
215.9
Table F
228.6
Table H
228.6
Table J
228.6
BS 4504/DIN 2501
PN10
220
PN16
220
PN25
235
PN40
235
BS 1560/ANSI B.16.24
150
229
300
254

K
177.8
177.8
190.5
190.5
190.5
180
180
190
190
190.5
200.0

L
17.5
17.5
17.5
17.5
22.2
18
18
22
22
19.0
22.2

No.
4
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8

Bolt
5/8"
5/8"
5/8"
5/8"
3/4"
M16
M16
M20
M20
5/8"
3/4"

C
15.9
15.9
17.9
19.0
35.0
16
16
17
19
17
27

(DN80-3")
Flange standard
BS 10

Rating/class
Table D
Table E
Table F
Table H
Table J
BS 4504/DIN 2501
PN10
PN16
PN25
PN40
BS 1560/ANSI B.16.24
150
300
(DN100 - 4")
Flange standard
BS 10

EDB/1

6.21

Copper alloy flange tables

L
C
f
d
K
D
(DN125 -5")
Flange standard
BS 10

Rating/Class D
Table D
254.0
Table E
254.0
Table F
279.4
Table H
279.4
Table J
279.4
BS 4504/DIN 2501
PN10
250
PN16
250
PN25
270
PN40
BS 1560/ANSI B.16.24
150
254
300
279

K
209.5
209.5
235.0
235.0
235.0
210
210
220

L
17.5
17.5
22.2
22.2
25.4
18
18
26

No.
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8

Bolt
5/8"
5/8"
3/4"
3/4"
7/8"
M16
M16
M24

C
17.5
17.5
19.0
22.2
38.1
22
22
26

215.9
235.0

22.2
22.2

8
8

3/4"
3/4"

19
28

K
235.0
235.0
260.3
260.3
260.3
240
240
250

L
17.5
22.2
22.2
22.2
25.4
22
22
26

No.
8
8
12
12
12
8
8
8

Bolt
5/8"
3/4"
3/4"
3/4"
7/8"
M20
M20
M24

C
17.5
17.5
22.2
25.4
38.1
22
22
26

241.3
269.9

22.2
22.2

8
12

3/4"
3/4"

21
30

D
336.6
336.6
368.6
368.6
368.3
340
340
360

K
292.1
292.1
323.9
323.9
323.9
295
295
310

L
17.5
22.2
22.2
22.2
25.4
22
22
26

No.
8
8
12
12
12
8
12
12

Bolt
5/8"
3/4"
3/4"
3/4"
7/8"
M20
M20
M24

C
19.1
19.1
25.4
31.8
41.3
26
26
30

343
381

298.4
330.2

22.2
25.4

8
12

3/4"
7/8"

24
35

(DN150 -6")
Flange standard
BS 10

Rating/Class D
Table D
279.4
Table E
279.4
Table F
304.8
Table H
304.8
Table J
304.8
BS 4504/DIN 2501
PN10
285
PN16
285
PN25
300
PN40
BS 1560/ANSI B.16.24
150
279
300
318
(DN200-8")
Flange standard
BS10

Rating/Class
Table D
Table E
Table F
Table H
Table J
BS 4504/DIN 2501
PN10
PN16
PN25
PN40
BS 1560/ANSI B.16.24
150
300

6.22

EDB/1

End connections - screwed

As standard we generally produce products with screwed end connections to BS 21 and ANSI/ASME
B1.20.1; these are often referred to as BSP and NPT threads. These thread forms are those on which
a pressure tight joint is made on the thread itself.
Our standard female British Standard thread is to BS 21 and is designated Rp; it is an internal parallel
thread into which a male taper pipe thread designated R is screwed. The taper male is screwed into
the parallel female to the point where there is an interference fit and a pressure tight joint. This is the
ISO standard fit pipe fittings and why we have adopted its use as a Company. A female or internal
tapered thread also exists in BS 21, this is designated Rc; Spirax-Sarco rarely if ever produce this
option. Threads to BS 21 are technically equivalent to DIN 2999 Part 1 and ISO7/1.
The corresponding thread used by markets under American influence is that to ANSI/ASME B1.20.1;
the female or internal thread to this standard is always tapered and the joint is thus tapered male to
tapered female. The male is again screwed into the female such that an interference fit and pressure
tight joint is formed.

Seal on faces
(usually with a gasket)

Seal made on the thread

BS21
BS2779
Nominal Size of
Screwed End
inches
DN/mm
1/4
8
3/8
10
1/2
15
3/4
20
1
25
1 1/4
32
1 1/2
40
2
50
2 1/2
65
3
80

Recommended Minimum
Length of Thread mm
BS/ANSI
11/10.2
11.4/10.5
15/13.6
16.3/13.9
19/17.4
21.4/18
21.4/18.4
25.7/19.2
30.1/29
33.3/30.5

Number of Teeth
per Inch (TPI)
BS/ANSI
19/18
19/18
14/14
14/14
11/11.5
11/11.5
11/11.5
11/11.5
11/8
11/8

Pitch
mm
BS/ANSI
1.337/1.41
1.337/1.41
1.814/1.81
1.814/1.81
2.309/2.21
2.309/2.21
2.309/2.21
2.309/2.21
2.303.175
2.303.175

There are two other thread connections worthy of mention: BS 2779 and API.
BS 2779 threads are often referred to as fastening threads and require the use of a face gasket if a
pressure tight joint is to be formed -see sketch above. These threads are designated G (internal
parallel), GA and GB (both external parallel). The GB thread is the normal external parallel thread and
the GA version is reserved for those applications in which close tolerances are essential. As a
Company, we sometimes produce products with the G parallel thread - when specified by customers.
There is no obvious difference between the BS 21 internal parallel thread Rp and that offered by BS
2779 (G), however, there is a difference in the way that the thread diameters are toleranced; the Rp
thread has a plus and minus tolerance whilst the G thread only has a plus tolerance. It should be noted
that the plus tolerance in BS 2779 is generally the same as that in BS 21 with the exception of the
1/4" and 3/8" threads where the values are slightly higher.
The BS 21 thread is gauged using a taper plug gauge whilst the BS 2779 thread is gauged using GO
and NO GO plug gauges. Spirax-Sarco stamps products having the G thread with the letter F.

EDB/1

6.23

API threads are almost identical to the ANSI/ASME B1.20.1 or NPT thread; the difference between
them relates to truncation at the crests and roots of the threads. The API thread has a ' lead- in'
machined on the female thread and is gauged by means of a tapered plug gauge measuring what is
called a stand off. The NPT thread is measured by means of an NPT tapered plug gauge in exactly
the same way as threads to BS 21. Note: for many years our technical literature quoted API as our
standard American thread; this was not strictly correct and we now quote NPT. There is still possible
confusion however, as products having NPT threads are stamped A for identification purposes.

End connections - socket weld

Most of products that are offered with this type of end connection have socket weld ends to BS 3799,
however, certain marketing and manufacturing advantages are sometimes achieved by using the
ANSI B16.11 standard as an alternative. Additionally, socket weld ends to DIN 3239 are sometimes
produced to customer request.
Socket weld fittings specified in BS 3799 and ANSI B16.11 are intended for assembly with plain end
pipe dimensioned in accordance with BS 1600 and API Std. 5L. It should be noted, however, that with
the exception of nominal size 2 1/2" (DN65) the socket dimensions are also suitable for use with plain
pipe to BS 3600 (ISO/R64).
Socket weld ends are usually Class related e.g. Class 3000, Class 6000 etc. and the design pressure/
temperature and other service conditions are limited by the applicable piping code or regulation for the
material of construction of the body material.
Nominal Bore Minimum Depth of
inches
mm
Socket (mm)

1/4
3/8
1/2
3/4
1
1 1/4
1 1/2"
2
2 1/2"
3

8
10
15
20
25
32
40
50
65
80

Bore of Socket (mm)

max
min
BS/ANSI
BS/ANSI

9.7
9.7
9.7
12.7
12.7
12.7
12.7
15.7
15.7
15.7

14.4/14.6
17.9/18.0
22.1/22.2
27.7/27.5
34.4/34.3
43.2/43.0
49.3/49.1
61.3/61.6
74.2/74.4
90.0/90.4

14.1/14.09
17.6/17.5
21.8/21.7
27.4/27.0
34.1/33.8
42.9/42.5
49.0/48.6
61.0/61.1
73.8/73.8
89.7/89.8

Minimum Socket Wall

Thickness (mm)
Class 3000 Class 6000
BS/ANSI BS/ANSI
3.3/3.3
-/3.5/3.5
-/4.1/4.1
5.2/5.18
4.3/4.3
6.1/6.0
5.0/5.0
7.0/6.9
5.3/5.3
7.0/6.9
5.6/5.6
7.8/7.8
6.1/6.1
9.5/9.4
7.7/7.7
10.4/8.3/8.3
12.2/-

End connections - butt weld

Butt weld ends are common where high pressure, high temperature fluids are encountered particularly in power plants. The Company produces few products with butt weld ends and the principal
reference standard is ANSI B16.25. This standard covers the preparation of butt welding ends of piping
components to be joined into a piping system by welding. It includes requirements for welding bevels
for external and internal shaping of heavy-wall components, and for machining of internal ends
including dimensions and tolerances. With this type of connection the wall thickness of the end
connection should be equal to or greater than the thickness of the pipe to which it connects.
Nominal Bore
inches
mm

1/2
3/4
1

6.24

15
20
25

Pipe O/D
(mm)

Dia A
(mm)

21.3
26.7
33.4

22
28
35

Nominal Internal Diameter and Wall Thickness of

End Connection When Connecting to Pipe (mm)
max
min
Thickness (mm)
Schedule 40
80
160
ID/Tmin
ID/Tmin
ID/Tmin
15.76/2.77
20.96/2.87
26.64/3.38

13.84/3.73
18.88/3.91
24.3/4.55

11.74/4.78
15.58/5.56
20.7/6.35

EDB/1

slight
chamfer

Body

Pipe

1.5T

O/D

I/D

Welding end for connection to wall thickness under 4mm

37 2

+ 21
2

30 Max

Body
T

Pipe
1.5T

1.6 + 0.8

I/D

O/D

Weld preparation for connection to wall thicknesses from 5 to 22mm

EDB/1

6.25

Quick reference materials comparison

Product Type
Grey C.I.
Nod. C.I.
(S.G.)
Mall. C.I.
(Whiteheart)
Mall. C.I.
(Blackheart)
Cast carbon
GS-21 Mn 5
Forged carbon steel
Carbon steel
bar (nuts)
Carbon steel sheet/strip
Carbon steel plate
Carbon steel tube
Low alloy cast steel
Carbon moly. forging
Steel
Cr/Moly forging steel
Spring steel Cr/Moly
Low alloy
bolt steel
40CrMoV47
Tool steel
Low alloy forging steel
Cast stainless steel
Stainless steel
Stainless steel
Stainless steel
Stainless steel
Stainless steel
Stainless steel
Stainless steel
Stainless steel
Stainless steel
Stainless steel

6.26

GRADE SYMBOLS
DIN
AFNOR
GG 20
Ft 20
Ft 25
260
GGG 40
FGS 400 12
GGG 40.3
FGS 37017
GTW 4005
MB4005

BS
220
Class 35
420/12
370/17
W410/4

ASTM/AISI
Class 30 GG 25

GTS 3510

MN 35010

B340/12

32510

GS-C25
FBM
C 22.8
C 35

A42 CM
161430LT40
XC 18
XC 38

161480E
LCB
223430

Gr.15
Gr.430
HFS 410
HFS 410
245E
245420

17Mn4
St.45
St. 45.8
GS 22 Mo4
15 Mo3

20D 5 M
15D 3

13 Cr Mo44

15CD 4.05

24 Cr Mo5

42 CDV
X 165 CrMoV 12
10 Cr Mo9.10
G-X20 Cr14
W/S 1.4304
X12 CrNiS18.8
X2 CrNi 18.9
X5 CrNi 18.9
X5 CrNiMo18.12
X10CrNiTil 8.9

42 CD4
B16

10 CD 9.10
Z25 CF 13
Z10 CN 18.09
Z10 CNF 18.09
Z2 CN 18.10
Z6 CN 18.09
Z6 CND 17.12
Z6 CNT 18.10
Z10 CNF 18.9
Z30 C13
Z15 CN 16.02
Z100 CD 17

X30 Cr13
X22 CrNi17
X89 CrMoV181

604018

40010

WCB Cast steel

A 105

1622H
1018
Gr.C
Gr.B
Gr.B
WC1
F1

620440
F12
735A50
A231/A689

621A(B7)
B7
B16
BD2
D2
622-560
F22
1630-CM (OH278)
CA 40F
302S31
302
303S31
303
304S11
304L
304S15
304
316S33
316
321S31
321
325S31
303
420S37
420
431S29
431
440 B

EDB/1

Quick reference materials comparison (contd)

Product Type
Investment cast
Stainless steel
Stainless steel
Cast stainless steel
Stainless steel
sheet . strip
Gunmetal
Brass sheet . strip
Brass stamping
Cast aluminium
Dezincification
resistive alloy
Gunmetal

DIN

GRADE SYMBOLS
AFNOR

Z12 CF13

BS

ASTM/AISI

ANC 2
416S37

416 420S29

Z12 CrS13
GX5
CrNiNb18.9

Z6CNNb18.10M 347C17F

CF8C

X20CR13
GCuSn5ZnPb
CuZn37Pb0.5
CuZn 40Pb2
Brass bar
CA1Si 7 Mg.wa

Z20 C13
420 S45
CuPb5Sn5Zn5 LG2Gp A
Cu Zn 36
CZ 108
CZ 122
Cu ZN39Pb3
A-S7G
LM 25

CZ 132

420
UNS 83600
UNS 27200 UNS 33500
UNS 37700
CZ 121 4PbB16 M
A356

Typical mechanical properties SG iron, gunmetal, cast steel

and cast iron
Ultimate
0.2% Proof
Relevant
Tensile
Stress
Material
Standard
Strength
(Elasticity)
Cast Steel
DIN17245
430/540 N/mm2 230/280 N/mm2
SG Iron
DIN1693
250 N/mm2
GGG 40.3
400 N/mm2
(Related standard
min
min
BS2789)
2
100 N/mm2
Gunmetal
BS1400 LG2
200 N/mm
min
min
*143 N/mm2
Grey Cast
DIN1691
180 N/mm2
Iron
(Related standard
min
min
BS1452)
* 0.1% Proof Stress only.

EDB/1

Elongation
%
(Ductility)
13/22 %

Impact Strength
(Shock
Resistance)
2025 J 20oC

18%
min

16J 20oC

13% min

15J 20oC
min
Less than 1J
at 20oC

Less than 1%

6.27

Stainless steels properties and composition

Martensitic
AISI 410
Ferritic
AISI 430
Austenitic
AISI 304
AISI 304L
AISI 316
AISI 316L

6.28

Mo

Mn

Si

11.5-13.5

0.15

16-18

0.12 1.0 1.0 0.04

18-20
18-20
16-18
16-18

8-10.5
0.08
8-10.5
0.03
10-14 2.0-3.0 0.08
10-14 2.0-3.0 0.03

2.0
2.0
2.0
2.0

1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0

0.03

Hardness
HB

Ni

Elongation %

Cr

Tensile
Strength
Mpa

Type

Mechanical Properties

Yield
Strength
MPa

Chemical Composition %

35

70

30 150

40

75

30 160

35
33
36
34

82
79
82
81

60
60
55
55

149
143
149
146

EDB/1

EDB/1

Materials: austenitic steels (group B)

Materials

Austenitic
chromium-nickel
(low carbon) steel
Austenitic
chromium-nickel
Steel
Austenitic
chromium-nickel
(niobium
Stabilized) steel
Austenitic
chromium-nickel
(titanium
stabilized) steel
Austenitic
chromium-nickel
molybdenum
(low carbon) steel
Austenitic
chromium-nickel
molybdenum steel
Austenitic
25% chromium25% nickel steel

Plate
British Standard

Comparable
ASTM standard

Forgings
British Standard

BS 1501: Part 3
-304S12

ASTM A240 - 304L

BS 1501 : Part 3
-304S15

ASTM A240 - 304

ASTM A240 - 304H

BS 1503 - 304S31

BS 1501 :
- 347S17
BS 1501 :
- 347S49
BS 1501 :
- 312S49
BS 1501 :
- 312S49
BS 1501 :
-316S12

ASTM A240 - 347

ASTM A240 -347H

Part 3
Part 3
Part 3

Part 3

BS 1503 - 304S11

Comparable
ASTM standard
ASTM A182 Grade F304L

Castings
British Standard
BS 1504 - 304C12

Comparable
ASTM standard

Group
No.

ASTM A351 Grade CF3

B1

ASTM A182 Grade F304

BS 1503 - 304S51

BS 1504 - 304C15
ASTM A182 Grade F304H

ASTM A351 Grade CF8

BS 1503 - 347S31
BS 1503 - 347S51

ASTM A182 Grade F347

ASTM A182 Grade F347H

BS 1504 - 347C17

ASTM A351 Grade CF8C

ASTM A240 - 347

BS 1503 - 347S31

ASTM A182 Grade F321

ASTM A240 - 321H

BS 1503 - 321S51

ASTM A182 Grade F321H

ASTM A240 - 316L

BS 1503 - 316S11

ASTM A182 Grade F316L

BS 1504 - 316C12

ASTM A315 Grade CF3M

B2

B3

Part 3

B3
B4

BS 1501 : Part 3
-316S16 : Part 3

ASTM A240 - 316

ASTM A240 - 316H

BS 1503 - 316
BS 1503 - 316H

ASTM A182 Grade F316

ASTM A182 Grade F316H

BS 1504 - 316C16

BS 1501 : Part 3
- 310S24

ASTM A240 - 310S

BS 1503 - 310S31

ASTM A182 Grade F310

BS 1504 - 310C40

ASTM A315 Grade CF8M

B5
ASTM A351 Grade HK40
ASTM A351 Grade CK20

B5

6.29

Product limitations

a
is the maximum temperature the product
can be used at. It is usually a function of
the body material, fasteners, gland or an
internal component limitation.

b
is the maximum pressure which can be
tolerated within the body of the product. It
is a function of the PN rating and body
design (materials, fasteners, gasketing
etc)

c
is a prohibited area and the product
must not be used in this area.

d
the steam saturation curve is added
(where relevant) to enable users to easily
find the specific operating points, e.g. 10
bar g saturated steam, 10 bar g steam
with 20oC superheat or 10 bar g/250oC
steam.

e
sometimes end connections may restrict
the operating envelope of the product
below the standard rating. Care must
therefore be taken is selecting appropriate
end connections. In this case only the area
to the left of line e can be used.

f
Spirax Sarco do not recommend the use
of the product in this area. This is based
on design and/or operating experience.

6.30

EDB/1

Product limitations (contd)

g
if a product (e.g. a control valve) is to
be used above this temperature it may
be necessary to use a spacer before
the product can be operated by an
actuator having a lower temperature
rating.

The finished diagram

1. In this region use high temperature
spacer with Self Acting Control
Systems.
2.Flanged end connections BS10
table E.
3.Flanged end connections BS10 table
H, BS4504 PN 25 and ANSI 300.

Care must also be taken concerning differential pressure limitations and these are tabulated in addition
to the Operating range diagram where relevant.

EDB/1

6.31

Pressure/temperature rating
Pressure/Temperature ratings
o

PN
Rating Material
Copper
Alloy
Grey
C.I.
Mall.
Iron
PN 16 Nodr.
Iron
Steel
Copper
Alloy
Mall.
Iron
PN 25 Nodr.
Iron
Steel
Copper
Alloy
Nodr.
Iron
PN 40
Steel
PN 63

Steel

PN 100 Steel

120
LG2
CZ 122
GG 20
GG 25
GTW 35
GTW 40
GGG 40
GGG 40.3
GS-C25:GSCk24
C 22.8:304*
151430
161430
LG2
CZ 122
GTW 35
GTW 40
GGG 40
GGG 40.3
GS-C25:GSCk24
C 22.8:304*
151-430
161-430
LG 2
CZ 122
GGG 40
GGG 40.3
GS-C25:GSCk24
C22.8:304*
G-X 20 Cr14*
151-430
161-430
G-X 20 Cr14*
GS-22 Mo4
15 Mo 3
13 Cr Mo 44
GS-22 Mo4
15 Mo 3
13 Cr Mo44

C
200 220 230 250 260 300
bar(g)
13

10

350 400 450

Cold
500 Hyd
Test

13

16

14

13

11

14

13

11

10

14

13

11

10

14

13

11

10

21

25

16

10.5

22

19

17

22

20

18

14

22

20

18

16

22

20

18

16

30

24

24

38
13

17

35

32

28

22

35

32

28

24

35

32

28

24

58

55

50

45

42

63
63

63
63

55
63

50
61

47
58

45
56

100

100

87

78

74

70

100

100

100

95

91

87

40

63

100

60
21

95
47
150
74

* Company Standard only

6.32

EDB/1

Pressure/temperature rating for group B austenitic steel flanges on a

basis of 0.2% proof stress
PN
2.5

10

16

25

40

Material group
- see table on
page 6.29
B1
B2
B3
B4
B5
B1
B2
B3
B4
B5
B1
B2
B3
B4
B5
B1
B2
B3
B4
B5
B1
B2
B3
B4
B5
B1
B2
B3
B4
B5

50
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.4
2.5
5.1
5.4
5.7
5.7
6.0
8.5
9.0
9.5
9.5
10.0
13.7
14.4
15.2
15.2
16.0
21.4
22.6
23.8
23.8
25.0
34.2
36.1
38.0
38.0
40.0

Temperature C
100
150
200 250
300
350
400
450
Maximum non-shock working gauge pressure-bar
1.8
1.6
1.5
1.4
1.3
1.2
1.1
1.1
1.9
1.8
1.6
1.5
1.4
1.3
1.2
1.2
2.2
2.1
1.9
1.8
1.7
1.6
1.6
1.5
2.1
1.9
1.7
1.6
1.5
1.4
1.4
1.3
2.2
2.0
1.8
1.7
1.6
1.5
1.4
1.4
4.2
3.8
3.5
3.2
2.9
2.8
2.6
2.5
4.5
4.14
3.7
3.5
3.2
3.0
2.9
2.8
5.2
4.8
4.5
4.2
4.0
3.8
3.7
3.5
4.8
4.4
4.0
3.7
3.5
3.3
3.2
3.0
5.1
4.6
4.2
4.0
3.7
3.5
3.4
3.3
7.1
6.3
5.8
5.3
4.9
4.6
4.3
4.2
7.6
6.8
6.2
5.8
5.4
5.1
4.8
4.6
8.6
8.1
7.6
7.1
6.6
6.3
6.1
5.9
8.1
7.3
6.7
6.2
5.8
5.5
5.3
5.0
8.5
7.7
7.1
6.6
6.2
5.9
5.6
5.5
11.3 10.1
9.2
8.4
7.8
7.3
6.9
6.6
12.1 10.9
9.9
9.2
8.6
8.1
7.7
7.4
13.7 12.9
12.1 11.3 10.6 10.1
9.8
9.4
12.9 11.7
10.7
9.9
9.3
8.8
8.4
8.0
13.7 12.3
11.3 10.5
9.9
9.4
9.0
8.7
17.7 15.9
14.4 13.2 12.2 11.5 10.9
10.4
18.9 17.1
15.5 13.4 14.4 12.7 12.0
11.6
21.5 20.1
18.9 17.7 16.6 15.9 15.3
14.8
20.1 18.3
16.7 15.5 14.5 13.8 13.2
12.6
21.4 19.3
17.7 16.5 15.5 14.6 14.0
13.7
28.3 25.4
23.0 21.1 19.5 18.4 17.4
16.6
30.2 27.3
24.8 23.0 21.5 20.3 19.1
18.5
34.4 32.2
30.2 28.3 26.58 25.4 24.4
23.6
32.2 29.3
26.7 24.8 23.2 22.0 21.1
20.1
34.2 30.8
28.3 26.4 24.8 23.4 22.4
21.8

500
1.0
1.2
1.5
1.3
1.4
2.4
2.7
3.5
2.9
3.2
4.0
4.5
5.8
4.9
5.4
6.3
7.2
9.3
7.8
8.6
9.9
12.2
14.5
12.2
13.4
15.8
18.0
23.2
19.5
21.5

NOTE. The selection of bolting materials for use with austenitic steel flanges is the responsibility of
the user and reference should be made to BS 4882.

EDB/1

6.33

Sundries

The cost of steam

The cost of steam is usually expressed in terms of the cost to raise 1000kg. The calculation itself
is relatively straight forward.
Example: Boiler operating pressure - 10 bar g, feedwater temperature 80OC. Fuel used is heavy
oil at 0.14/litre and boiler efficiency is 80%.

Steam pressure

10

bar g

80 OC

Feedwater temperature

Mathematical
operation

Units

Heat input required (see page 7.02) 2445

..................................
1000

kg

Total heat input

2445000
..................................

kJ

Calorific value of fuel (see page 7.03)

42500
..................................

kJ/kg coal or oil

kJ/Therm gas

Net fuel needed

kg coal or oil
Therm gas

57.53
..................................

KJ/kg

85% x 1.18
X

80% x 1.25
Boiler efficiency 75% x 1.34
70% x 1.43

Actual fuel needed

1.25
..................................
71.9
..................................

kg coal or oil
Therm gas

COAL
Mathematical
operation

EDB/1

1000

kg/tonne

..................................

tonne

..................................

/tonne

..................................

/1000 kg steam

7.01

OIL
Relative Density
Heavy 0.97
Medium 0.95
Light 0.935
Gas 0.835

Mathematical
operation

0.97
..................................

74.1
..................................

litre

0.14
..................................

/litre

10.38
..................................

/1000 kg steam

GAS
Mathematical
operation
x

/Therm

..................................

/1000 kg steam
..................................

Heat input in kilojoules (kJ) required to raise one kilogram (kg) of steam.
Boiler
pressure
bar g
1
5
6
7
10
12
15
17
20
25

7.02

Feedwater temperature OC
10
2665
2715
2722
2727
2740
2746
2752
2755
2759
2762

20
2623
2673
2680
2685
2697
2704
2710
2713
2717
2720

30
2581
2631
2638
2643
2655
2662
2668
2671
2675
2678

40
2539
2589
2596
2601
2613
2620
2626
2629
2633
2636

50
2497
2548
2555
2560
2573
2578
2584
2587
2591
2594

60
2455
2506
2513
2518
2531
2536
2542
2545
2549
2552

70
2413
2464
2471
2476
2489
2494
2500
2503
2507
2510

80
2371
2421
2428
2433
2445
2452
2458
2461
2465
2468

90
2329
2381
2388
2393
2406
2410
2416
2419
2423
2426

100
2287
2338
2345
2350
2363
2368
2374
2377
2381
2384

110
2245
2295
2302
2307
2319
2326
2332
2335
2339
2342

EDB/1

Calorific value of various fuels (approximate values)

TYPE
ANTHRACITE
GOOD BITUMINOUS COAL
GOOD AVERAGE INDUSTRIAL COAL
POOR AVERAGE INDUSTRIAL COAL
VISCOSITY
GRADE

COAL

cSt
4
50
230
900

GAS OIL
LIGHT
MEDIUM
HEAVY

OIL

GAS

CALORIFIC VALUE (kJ/kg)

32,500
30,000
28,000
21,000
RELATIVE
DENSITY

RED.1
SECS
35
210
950
3500
105,500 kJ/THERM

CALORIFIC
VALUE (kJ/kg)

0.835
0.935
0.95
0.97

45,600
43,500
43,000
42,500

Reasonable average steam produced per unit of fuel

1 kg of coal
1 kg of oil
1 l of oil
1 therm of gas

will
will
will
will

produce
produce
produce
produce

about
about
about
about

8kg of steam
15kg of steam
14kg of steam
36kg of steam

Area of circles and cubic capacity in litres/metre of length

Diameter, mm
4
8
12
16
20
25
34
38
42
46
50
55
60
65
70
75
80
85
90
95
100
110
120
130
140
150
160
170

EDB/1

Area, mm2

Area, m2

12.6
50.3
113.1
201.1
314.1
491.0
907.9
1134
1385
1662
1963
2376
2827
3318
3848
4418
5026
5674
6362
7088
7854
9503
11310
13273
15394
17671
20106
22698

0.011
0.013
0.015
0.018
0.020
0.023

Cubic capacity per

metre of length litres
0.0126
0.0503
0.1131
0.2011
0.3141
0.4910
0.9079
1.134
1.385
1.662
1.963
2.376
2.827
3.318
3.848
4.418
5.026
5.674
6.362
7.088
7.854
9.503
11.310
13.273
15.394
17.671
20.106
22.698

7.03

Area of circles and cubic capacity in litres/metre of length (cont'd)

Diameter,
mm
180
190
200
210
220
230
240
250
260
270
280
290
300
325
350
375
400
425
450
475
500
525
550
575
600
625
650
675
700
725
750
775
800
825
850
875
900
925
950
975
1000
1025
1050
1075
1100
1125
1150
1175
1200
1225
1250
1275
1300

7.04

Area, mm2

Area, m2

25447
28353
31416
34636
38013
41547
45239
49087
53093
57255
61575
66052
70686
82958
96211
110447
125664
141862
159043
177205
196349
216475
237583
259672
282743
306796
331831
357847
384845
412825
441786
471730
502655
534562
567450
601320
636172
672006
708822
746619
785398
825159
865901
907626
950332
994019
1038689
1084340
1130973
1178588
1227185
1276763
1327323

0.025
0.028
0.031
0.035
0.038
0.042
0.045
0.049
0.054
0.057
0.062
0.066
0.071
0.083
0.096
0.110
0.126
0.142
0.159
0.177
0.196
0.216
0.238
0.260
0.283
0.307
0.332
0.358
0.385
0.413
0.442
0.472
0.503
0.535
0.567
0.601
0.636
0.672
0.709
0.747
0.785
0.825
0.866
0.908
0.950
0.994
1.039
1.084
1.131
1.179
1.227
1.277
1.327

Cubic capacity per

metre of length litres
25.447
28.353
31.416
34.636
38.013
41.547
45.239
49.087
53.093
57.255
61.575
66.052
70.686
82.958
96.211
110.447
125.664
141.862
159.043
177.205
196.349
216.475
237.583
259.672
282.743
306.796
331.831
357.847
384.845
412.825
441.786
471.730
502.655
534.562
567.450
601.320
636.172
672.006
708.822
746.619
785.398
825.159
865.901
907.626
950.332
994.019
1038.689
1084.340
1130.973
1178.588
1227.185
1276.763
1327.323

EDB/1

SI base and supplementary quantities and units

SI unit symbol
("abbreviation") use roman
(upright) type

Quantity or "dimension"
SI Unit
Base quantity or "dimension"
length
metre
m
mass
kilogram
kg
time
second
s
electric current
ampere
A
thermodynamic temperature
kelvin
K
amount of substance
mole*
mol
luminous intensity
candela
cd
Supplementary quantity or "dimension"
plane angle
radian
rad
solid angle
steradian
sr
* When the mole is used, the elementary entities must be specified; they may be atoms,
molecules, ions, electrons, other particles, or specified groups of such particles.

Derived units of SI which have special names

Quantity

Unit

frequency (of periodic phenomenon)

force
pressure, stress
energy, work, quantity of heat
power, radiant flux
quantity of electricity, electric charge
electric potential, potential difference,
electromotive force capacitance
electric resistance
conductance
magnetic flux
magnetic-flux density
inductance
luminous flux
illuminance

hertz
newton
pascal
joule
watt
coulomb
volt
farad
ohm
siemens
weber
tesla
henry
lumen
lux

SI Prefixes
Multiplication factor
1 000 000 000 000 000 000 =1018
1 000 000 000 000 000=1015
1 000 000 000 000 =1012
1 000 000 000=109
1 000 000=106
1 000=103
100=102
10=101
0.1=10-1
0.01=10-2
0.001=10-3
0.000 001=10-6
0.000 000 001 =10-9
0.000 000 000 001 =10-12
0.000 000 000 000 001=10-15
0.000 000 000 000 000 001 =10-18
* Generally to be avoided.

EDB/1

Symbol
Hz
N
Pa
J
W
C
V
F

S
Wb
T
H
lm
lx

Prefix
exa
peta
tera
giga
mega
kilo
hecto*
deka*
deci*
centi
milli
micro
nano
pico
femto
atto

Expressed in terms of
SI base or
supplementary units
= 1/s
= (kg.m)/s2
= N/m2
= N.m
= J/s
= A.s
= W/A
= C/V
= V/A
= 1/
= V.s
= Wb/m2
= Wb/A
= cd.sr
= lm/m2

Symbol
E
P
T
G
M
k
h
da
d
c
m

n
p
f
a

7.05

Conversion tables
Table 1 LENGTH
From To
millimetre
centimetre
metre
kilometre
inch
foot
yard
mile

millimetre
1
10
1000
25.4
304.8
914.4
-

centimetre
metre
0.1
0.001
1
0.01
100
1
1000
2.54
30.48
0.3048
91.44
0.9144
1609.344

kilometre
0.001
1
0.000914
1.609344

inch
0.03937
0.393701
39.3701
1
12
36
-

foot
0.032808
3.28084
3280.84
0.083333
1
3
5280

yard
1.09361
1093.61
0.027778
0.33333
1
1760

mile
0.621371
0.000568
1

Table 2 AREA
From To
cm2
m2
km2
in2
ft2
yd2
acre
mile2

cm2
1
10000
6.4516
929.03
8361.27
-

m2
0.0001
1
1000000
0.000645
0.092903
0.836127
4046.86
-

km2
0.000001
1
0.004047
2.589987

in2
0.155
1550
1
144
1296
-

ft2
0.001076
10.7639
0.006944
1
9
43560
-

yd2
0.0001196
1.19599
0.000772
0.111111
1
4840
-

acre
0.0002471
247.105
0.000023
0.0002066
1
640

mile2
0.386102
0.001562
1

Table 3 MASS
From To
kg
tonne
lb
UK cwt
UK ton
US cwt
US ton

kg
1
1000
0.453592
50.8023
1016.05
45.3592
907.185

tonne
0.001
1
0.000454
0.050802
1.01605
0.045359
0.907185

lb
2.20462
2204.62
1
112
2240
100
2000

UKcwt
0.019684
19.6841
0.008929
1
20
0.892857
17.8571

UK ton
0.000984
0.984207
0.000446
0.05
1
0.044643
0.892857

US cwt
0.022046
22.0462
0.01
1.12
22.4
1
20

US ton
0.001102
1.10231
0.0005
0.056
1.12
0.05
1

Table 4 VOLUME AND CAPACITY

From To
cm3
m3
litre (dm3)

cm3

m3

litre (dm3)

0.001

in3

ft3

1000

61023.7

35.3147

1.30795

1759.75

219.969

2113.38

264.172

1000

0.001

61.0237

0.035315

0.001308

1.75975

0.219969

2.11338

0.264172

0.0005787 0.0000214

0.061024 0.0000353

yd3

UK pint

UK gall

US pint

0.001760

0.00022

0.002113

US gall
0.000264

in3

16.3871

0.016387

0.028837

0.003605

0.034632

0.004329

ft3

28316.8

0.028317

28.3168

1728

0.037037

49.8307

6.22883

59.8442

7.48052

yd3

764555

0.764555

764.555

46656

27

1345.429

168.1784

1615.793

201.974

UK pint

568.261

0.0005683

0.568261

34.6774

0.020068

0.000743

0.125

1.20095

0.150119

UK gall

4546.09

0.0045461

4.54609

277.42

0.160544

0.005946

9.6076

1.20095

US pint

473.176

0.0004732

0.473176

28.875

0.01671

0.000619

0.832674

0.104084

0.125

US gall

3785.41

0.0037854

3.785411

231

0.133681

0.004951

6.661392

0.832674

7.06

EDB/1

Table 5 PRESSURE
From To
atmos
mm Hg
m bar
bar
pascal
in H20
in Hg
psi

atmos
1
0.0013158
0.0009869
0.9869
0.0000099
0.0024583
0.033421
0.068046

mm Hg
760
1
0.750062
750.062
0.007501
1.86832
25.4
51.7149

m bar
1013.25
1.33322
1
1000
0.01
2.49089
33.8639
68.9476

bar
1.0132
0.001333
0.001
1
0.00001
0.002491
0.0338639
0.068948

pascal
101325
133.322
100
100000
1
249.089
3386.39
6894.76

in H20
406.781
0.53524
0.401463
401.463
0.004015
1
13.5951
27.6799

in Hg
29.9213
0.03937
0.02953
29.53
0.0002953
0.073556
1
2.03602

psi
14.6959
0.019337
0.014504
14.504
0.000145
0.036127
0.491154
1

US gall/m

US gall/h

Pascal=1N/m2

Table 6 VOLUME RATE OF FLOW

From To
l/s
(dm/s)

l/s
(dm/s)

l/h

m/s

m/h

cfm

ft/h

UK gall/m

UK gall/h

3600

0.001

3.6

2.118882

127.133

13.19814

791.8884

15.85032

951.019

0.000278

0.001

0.000588

0.035315 0.003666

0.219969

0.004403

0.264172

m/s

1000

3600000

3600

2118.88

127133

13198.1

791889

15850.3

951019

m/h

0.277778

1000

0.000278

0.588578

35.3147

3.66615

219.969

4.402863

264.1718

cfm

0.471947 1699.017

0.000472

1.699017

60

6.228833

373.73

7.480517

448.831

ft/h

0.007866

28.3168

0.103814

6.228833

0.124675

7.480517

UK gall/m 0.075768

272.766

9.63262

60

1.20095

72.057

UK gall/h

0.001263

4.54609

0.020016

1.20095

US gall/m

0.06309

227.125

US gall/h

0.001052 3.785411

l/h

0.028317 0.016667

0.0000758 0.272766 0.160544

-

0.004546 0.002676

0.0000631 0.227125 0.133681

-

0.003785 0.002228

0.160544 0.016667
8.020832 0.832674

49.96045

60

0.133681 0.013878

0.832674

0.016667

Table 7 POWER
From To
Btu/h
W
kcal/h
kW

Btu/h
1
3.41214
3.96832
3412.14

W
0.293071
1
1.163
1000

kcal/h
0.251996
0.859845
1
859.845

kW
0.000293
0.001
0.001163
1

Table 8 ENERGY
From To
Btu
Therm
J
kJ
Cal

EDB/1

Btu
1
100 000
0.00094
0.9478
0.0039683

Therm
0.00001
1
0.000009478
0.0039683 x 10-5

J
1055.06
1
1000
4.1868

kJ
1.055
105 500
0.001
1
-

Cal
251.996
25 199 600
0.2388
238.85
1

7.07

Table 9 SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY

Btu/lbOF
1
0.00023

From To
Btu/lbOF
J/kgOC

J /KgOC
4186.8
1

Table 10 HEAT FLOW RATE

From To
Btu/ft2 h
W/m2
kcal/m2 h

Btu/ft2 h
1
0.3169
0.368

W/m2
3.154
1
1.163

kcal/m2 h
2.712
0.859
1

Table 11 THERMAL CONDUCTANCE

From To
Btu/ft2h OF
W/m2 OC
kcal/m2h OC

Btu/ft2 OF
1
0.176110
0.204816

W/m2 OC
5.67826
1
1.163

kcal/m2h OC
4.88243
0.859845
1

Table 12 HEAT PER UNIT MASS

From To
Btu/lb
kJ/kg

Btu/lb
1
0.4299

kJ/kg
2.326
1

Table 13 LINEAR VELOCITY

From To
ft/min
ft/s
m/s

ft/min
1
60
196.850

ft/s
0.016666
1
3.28084

m/s
0.00508
0.3048
1

TEMPERATURE CONVERSION
Can be achieved by using the following formulae:
O

F = (OC x 1.8) + 32

C = (OF 32)
1.8

7.08

EDB/1

Summary table of approximate conversion factors

Temperature
50OF
68OF

= 10OC
= 20OC

140OF = 60OC
176OF = 80OC

40 in
1 ft

1m
0.3 m

1 yd
5 mile

0.9 m
8 km

100 ft/min
1 mile/hour

5 m/s
0.5 m/s

1000 in2

0.6 m2

10 ft2

0.9 m2

500 in3
100 ft3

8 litre
3 m3

100 gal

450 litre

100 ft3/min

50 l/s

20lb
1 ton(sh)

9kg
0.9 tonne

1ton

1.02 tonne

10 000 lb/h
1 000 gal/min

1.3 kg/s
75l/s

100 grain/lb

14g/kg

Length
Velocity
Area
Volume
Fan duty
Mass
Pump duty
Moisture Content, etc
Force (weight)
1 lbf
4.5N
Pressure
1 lbf/in2
1 lbf/ft2
1 kgf/m2
1 in H2O
1 standard atmos. (34ft H2O, 10m H2O)
1 mm Mercury
1 m H2O
10 mm H2O
Quantity of heat, energy
1 Btu
Flow of Heat
10 Btu/h
3 W(J/s)
Calorific value (Latent heat, etc)
10 Btu/lb
Thermal Transmittance, conductance
5 Btu/h ft2 OF
5 kcal/h m2 OC
Conductivity
10 Btu in/h ft2 OF

EDB/1

7000 N/m2
50 N/m2
10 N/m2
250 N/m2
130 N/m2
9800 N/m2
100 N/m2

70 mbar

2.5
1013
1.3
98
1

mbar
mbar
mbar
mbar
mbar

1 kJ
5 kcal/h

6 W(J/s)

23 kJ/kg
30 W/m2 OC (J/s m2 OC)
6 W/m2 OC
1.4 W/m OC

7.09

IP Classification of enclosures
1st characteristic numeral
protection against solid bodies
0

1
Protected against
solid bodies greater
than 50mm

2
Protected against
solid bodies greater
than 12mm

3
Protected against
solid bodies greater
than 2.5mm

no protection

2nd characteristic numeral

protection against liquids
0

no protection

1
Protected against
dripping water

200mm

2
Protected against
dripping water of
o
15 angle

200mm

test time
10 mins

3
Protected against
spraying water of
o
60 angle

30o

80kN/m2

4
Protected against
solid bodies greater
than 1.0mm

test time
10 mins

4
Protected against
splashing water
80kN/m2
3m

5
Protected against
dust-limited ingress

6.3mm

5
Protected against
water jets

test time
1 min/m2
12.5 l/min
30kN/m2
3m

6
Protected against
dust-dust tight

6
Protected against
heavy seas

12.5mm
test time
1 min/m2

min 1m

7
Protected against
immersion

min 0.15m

100 l/min
100 kN/m2

test time
30 mins

8
Protected against
submersion

7.10

EDB/1

Graphical symbols
Valves-actuating methods
Diaphragm

Motor

Solenoid

Spring

In line (any type or pattern)

(Pressure reducing valve)

Valves-specific types

In line (simple screw down)

Relief (angle, pressure)

Check (non-return)

3-way

Globe

Ball

EDB/1

7.11

Graphical symbols (cont'd)

Trap functions

Trap drain, e.g. steam trap

Trapped vent e.g. automatic air valve (air vent)

Pipeline flexibility

Bellows

Sleeve extension

Expansion loop

Flexible hose

7.12

EDB/1

Graphical symbols (cont'd)

Pipeline features and general equipment

Strainer or filter

Open vent

Separator

Exhaust head

FALL

1:70

150

Indication of pipe size (e.g. 150mm)

150

Indication of fall

100

Pipe bore change

Point of measurement e.g. pressure

Sight flow indicator e.g. sight glass

Ejector/injector

Centrifugal pump

Strainer

EDB/1

7.13

Electrical circuit symbols and notations

Conductors

OR
2C
Number of conductors following
the same route

Number of control conductors

Number of conductors forming

a circuit

Boundary line

Reserved for special connections

or jumpers

Control wiring

Load wiring (two-three time

normal thickness)

Group crossing (not more than five

parallel wires equally spaced should be
drawn in a group)

Screened cable earthed at one end

Earth

Notes
Thermostats and pressure switches to be shown calling for operation.
Relays and other contacts to be shown in de-energized position.
H.P. or load to be shown on all machines.
Rotor amps to be given on slip-ring motors.
Tap to be stated on auto transformers.
Earth to be shown on low voltage transformers.
Rating of isolators and fuses to be stated.
Terminal numbers to be given on all components.
On isolators the neutral link to be shown on the right.

7.14

EDB/1

Switches, fuses and contacts

Panel outgoing terminals

OR

OR

Mains

LV
OR

Panel internal terminals

Control switch S.P.S.T

Control switch S.P.D.T

OR

Fixed contact

Separable contact
Signal lamp

Neon indicator

Socket
plug

Control plug and socket

OR

Fuse with separable contacts

Link with separable contacts

Fuse with bolted contacts

Link with bolted contacts

Fuse-switch
(three pole , double break)

Fuse-switch
(three pole , single break)

EDB/1

7.15

Switches, fuses and contacts (cont'd)

Auxiliary switch (open)

Contactor normally
(closed)
OR

Contactor with
mechanical interlock
Auxiliary switch (closed)
OR

Contactor open double

break
Auxiliary switch with
time lag (on closing)

Contactor closed double

break
Auxiliary switch with
time lag (on opening
and closing)

Push-button switch
(open)

Circuit breaker (general

symbol)

Push-button switch
(closed)
Switch of isolator single
pole, rotary
Contactor normally
(open)
Passing contact arrow
denotes direction of drive

7.16

EDB/1

Circuit components
OR

Resistance
Resistance (practically non-inductive)

Resistance bulb or electronic thermostat

OR

Moveable contact

Resistance starter (for three-phase motor)

Transformer

OR

Current transformer

OR

Contactor coil

Relay coil

OR

OR

Inductor or choke (with magnetic core)

Capacitor
Electrolytic capacitor non-polarized

Electrolytic capacitor polarized

Variable capacitance

EDB/1

7.17

Circuit components (cont'd)

Instruments

Controllers

Ammeter

Pressure

Hour meter

Temperature

Voltmeter

Humidity

Motor (general symbol)

Pressure difference

Power transformer
(general symbol)

Electric bell

Electric buzzer

Electric horn

Heater

Rectifier

Overload element

Electro-magnetic
actuator

7.18

EDB/1

Thermal expansions of pipes

Temperature
O

C.steel

12% Cr steel

mm/10m
-4,99
-4,44
-3,90
-3,35
-2,80
-2,24
-1,69
-1,13
-0,56
0,00
0,57
1,14
1,71
2,29
2,86
3,44
4,03
4,61
5,20
5,79
6,39
6,98
7,58
8,18
8,79
9,39
10,00
11,23
12,47
13,72
14,97
16,24
17,52
18,81
20,11
21,43
22,75
24,08
25,42
26,78
28,14
29,52
30,90
32,30
33,70
35,12
36,55
37,98
39,43
40,89
42,36
43,84
45,33
46,83
48,35
49,87
51,40

mm/10m
-5,05
-4,49
-3,94
-3,38
-2,82
-2,26
-1,69
-1,13
-0,57
0,00
0,57
1,13
1,70
2,27
2,84
3,42
3,99
4,56
5,14
5,72
6,29
6,87
7,45
8,03
8,62
9,20
9,78
10,96
12,13
13,32
14,50
15,69
16,89
18,08
19,29
20,50
21,71
23,04
24,28
25,53
26,78
28,04
29,30
30,57
31,85
33,13
34,42
35,71
37,01
38,32
39,63
40,94
42,26
43,59
44,93
46,27
47,61
48,96
50,32
51,68
53,05
54,43
55,81
57,19
58,58
59,98
61,38

-30
-25
-20
-15
-10
-5
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
55
60
65
70
75
80
85
90
95
100
110
120
130
140
150
160
170
180
190
200
210
220
230
240
250
260
270
280
290
300
310
320
330
340
350
360
370
380
390
400
410
420
430
440
450
460
470
480
490
500
Note: Reference temperature: 15OC

EDB/1

MATERIALS
18/8 s.s
mm/10m
-7,79
-6,92
-6,05
-5,19
-4,32
-3,46
-2,59
-1,73
-0,86
0,00
0,86
1,73
2,59
3,46
4,32
5,18
6,05
6,91
7,78
8,64
9,50
10,37
11,23
12,09
12,95
13,82
14,68
16,41
18,13
19,85
21,58
23,30
25,02
26,75
28,47
30,19
31,91
33,63
35,35
37,07
38,79
40,51
42,23
43,94
45,66
47,38
49,09
50,81
52,53
54,24
55,95
57,67
59,38
61,10
62,81
64,52
66,23
67,94
69,66
71,37
73,08
74,79
76,49
78,20
79,91
81,62
83,33

Duct.iron

Copper

mm/10m
-4,54
-4,04
-3,53
-3,03
-2,52
-2,02
-1,51
-1,01
-0,50
0,00
0,50
1,01
1,51
2,02
2,52
3,21
3,75
4,28
4,82
5,36
5,89
6,43
6,96
7,50
8,03
8,57
9,10
10,53
11,64
12,75
13,86
14,97
16,60
17,74
18,89
20,03
21,18
23,38
24,58

mm/10m
-7,16
-6,38
-5,59
-4,79
-4,00
-3,20
-2,41
-1,61
-0.80
0,00
0,81
1,61
2,42
3,24
4,05
4,87
5,68
6,50
7,33
8,15
8,98
9,80
10,63
11,47
12,30
13,14
13,97
15,66
17,35
19,04
20,75
22,46
24,19
25,92
27,65
29,40
31,15

7.19

Corrosion resistance of metals and elastomers

A - excellent

B - good

C - poor

D - not recommended

- no information

Material
CI1 - cast iron
CI2 - nickel plated cast iron
ST - steel
EM - EPDM
BN - Buna N
NR - natural rubber
NE - neoprene
T.ref= reference
HY - Hypalon
temperature
VI - Viton
SI - silicon
bg = boiling

A1 - stainless steels AISI 410/420

A2 - stainless steels AISI 430
A3 - stainless steel AISI 304/304L/321/347
A4 - stainless steels - AISI 316/316L/317/317L
AB - aluminium bronze
HB - Hastelloy B
HC - Hastelloy C
MK - monel K
AL - aluminium
CHEMICAL
Acetates
Aluminium acetate
10%
100%

T.ref

C A1 A2 A3 A4 AB HB HC MK AL

CI1

CI2 ST

EM BN

NR

NE HY VI

SI

100
20
100
20
20

B
B
B

B
B
A

B
B
C
A
A

B
B
A
A

A
A

A
A

A
A

A
A

B
A

C
B

B
A

D
D

D
D

C
D

C
D

20
100
100%
20
Ethyl acetate (100%)
20
Lead acetate (100%)
20
Methyl acetate (100%)
20
Potassium acetate (100%) 20
Sodium acetate
5%
20
10 - 60%
20
100%
20

B
B
B
-

A
B
B
-

A
B
B
B
-

A
B
B
B
A
A
A

A
B
-

A
A
B
A
-

B
A
A
-

D
D
-

B
-

D
C
D
C
-

A
B
-

D
A
C
A

C
B
D
-

D
B
D
-

D
D
-

D
-

D
-

D
-

C
B
B

B
B

B
B

A
B
B

A
-

A
-

B
-

D
-

A
-

B
-

B
-

D
-

20
50
65
100
20
65
100
20
65
75
100
20
65
75
100
30
20

C
D
D
D
D
D
D
C
D
D
B
-

C
C
C
B
B
C
C
C
B
D
B
C
D
C
-

A
A
B
A
A
B
A
C
A
C
D
A
-

A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A

D
D
-

A
A
A
A
B
-

A
A
A
A
A
A
-

B
B
B
A
-

A
A
A
A
C
-

D
D
D

B
D
A

B
D
A

D
D
-

A
D
A

A
B
A

D
D
A

A
A

20
100
20
100
100

B
B
B
B
B

B
B
-

B
B
B
-

A
B
B
B
-

A
-

A
-

B
-

B
-

B
-

D
-

B
-

C
-

C
-

C
-

A
-

20
90
100
80
100
150

A
C
B
B
C
-

A
B
B
C
-

A
A
B
B
B

A
A
A
B
B
B

C
-

A
-

A
-

B
-

B
-

D
-

A
-

A
-

A
-

A
-

Amyl acetate (100%)

Butyl acetate (100%)
Copper acetate
10%

Acids
Acetic acid
0 - 20%

20 - 60%

60 - 80%

80 - 95%

95 - 100%
Arsenic acid (100%)
Benzoic acid
5%
10 - 50%
10 - 100%
60%
70%
Boric acid
5%
10%
20 - 50%

7.20

EDB/1

CHEMICAL

T.ref

Boric acid
100%
Butyric acid
5%
10%
20%
20 - 80%
20 - 100%
30 - 50%
60 - 100%
Carbonic acid
10%
100%
Chloroacetic acid
10 - 100%
Chromic acid
5%
10%
25%
30%
50%

70%
Citric acid
5%
10%

15%
20 - 50%

100%
concentrated
Fatty acids
Fluosilicic acid (100%)
Gallic acid
5%
10 - 30%
40 - 100%
Hydrobromic acid (90%)
Hydrochloric acid
all concentrations
15%
37%
Hydrofluoric acid
20%
concentrated

EDB/1

C A1 A2 A3 A4 AB HB HC MK AL

CI1

CI2

ST

EM BN

NR

NE HY VI

SI

20 B
200 -

B
-

B
B

B
B

20
65
100
100
20
50
100
100

A
C
C
D
-

A
A
C
C
C
C
C
D

A
A
B
B
B
B
C
D

A
A
B
B
B
B
B
B

B
-

A
A
-

B
-

A
-

D
-

D
-

D
-

D
-

D
-

C
-

D
-

20 20 B
100 -

B
-

B
B

B
B

A
-

A
-

B
-

B
-

D
-

A
-

A
-

B
-

B
-

A
-

A
-

20 D

20
20
bg
20
50
20
50
20
50
100
bg
20

C
D
D
D
D

B
C
C
D
D
D
D
-

A
B
B
B
D
B
B
D
D
D
B

A
B
B
B
B
B
C
D
B

D
-

D
D
D
-

C
B
B
-

D
D
-

C
C
-

B
-

D
-

B
-

D
-

D
-

D
-

A
-

A
-

20
60
20
50
80
100
20
bg
20
50
100
50
100
bg
bg
20

B
B
C
D
A
D
D
D
D
-

A
A
B
B
C
C
B
B
C
D
-

A
A
B
B
B
A
A
B
B
B
D
D
B
D

A
A
A
B
B
B
B
B
B
B
B
B
D
B
D

C
A
B
-

A
A
B
A

A
A
A
A
A
B

A
B
A
A
A
B

B
B
B
B
B
D

D
C
B
D

A
-

B
A

D
-

A
B

A
-

A
-

20
65
100
100
20

A
A
B
D

A
A
B
B
D

A
A
B
B
D

A
A
B
B
D

B
B
B

B
B
C

B
B
C

C
D
D

D
D

B
D

B
D

C
D

B
D

20 D
20 20 -

D
-

D
-

D
-

D
-

A
-

B
B

D
-

D
-

D
-

B
D

B
D

D
D

A
A

A
A

20
60
20
80

D
D

D
D
D
D

D
D
-

B
B

A
A
B
B

C
D
A
B

D
D

D
D
-

D
D
-

D
D
-

B
D
-

C
D
-

A
A
-

C
D
-

7.21

CHEMICAL
Hydroformic acid
5%
10 - 75%

10%
20 - 80%
90%
100%
Lactic acid
5%
10%

20%
30 - 40%
50%
60%
70%
80%
100%
Maleic acid
10%
20%
50%
100%
Nitric acid
0 - 10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

7.22

T.ref

C A1 A2 A3 A4 AB HB HC MK AL

CI1

CI2

ST

EM BN

NR

NE HY VI

SI

20
65
20
50
bg
80
100
100
100
20

D
C
D
D
D
B

C
C
C
D
D
D
D
A

B
B
B
B
D
A
D
D
A
A

A
B
B
B
D
A
A

A
-

C
C
C
C
B

A
A
A
B
A

B
C
B
C
C

C
C
C
D
C

D
-

D
-

D
-

A
-

B
-

D
-

20
65
20
50
100
50
100
20
50
50
100
20
50
20
20
100

C
D
D
D
D
D
D

B
B
D
D
D
D
B
C

A
B
B
B
B
B
D
B
B
B
D
B
B
B
C

A
A
B
B
B
B
B
A
A
A
B
A
A
B
B
B

D
-

B
B
B
-

B
B
B
-

B
C
B
-

A
B
A
-

D
-

C
-

A
-

A
-

A
-

20
100
100
100
20
100

B
D
C
-

B
B
B
B
B

B
B
B
B

D
-

A
-

D
-

D
-

D
-

D
-

D
-

A
-

A
-

20
80
bg
20
50
bg
150
20
50
bg
20
50
80
bg
20
50
80
bg
20
50
80
90
bg

B
C
B
C
D
B
C
D
B
C
D
D
B
D
B
D
D
-

B
B
B
B
B
B
B
B
B
C
D
B
B
C
D
B
B
C
D
-

A
A
A
A
A
A
C
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
B

A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
B

D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D

D
D
D
D
D
D
D

B
C
B
B
B
B
D
B
D

D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D

D
D
D
D
C
D
D
C

D
D
D
D
D
D
-

A
A
A
A
A
-

D
D
D
D
D
-

D
D
D
D
D
-

D
D
D
D
D
-

A
-

C
C
C
C
A
-

EDB/1

CHEMICAL
Nitric acid
70%

80%

90%

100%

Oleic acid
10 - 100%
100%

Oleum (fuming)

Oxalic acid
5%
10%
10-60%
20%
25%
25-50%
30-50%
50%
100%
Palmitic acid (100%)
Phenic acid (100%)
Phosphoric acid
1%
10%
25%
50%
80%
concentrated
Picric acid
10 - 100%
80%
100%
Stearic acid
100%

EDB/1

T.ref

C A1 A2 A3 A4 AB HB HC MK AL

CI1

CI2

ST

EM BN

NR

NE HY VI

SI

20
50
80
90
bg
20
50
80
90
bg
20
50
80
bg
20
50
100

B
D
B
D
B
D
D
D
-

B
B
D
D
B
C
D
B
D
C
D
-

A
A
B
B
C
A
A
B
C
C
A
B
C
D
B
D

A
A
B
B
C
A
A
B
C
C
A
B
C
A
B
D

D
D
D
D
-

D
D
D
D
D
-

B
B
D
B
B
-

D
D
D
D
D
-

D
B
D
D
D
-

B
B
A
-

D
D
D
D
-

B
B
A
-

A
A
A
A
-

D
D
D
D
-

D
D
D
D
-

D
D
D
D
-

A
A
A
A
-

A
A
A
A
-

20
38
100
150
20
50
100
150

B
B
B
A
D
-

B
B
B
C
A
D
-

B
B
B
B
C
B
B
B

B
B
B
B
B
B
B
B

B
-

B
B
B
C
-

B
B
B
B
-

A
A
D
D
-

B
B
B
D
-

D
D
-

B
-

B
D
-

D
D
-

B
D
-

B
D
-

B
D
-

A
A
-

<100 B
20 D
bg 100 D
20 B
20 C
100 D
20 B
bg 20 D
bg 20 B
20 -

A
B
D
D
D
B
D
-

A
D
D
D
D
B
B

A
B
D
D
B
B
D
B
D
D
D
B
B

D
B
-

B
B
B
B
B
B
B
B

B
B
B
B
B
B
B
B
B

B
B
C
C
B
C
B
B

D
B
D
D
B
D
B
B

D
D
-

B
-

D
A
-

B
B
-

B
A
-

B
D
-

A
A
-

A
C
D
D
D
D
D
C
D

A
B
D
D
D
D
D
C
D

A
A
C
B
D
A
B
B
C
B
D

A
A
A
A
C
A
B
A
C
A
D

D
-

A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
-

A
A
A
B
A
B
A
D
-

B
B
D
D
B
D
A
C
-

B
D
D
D
D
D
D
-

D
-

B
-

B
-

C
-

B
-

A
-

A
-

20 B
20 100 -

B
-

B
B

B
A
B

A
-

C
-

D
-

D
-

B
-

A
-

A
-

20
100
150
200

D
B
D

B
B
D
D

B
B
B
B

C
-

A
-

A
A
-

A
C
-

A
-

D
-

B
-

B
-

B
-

B
-

20
bg
20
bg
bg
20
bg
20
bg
20
bg

B
D

7.23

CHEMICAL

T.ref

C A1 A2 A3 A4 AB HB HC MK AL

Sulphuric acid (not aerated)

5%
20
bg
10%
20
bg
20-80%
20
50%
20
bg
90%
20
50
100
100%
20
50
Sulphuric acid (aerated)
5%
20
bg
10%
20
100
20-70%
20
80%
20
50
80
100%
20
80
100
Sulphurous acid
10%
20
20%
20
80%
38
100%
20
50
80
100
Sulphydric acid
10%
20
90%
20
50
100%
20
315
Tannic acid
10%

30%
50%
70%
90%
100%

Tartaric acid
10%
20-40%
30%
50%

7.24

CI1

CI2

ST

EM BN

NR

NE HY VI

SI

D
D
D
D
D
D
C
-

D
D
D
D
D
C
-

C
D
D
D
D
D
D
C
-

B
C
D
D
D
D
D
B
D
D
B
B

D
D
D
D
-

A
B
A
B
A
A
-

A
C
A
C
B
D
D
D
-

C
B
D
B
D
D
D
D
-

C
D
C
D
D
D
D
D
-

B
-

D
D
D
D
-

B
-

B
D
D
D
-

B
D
D
D
-

C
D
D
D
-

D
D
-

A
A
B
B
-

A
A
A
B
-

D
-

C
D
D
D
-

D
D
C
D
D
D
-

D
D
D
D
-

B
D
B
B
D
B
C
D
B
D
C

D
D
-

A
-

A
D
-

C
D
D
-

D
D
-

D
D
-

B
D
-

B
D
-

C
D
-

D
-

A
B
-

A
B
-

D
-

D
D
D
D
D

D
B
D
D
D
D

D
B
B
D
D
D

B
B
D
B
B
B
-

D
-

D
-

A
B
-

D
D
-

C
-

D
-

D
-

D
-

D
-

B
-

A
-

D
B
B

D
C
B

D
D
C
B

A
A
A
B
B

20
50
100
20
100
20
20
20
50
100

B
B
B
B
C
D
D

B
B
B
B
B
B
C
C

B
D
D
B
B
B
B
B
B
B

B
B
B
B
B
B
B
B

B
-

B
B
-

A
B
B
-

B
B
-

C
D
-

D
-

D
-

C
-

B
-

B
-

A
-

20
100
100
50
80
100

B
D

A
B
B
B

A
A
C
B
B

A
B
B
B

B
-

B
-

A
-

A
-

EDB/1

CHEMICAL

T.ref

Alcohol
Alcohol amyl
100%
Alcohol butyl
100%
Alcohol ethyl
10%
30%
40%
100%

Alcohol isopropyl
100%
Alcohol methyl
0-100%
100%
Alcohol propyl
100%
Bicarbonates
Ammonium bicarbonate
0-50%
50-90%
100%
Potassium bicarbonate
20%
Sodium bicarbonate
all concentrations
5%
Bichromates
Potassium bichromate
10-20%
30%
100%
Sodium bichromate
100%

EDB/1

C A1 A2 A3 A4 AB HB HC MK AL

CI1

CI2

ST

EM BN

NR

NE HY VI

SI

20 -

20 B

B
A
A
B

A
A
B
B
A
A
B

A
A
B
A
A
B

A
-

A
A

A
A

A
B

A
B

B
-

D
-

B
-

A
-

B
-

B
-

B
-

B
-

B
-

20 A

20 B
80 C
100 -

B
C
C

B
C
C

B
B
B

A
-

A
A

A
A

A
B

A
C

B
-

D
-

B
-

A
-

B
-

B
-

B
-

B
-

D
-

20 -

100 B
100 100 -

B
-

B
B
-

B
B
C

20 -

20 A
70 A

A
A

A
A

A
A

D
-

B
-

B
-

B
-

C
-

D
-

A
-

B
-

B
-

B
-

A
-

A
-

A
-

B
B
D
-

B
B
B
B

B
B
B
B

20
100
100
100
20
80
100

20
100
20
100
20

B
B
-

B
B
D
-

20 -

7.25

CHEMICAL

T.ref

Bromides
Potassium bromide
10-40%
50-60%
100%
Silver bromide
10%
100%
Carbonates
Ammonium carbonate
1-5%
0-50%
50-70%
100%
Barium carbonate
100%
Bismuth carbonate (dry)
100%
Calcium carbonate
10%
100%
Copper carbonate
10%
100%
Magnesium carbonate
100%
Potassium carbonate
10-50%
60-70%
100%
Sodium carbonate
5%
10-30%
100%
Chlorates
Calcium chlorate
10%
65%
Potassium chlorate
10%
20-30%
100%
Sodium chlorate
10%
25%
100%
Chlorobenzene
90%
Chlorobenzol
concentrated
Chloroform
100%

7.26

C A1 A2 A3 A4 AB HB HC MK AL

CI1

CI2

ST

EM BN

NR

NE HY VI

SI

100 100 20 -

B
B
B

20 D
20 D

D
D

D
C

20
100
100
20

A
B
B
-

A
B
B
-

A
B
B
B

A
B
B
B

B
-

B
-

20 B

20 A

100 B
20 B

20 B
20 -

B
-

B
A

B
A

20 -

100 B
100 B
20 B

B
B
B

B
B
B

B
B
B

B
-

B
-

20
65
100
20

A
A
B
B

A
A
B
B

A
A
B
B

A
A
B
B

B
B
-

B
B
A

B
B
A

D
D
-

B
B
-

20 B
100 20 B

B
-

B
B
-

B
B
A

100 B
100 B
206 -

B
B
-

B
B
B

B
B
B

B
-

B
-

20 20 20 -

B
B
-

B
B
A

D
D
D

B
B
-

B
B
-

20 A

20 -

20 B
60 -

B
A

A
A

A
A

B
-

B
-

B
-

A
-

A
-

D
-

A
B

D
-

D
-

D
-

D
-

D
-

A
-

D
-

EDB/1

CHEMICAL
Chlorides
Aluminium chloride
10%
10-40%
25%
50-75%
100%
Ammonium chloride
1%
5%
10%

25%

50%
90%
Barium chloride
5%
10%
100%
Calcium chloride
10%
20-70%
25%
35%
30-70%
100%

Copper chloride
1%
5%
5% (aerated)
10-40%
100% (dry)
Ethyl chloride
5%
100% (dry)
Ethylene chloride
100%
Ferric chloride
1%
5%
10-40%
100%
Ferrous chloride
10-20%
30%
40-50%

EDB/1

T.ref

C A1 A2 A3 A4 AB HB HC MK AL

CI1

CI2

ST

EM BN

NR

NE HY VI

SI

bg
20
bg
20
20
80

D
D
D
D

D
D
D
D
D

D
D
D
D
D

D
D
D
D
-

D
-

B
B
-

B
C
-

B
C
A
-

D
D
-

D
-

A
-

A
-

A
-

A
-

A
-

A
-

20
80
20
80
100
bg
20
80
100
bg
100
30

A
C
C
D
D
-

A
C
D
B
B
D
D

A
B
B
A
C
D
B
D
D
D
D

A
B
B
B
C
B
D
B
B
C
D
-

D
-

B
D
B
-

A
B
C
-

B
B
B
-

D
D
-

D
-

A
-

A
-

20
20
100
20
150

C
D
-

A
B
D
B
B

A
B
D
D
-

A
B
C
-

B
B
-

B
B
-

B
B
-

D
D
-

B
-

D
-

B
-

A
-

A
-

A
-

A
-

A
-

A
-

20
100
20
50
50
20
20
50
100

B
D
B
D
D

C
D
B
D
D
B
B
D

C
D
C
D
D
C
-

C
C
-

C
-

B
-

A
-

B
-

C
-

C
-

A
-

A
-

B
-

A
-

A
-

A
-

20
20
20
20
20

B
B
D
D
D

B
B
D
D
-

B
C
D
D
-

A
B
D
C

C
C
-

B
B
-

D
D
C

D
D
-

20 B
20 315 A

A
A

A
A
A

A
-

B
-

A
B
-

B
B
-

A
-

C
-

A
-

A
-

A
-

C
-

C
-

D
-

A
-

20 -

20
bg
20
20
20

D
D
D
D

B
D
D
D
-

B
D
D
D
-

A
D
D
D
-

D
D
D
-

B
C
B
D

D
D
D
A

D
D
D
-

20 D
20 20 -

D
D
-

D
D
-

D
D
D

7.27

CHEMICAL

T.ref

Magnesium chloride
1-5%
5%
10%
20%
30%
50%
100%
Mercury bichloride 2%
Mercury chloride
10%
100%
Methyl chloride
100% (dry)
Nickel chloride
10-30%
100%
Potassium chloride
1-5%
10%
20%
25%
30%
Silver chloride
10%
100%
Sodium chloride
5%
10%
20%
30%
saturated
Stannic chloride
5%
10-40%
100%
Stannous chloride
10%
20-40%
100%
Sulphur chloride
100%

7.28

C A1 A2 A3 A4 AB HB HC MK AL

20
hot
20
50
50
20
20
100
20
20

CI1

CI2

ST

EM BN

NR

NE HY VI

SI

C
B
D
-

B
D
A
B
B
B
-

A
D
C
C
B
B
B
C
C
D

A
D
B
B
B
B
B
D

C
-

A
A
A
A
A
D

A
B
A
A
A
B

B
A
A
A
A
D

C
D
C
C
C
D

C
-

A
-

A
-

A
-

A
-

A
-

A
-

20 D
20 D

D
D

D
-

D
-

D
-

D
-

A
-

20 B

20 D
20 -

D
-

D
B

20
bg
20
100
20
100
60
75
100

A
B
D
D
-

A
B
D
D
-

A
D
B
D
B
A
B

A
D
B
B
B
A
B

B
-

B
B
-

A
B
-

A
B
A
-

C
D
-

D
-

A
-

B
-

B
-

B
-

A
-

A
-

A
-

20 D
20 D

D
D

D
D

D
D

20
65
20
50
20
100
80
100
20

B
B
B
D
B
C
-

B
B
B
D
B
-

A
A
B
D
B
B
B
B

A
A
B
B
B
B
A
B
B

A
-

B
B
B

B
B
A
B

A
A
A
A

C
C
C

D
-

A
-

A
-

A
-

A
-

A
-

A
-

A
-

20
bg
20
50
80

D
D
-

D
D
-

D
D
D
D

C
D
D
-

B
C
-

B
B
-

D
D
-

D
D
-

20
100
20
20

D
D
D

D
D
C

D
D
C

A
A
C

20 -

EDB/1

CHEMICAL
Zinc chloride
5%

10%
20%
50%

80%
100%
Chromates
Potassium chromate
100%
Sodium chromate
100%
Cyanides
Copper cyanide
10%
20%
50%
100%
Mercury cyanide
Potassium cyanide
Sodium cyanide
100%
Fluorides
Aluminium fluoride
5%
10-20%
100%
Sodium fluoride
5%
10%

Gases
Blast furnace gas
100%
Coke gas
100%
Natural gas
100%
Town gas
100%

EDB/1

T.ref

C A1 A2 A3 A4 AB HB HC MK AL

20
70
bg
100
20
bg
20
80
bg
20
100

CI2

ST

EM BN

NR

NE HY VI

SI

D
A
D
B
D
D

C
D
D
D
D
A
D
B
-

B
C
C
B
C
A
B
-

D
-

B
D
B
B
B
-

B
C
B
C
-

B
B
B
B
C
-

B
B
D
C
D
-

B
-

D
-

A
-

B
-

A
-

A
-

A
-

A
-

20 -

20 -

B
D
B
-

A
A
B
B
B
B
B

A
A
B
B
B
B
B

B
B

B
B

C
B

20 -

20 20 D
20 D

D
D

D
D
D

C
B

B
-

B
-

A
B

D
-

20 20 C
100 D

C
D

B
C
D

B
-

C
-

B
-

B
-

B
-

D
-

A
-

20 B

20 B

20 A

20 B

80
100
100
20
100
20
20

D
D
D
D
D

CI1

B
D
B
-

7.29

CHEMICAL

T.ref

Hydrates
Aluminium hydrate
10%
Calcium hydrate
10%
20%
50%
100%
Ferric hydrate
100%
Potassium hydrate
5%
10-40%
25%
50%

C A1 A2 A3 A4 AB HB HC MK AL

CI1

CI2

ST

EM BN

NR

NE HY VI

SI

100 B

100
100
100
20

B
B

B
-

B
A
C
-

B
A
B
-

20 B

20
100
bg
80
100
bg
100
20
260

A
B
B
B
D
A
D

A
B
B
B
B
A
D

A
B
B
B
B
B
B
A
D

A
B
B
B
B
B
B
D

B
B
B
-

B
B
B
-

A
A
A
-

D
D
D
-

B
-

100
50
150
100
100
100
100

B
B
D
B
C
C
D

B
A
D
B
B
D
D

A
A
D
B
B
B
D

A
A
B
B
B
-

20 -

20 B

20 A

20
bg
bg
10
bg

A
-

B
B
B
D

B
B
B
A
B

D
-

A
B
B
A

B
A
A
A
A

A
A
A
A
A

D
D
D
D

C
-

B
-

A
-

A
-

A
-

A
-

A
-

A
-

20 A

20 B

75%

20
bg
50
80
bg
bg

B
B
B
D

B
B
B
B
B
C

D
D
-

A
A
A
B

B
B
A
A
B
B

A
A
B
B
A
B

D
D
D
D

D
D
-

A
A
-

B
B
-

B
D
-

B
-

A
B
-

D
D
-

Hypochlorites
Calcium hypochlorite
2%
10%
100%

20 20 C
20 D

B
C
D

B
C
D

A
-

C
-

B
-

C
-

D
-

60-70%
100%
Sodium hydrate
10-20%
10-30%
10-50%
30%
40%
50%
70-90%
Hydroxides
Aluminium hydroxide
100%
Ammonium hydroxide
100%
Barium hydroxide
100%
Calcium hydroxide
5%
10%
20%
50%
Magnesium hydroxide
100%
Potassium hydroxide
5%
Sodium hydroxide
5%
20%
50%

7.30

C
C
-

EDB/1

CHEMICAL

T.ref

Potassium hypochlorite
100%
5%
10%
100%
Nitrates
Ammonium nitrate
5%
10-50%
50-100%
100%
Barium nitrate
10-20%
20%
100%
Copper nitrate
1%
5%
10%
20-80%
50%
90%
100%
Magnesium nitrate
100%
Potassium nitrate
1-5%
10%
10-20%
30-50%
60-80%
100%
Silver nitrate
10-60%
70-90%
100%
Sodium nitrate
10-40%
50%
50-70%
100%
Oils
Castor oil
Coconut oil
Cod liver oil
Crude oil
Diesel oil
Linseed oil
Lubricating oil
Maize oil
Mineral oil
Olive oil
Vegetable oil

EDB/1

C A1 A2 A3 A4 AB HB HC MK AL

CI1

CI2

ST

EM BN

NR

NE HY VI

SI

20
20
20
20

D
D

D
D

D
C
D

C
B
-

D
-

D
-

B
A
-

D
A
-

D
D
-

B
-

D
-

D
-

B
-

B
-

A
-

20
20
100
100
20
bg

B
B
B
-

A
B
B
-

A
A
A
B
B

A
A
A
A
B
B

D
B

D
B

A
A
B

B
C
D

A
D

C
-

B
-

A
-

A
-

C
-

20 100 100 -

B
B
B

B
B
B

20
20
100
100
hot
100
100

A
A
B
B
B
B

A
A
A
B
B
B
A

A
A
A
B
B
B
A

D
D
-

B
B
-

A
B
-

A
A
B
B
A
B

20 20
100
100
100
100
20
280

B
B
D
B
B
-

B
B
D
B
B
B

B
B
B
D
B
B
B

B
B
B
D
B
B
B

C
-

C
-

B
A
-

B
B
-

B
-

C
-

B
-

A
-

A
-

A
-

A
-

A
-

A
-

A
-

100
100
20
300

B
B
D

B
B
D

B
B
B
B

B
B
B
B

B
-

B
-

D
-

20
100
20
100
20
80

B
B
-

B
A
-

A
A
B
A
B
D

A
A
B
A
B
-

B
-

D
-

B
-

B
-

B
-

D
-

B
-

A
-

B
-

B
-

A
-

A
-

20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20

A
C
A
-

A
A
B
A
A
-

A
A
A
A
A
-

A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A

A
A
D
C
B
A
A
D

A
A
-

A
A
A
A
-

B
A
A
-

A
-

B
A
A
B
B
B

D
D
D
D
C
A
D
C
D

B
A
A
B
B
B

D
B
D
D
D
D
D
D
B
D

A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A

A
D
D
D
D
-

B
B
B
B
-

B
B
B
B
-

A
A
A
A
A
A
-

A
A
A
A
A

7.31

CHEMICAL

T.ref OC A1 A2 A3 A4 AB HB HC MK AL

Phosphates
Ammonium phosphate
100%
Potassium phosphate
100%
Sodium phosphate
5%
Trisodium phosphate
100%
Sulphates
Aluminium sulphate
10%
10-30%
40-50%
100%
Ammonium sulphate
1-5%
10%
100%
Calcium sulphate
10%
100%
Copper sulphate
5%
10%
20-30%
60-70%
Ferric sulphate
1-5%
5%
10%
100%
Ferrous sulphate
10%
20-40%
100%
Magnesium sulphate
10-30%
40%
50%
100%
Potassium sulphate
1-5%
10%
100%
Sodium sulphate
5%
10%
20-30%
100%

7.32

CI1

CI2

ST

EM BN

NR

NE HY VI

SI

20 C

20 -

20 B

20 B

20
100
100
20

D
D
D

A
A
A
B

A
A
A
B

20
20
100
20

B
D
D
C

A
D
D
-

A
D
D
D

A
A
B

B
-

B
B

A
B

A
-

20 20 B

B
B

B
A

20
100
20
100

A
B
-

A
B
B
-

A
A
B
B

A
A
B
B

D
-

B
-

D
-

D
-

20
bg
100
20

A
C
-

A
C
-

A
B
C
B

A
B
B
B

D
-

D
D
-

B
B
-

C
D
-

D
D
-

D
-

A
-

A
-

A
-

A
-

A
-

A
-

A
-

20 B
20 B
20 -

B
B
B

B
B
B

B
B
B

B
B

B
B

B
B

B
D

20
100
100
20
100

D
C

A
A
A
A
B

A
A
B

A
A
B

B
-

B
-

20 A
100 B
20 B

A
B
B

A
B
B

A
B
B

B
-

B
-

B
-

B
-

B
-

20
50
20
20

A
D
B
D

A
A
B
A

A
B
A

B
-

D
D
D

EDB/1

CHEMICAL

T.ref

Zinc sulphate
5%
10%
25%
100%
Sulphides
Potassium sulphide
10%
100%
Sodium suphide
10%
20-50%
70%
100%
Sulphites
Ammonium sulphite
10%
Potassium sulphite
100%
Sodium sulphite
5%
10%
20%
100%
Water
Water bromine
Water chlorinated (sat.)
Water demineralised
Water distilled
Water fresh
Water mineral
Water sea
Water waste

EDB/1

C A1 A2 A3 A4 AB HB HC MK AL

20
100
80
20

CI1

CI2

ST

EM BN

NR

NE HY VI

SI

D
B
-

A
A
B

A
A
B

A
A
A
A

A
-

B
B
B

B
B
B

A
B
A

B
C
B

D
-

B
B

A
-

A
-

B
-

A
-

A
-

A
-

20 B
20 -

B
-

B
B

B
B

D
B
B

D
D
D

B
D

B
B
B
-

D
-

A
-

B
-

D
-

B
-

A
-

20 D

20 -

20
100
20
20

20
65
100
20

C
-

A
A
B
-

A
A
B

D
D
-

B
B
A

B
B
B

B
B
-

B
B
-

20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20

D
D
A
B
-

D
D
C
-

D
C
A
A
A
A
A

D
B
A
A
A
A
A
A

B
A
D
A
A
B
A

D
D
A
A
-

B
B
A
A
A
A
A

D
D
A
B
A
A
A
A

D
D
A
B
C
-

B
B
-

D
D
C
C
D
D

B
B
-

A
A
A
A
A
A

A
B
B
B
B
B

B
A
-

A
A
A
-

B
B
B
C
B
B

A
-

7.33

CHEMICAL

T.ref

Others
Acetaldehyde
Acetic anhydride
10%
50%
90%
100%
Acetone
10 - 50%
50%
100%
Acetylene (100%)
Acrylonitrile
Alum
10%
100%
Aluminium oxide
100%
Amines
Ammonia
10-30%
40-50%
100%
vapour
anhydrous
Aniline
3%
10%
90%
100%
Aromatic hydrocarbons
Asphalt
Beer
Benzaldehyde
Benzene
10-70%
100%
Benzol
100%
Borax
5%
100%
Bromine (dry)
Butadiene
100%
Butane
100%
Butter
Calcium bisulphite
100%
Carbon dioxide
Carbon disulphide
100%

7.34

C A1 A2 A3 A4 AB HB HC MK AL

CI1

CI2

ST

EM BN

NR

NE HY VI

SI

20 D

20
20
100
100
20
140

C
C
D
C
-

C
D
D
C
-

B
B
D
B
C

B
B
B
B

20
20
200
20
20

A
B

A
A
A
-

A
A
A
-

A
A
A

A
A
A

A
A
-

A
A
-

A
A

A
A
-

A
B

B
B
B

A
A

A
B
D

D
C
D

D
B
D

D
D

D
D

D
B
D

20 bg bg -

B
B
C

B
B
B

B
C
C

B
B
B

B
B
B

B
C
C

20 B
20 C

B
A

B
-

A
A

B
A

B
D

A
-

A
C

B
-

C
-

B
-

B
-

80
100
20
20
100
65
20

B
B
A
A
B
D
B

B
B
A
A
B
-

B
B
A
A
D
-

B
B
A
A
D
A

D
D

B
-

A
B
-

B
C
D
-

C
D
-

A
B

C
D
D

A
A

A
B
A

B
B

B
-

B
-

B
D
-

D
D

A
-

20
20
20
20
20
20

B
B
B
A

A
B
B
A

A
B
B
A
A

A
B
A
B
A
A

C
B
A

A
A
-

A
A
A
A

B
A
A

A
A
-

B
-

C
A

B
B
A
-

B
-

D
D

D
D

D
D

D
D

A
A

20 20 A

A
A

A
A

D
A

A
-

A
-

A
-

A
-

D
C

A
B

A
D

A
-

100 B
20 B
100 C

B
B

B
B
B

B
B

20 A
hot -

A
A

A
-

A
B

B
B

B
-

C
-

B
-

D
-

D
-

D
-

D
-

D
-

B
-

20 20 C
20 D

A
D

A
A
-

D
-

A
B

A
A
B

A
A
C

C
D

D
D

B
-

B
D

B
D

A
D

A
D

20 B

20 A
20 -

A
A

A
D

A
-

A
-

B
-

B
-

B
D

B
-

D
D

B
A

D
-

B
-

B
-

B
-

20 -

20 A

20 B

EDB/1

CHEMICAL

T.ref

Carbon tetrachoride
10%
100%
Caustic lime
100%
Chlorine (gas)
90%
100% (dry)
100% (wet)
100% (dry)
Chromium plating soln
Coffee
Creosote
90%
100%
Cyanogen
100%
Cyclohexane
100%
Detergents
Dextrose
100%
Diacetone
100%
Dichloroethane
100%
100%
Diethylamine
100%
Dowtherm
Ethyl ether
100%
Ethylene glycol
100%
Fluorine
100%
100%
Formaldehyde
10-20%
30-40%
70%
80%
100%
Freon 12
100% (dry)
100% (wet)
Fruit juices
Furfurol
30%
40%
60%
80%
90%
100%
Glucose
100%

EDB/1

C A1 A2 A3 A4 AB HB HC MK AL

CI1

CI2

ST

EM BN

NR

NE HY VI

SI

20 D
20 B
100 -

C
A
-

D
B
B

B
B

B
-

B
-

A
-

A
-

B
-

B
-

D
-

B
-

D
-

D
-

D
-

D
-

D
-

A
-

20 -

D
C
D
D

D
C
D
D
A
-

D
D
B
D
B
D
A
-

C
B
D
B
A
A

B
D
-

A
D
-

B
D
-

B
D
-

B
-

B
-

100 100 B

C
B

B
B

B
B

B
B

20 -

20 A
20 -

A
-

A
A

A
B

C
D

D
A

A
B

D
-

D
-

D
-

A
-

20 D

20 -

20 bg -

C
B

D
-

D
-

D
-

D
-

D
-

D
-

B
-

20 A
hot A

A
A

A
A

A
-

C
B

A
A

C
D

D
D

C
D

D
B

D
B

D
A

20 B

20 B

20 D
200 D

A
A

A
A

A
A

D
-

B
-

B
-

B
-

C
-

D
-

B
-

C
-

B
-

100
100
50
50
20

B
B

A
B

A
A
A
A

A
A
A
A
A

B
-

A
-

20
20
20
hot

B
D
A

A
C
A
B

A
C
A
A

B
D
-

A
B
A
B

A
B
A
A

A
B
B
B

A
B
A
B

D
D
-

A
-

D
B
-

A
B
-

B
B
-

100
20
20
100
100
20
100

A
A
B
B
-

A
A
B
B
-

A
A
B
B
B
B

B
B
B

B
-

B
-

B
-

B
-

20
20
100
100
200
260
20
20

20 C

7.35

CHEMICAL

T.ref

Glycerine
10%
100%
Helium
100%
Heptane
100%
Hexane
100%
Hydrogen
Hydrogen peroxide
10-30%

C A1 A2 A3 A4 AB HB HC MK AL

CI1

CI2

ST

EM BN

NR

NE HY VI

SI

50 20 B

A
B

A
B

20 B

20 B

20 B
20 B

A
A

A
C

C
C

D
A

B
A

D
A

B
A

B
A

A
A

20
100
100
20
50
20
100

A
B
B
C

A
B
B
A
A
B
C

A
B
B
A
A
B
A

D
-

B
-

A
A
-

A
B
-

D
-

D
-

D
-

D
-

A
-

B
-

20 C
20 B

B
A

C
C

C
D

A
A

D
D

D
-

B
A

C
C

D
A

20 D
20 B
20 -

D
D
-

D
D
D

D
D

C
D

B
B

C
D

D
D

20 A
20 -

A
A

A
-

A
A

A
A

B
B

C
-

A
B

D
-

A
-

D
-

C
-

B
-

A
-

20 B

20 B
20 D
20 B

B
B

A
A
A

A
A
A

A
A

A
B

A
A

B
B

A
B

B
D
C

D
A
D

A
A
C

D
A
D

B
A
C

B
A
D

A
A
A

20
20
20
20
20

A
B
A
A
A

A
-

A
A
A
A
A

A
A
A
A
A

A
B
A
A
B

A
A

A
A

A
A
B

A
A

B
B

C
B
D
A
C

A
A

D
A
D
D
D

D
B
D
A
A

D
D
D
D

D
D
C

D
C
D

B
D
A
A

100
100
20
35
135
150
bg

B
C
-

A
B
-

A
B
B
B

A
B
B
B
B

A
B

A
B

D
-

D
-

D
-

D
-

D
-

D
-

A
-

20 -

10-30%
40-60%
Propane

20
20
75
100
100
20

D
B
B
A

A
D
B
B
-

A
B
B
B
B
B

A
B
B
B
B
A

B
-

B
-

B
-

B
-

Sewage
Starch
Sugar solution

20 B
20 B
20 -

A
A

A
A
A

B
D

A
-

D
B
D

A
A
-

B
A
A

A
A

A
B

A
-

40%
90%
100%
Hydrogen sulphide
100%
Ink
Iodine
20-80%
100% (dry)
100% (wet)
Isopropyl ether
100%
Latex
Magnesium oxide
100%
Methane
100%
Milk
Naphta
Naphthalene
100%
Nitrogen
Paint solvents
Paraffin
Petrol
Phenol
10%
20%
100%

Potassium borate
100%
Potassium ferrocyanide
5%
10%

7.36

B
B
D
-

EDB/1

CHEMICAL
Sulphur
melted (dry)
melted (wet)
Sulphur dioxide
90%
100%

dry vapour
wet vapour
Sulphur trioxide
100%
Tar
Toluene
100%
Trichloroethylene
100% (dry)
100% (wet)
Turpentine
100%
Urea
100%
Vinegar
Xylene
100%

EDB/1

T.ref

C A1 A2 A3 A4 AB HB HC MK AL

20 D
20 -

CI1

CI2

ST

EM BN

NR

NE HY VI

SI

B
C

B
B

D
-

B
-

B
-

B
C

C
C

B
-

D
-

B
-

A
-

A
-

A
-

D
B
B
B
-

D
B
B
D

D
B
B
B
B
D

B
B
A
B
B
B
A

C
-

C
C

A
B
B

A
B
C

B
C

D
-

B
-

D
-

D
-

D
-

C
-

A
-

20 B
hot A

A
A

A
A

D
C

D
D

D
D

D
D

D
D

A
B

20 A

20 B
100 B

B
B

B
B

A
-

B
-

A
-

B
-

B
-

B
-

D
-

B
-

D
-

D
-

D
-

D
-

D
-

A
-

20 D

20 20 A

A
A

A
-

D
D

B
B

B
A

A
B

D
A

D
A

20 -

20
150
20
370
650
260
20

7.37

Compressed Air
Engineering Data

Power required to compress air

Gauge Pressure
bar
0.5
1.0
2.5
5.0
7.0
10.0
14.0

Theoretical Adiabatic Power kW/100dm3/s Free Air

Single stage
Two Stage
Three Stage
4.0
7.5
15
23
28
34
40

14
20
24
28
32

19
22
27
30

Discharge of air through an orifice

Gauge
Discharge of Free Air in dm3/s for Various Orifice Diameters
Pressure
bar
0.5mm
1mm
2mm
3mm
5mm 10mm
12.5mm
0.5
0.06
0.22
0.92
2.1
5.7
22.8
35.5
1.0
0.08
0.33
1.33
3.0
8.4
33.6
52.5
2.5
0.14
0.58
2.33
5.5
14.6
58.6
91.4
5.0
0.25
0.97
3.92
8.8
24.4
97.5
152.0
7.0
0.33
1.31
5.19
11.6
32.5
129.0
202.0
Note: 1 bar = 100kPa
Figures assume a coefficient of discharge of 1. For sharp edged orifice a figure of 0.7 may be
assumed.

Condensation in the compressed air system

Atmospheric air always contains a proportion of water vapour. The amount of water vapour it
contains depends on the relative humidity. The moisture carrying capacity of a given volume of
air is dependent on its temperature and conversely, and perhaps of greater importance, it
decreases with a fall in temperature - see table below:

The moisture carrying capacity also falls as the pressure is increased. When 'free air' containing
water vapour enters the compressor two things will generally happen. Its ability to hold the water
will decrease as the air is compressed to a smaller volume but will increase because of the higher
temperature resulting from the compression. Under average conditions the air will leave the
compressor just able to carry its initial water content. It will follow that any subsequent cooling must
cause the air to shed its excess water vapour by condensation.
Intercooling: an intercooler is fitted between the stages of multi stage compressors primarily to
reduce its volume and save energy on further compression, but it also serves the very useful
purpose of condensing out the surplus water vapour which, if allowed to pass to the next
compression stage could condense on the cylinder walls with resultant damage to the compressor.
Aftercooling: an aftercooler should be fitted immediately after the compressor so as to remove as
much water as possible before the air reaches the receiver.
How much condensation? : this is best illustrated by an example - air inlet conditions 20 OC and
70% relative humidity. The compressor delivers 1 m3/s of free compressed air to 7 bar g at 25
O
C. Compressor takes in 1 m3/s; from the chart above, water taken in will be:

EDB/1

8.01

0.18 x 70 = 0.0126 kg/s

10 x 100
Compression ratio at 7 bar g is 7.91 (taken from table below ). Since its volume is proportional
to the absolute temperature and to 1/compression ratio, 1 m3 will occupy:
1 x (273 + 25) = 0.128 m3
7.91 (273 + 20)
From the relative humidity chart 10 m3 of air at 25 OC can carry 0.24 kg of water. Therefore 0.128
m3 of air can carry:
0.128 x 0.24 = 0.00307 kg/s
10
Therefore the amount of water that will separate out is:
0.0126 - 0.00307 = 0.00953 kg/s ( = 34.3 kg/h)

Ratio of compression
Pressure bar g
0.5 1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
10
12
14
18
Ratio of compression 1.5 1.99 2.97 3.96 4.95 5.94 6.92 7.91 8.9 10.87 12.85 14.82 18.77

Air receiver sizing

This is usually sized on the actual output in 1 minute from the compressor but where consumption
is high and fairly constant the air is in the receiver for too short a time to cool down. Where this
is so, it is better to size the receiver on plant consumption rather than output. One typical formula
used to size air receivers is:
Receiver Capacity m3 =

m3 of free air required

Allowable pressure drop bar

Example: A compressed air service (machine) requires 3 m3 - available pressure is 7 bar g.

Minimum suitable pressure for the service is 5.5 bar g. Hence receiver size should be:
3/1.5 = 2 m3

Distribution system
Drainage: there should be a general fall in the direction of flow of 1% (i.e. 1m in 100m). The distance
between drainage points should not exceed 30m. Drainage points should be provided using equal
tees.
Separators: are recommended and should be installed on the air outlet from the receiver.
Separators are usually sized to match the pipeline diameter.
Sizing:
velocity method - mains are generally sized on a velocity of 6-9 m/s which is sufficiently low to
prevent excessive pressure drop. Sizing by velocity presents an easy form of determining the
pipe size, but it must be remembered that the duty of a compressor and the demand of an application
is usually expressed in dm3/s of free air and that when compressed the volume will be less.
Example: determine the size of a main to carry 100 dm3/s of free air at a working pressure of 7
bar g. Referring to the above table Ratio of Compression it can be seen that at 7 bar g the ratio
of compression is 7.91. Therefore the compressed air volume is 100/7.91 = 12.64 dm3/s. It is now
possible to use the table on Page 8.03 to select a pipe size against the various velocities. It would
appear that a DN50 pipeline will satisfy the duty - velocity approximately 6 m/s.
pressure drop method - for long runs the pressure loss through mains sized using the velocity
method may be higher than desirable and it is always a good idea to check what the actual pressure
loss will be. It is of course only possible to obtain rough estimates as so much depends on the
type and condition of the pipe and on the resistance of the various fittings. It is usual to make
allowances for fittings by considering them in terms of equivalent (straight) length.

8.02

EDB/1

Volume of compressed air (dm 3/s) carried by medium grade

steel pipes to BS 1387 at given velocities
Velocity
m/s
3.0
3.5
4.0
4.5
5.0
5.5
6.0
6.5
7.0
7.5
8.0
8.5
9.0

15
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1.0
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.6
1.7
1.8

20
1.1
1.3
1.4
1.6
1.8
2.0
2.1
2.3
2.5
2.7
2.8
3.0
3.2

25
1.7
2.0
2.3
2.6
2.8
3.1
3.4
3.7
4.0
4.3
4.5
4.8
5.1

32
3.0
3.5
4.0
4.5
5.0
5.5
6.0
6.5
7.0
7.5
8.0
8.5
9.0

Pipe nominal bore mm

40
50
65
4.1
6.5
10.9
4.7
7.6
12.7
5.4
8.7
14.6
6.1
9.8
16.4
6.8
10.8
18.2
7.4
11.9
20.0
8.1
13.0
21.8
8.8
14.1
23.7
9.5
15.1
25.5
10.1
16.2
27.3
10.8
17.3
29.1
11.5
18.4
31.0
12.2
19.5
32.8

80
15.1
17.6
20.1
22.6
25.1
27.6
30.1
32.6
35.1
37.6
40.1
42.6
45.1

100
25.7
30.0
34.2
38.5
42.8
47.1
51.3
55.6
59.9
64.2
68.5
72.8
77.1

125
39.2
45.7
52.2
58.8
65.4
71.9
78.5
85.0
91.5
98.0
105.0
111.0
118.0

150
56.2
65.5
74.9
84.2
93.6
103.0
112.0
122.0
131.0
140.0
150.0
159.0
169.0

200
98.5
115.0
131.0
147.0
164.0
181.0
197.0
213.0
230.0
246.0
263.0
278.0
296.0

The table below show the equivalent lengths in metres for typical fittings:

Resistance of pipe fittings in equivalent length terms (m)

Type of Fitting
Elbow
Long 90O bend
Return bend
Globe valve
Gate valve
Run of standard tee
Through side of tee

15
0.26
0.15
0.46
0.76
0.11
0.12
0.52

20
0.37
0.18
0.61
1.07
0.14
0.18
0.70

25
0.49
0.24
0.76
1.37
0.18
0.24
0.91

Pipe nominal bore mm

32
40
50
65
0.67
0.76 1.07
1.37
0.38
0.46 0.61
0.76
1.07
1.20 1.68
1.98
1.98
2.44 3.36
3.96
0.27
0.32 0.40
0.49
0.38
0.40 0.52
0.67
1.37
1.58 2.14
2.74

80
1.83
0.91
2.60
5.18
0.64
0.85
3.66

100
2.44
1.20
3.66
7.32
0.91
1.20
4.88

125
3.20
1.52
4.88
9.45
1.20
1.52
6.40

By adding the equivalent lengths to the actual pipe length, the pressure loss in each section of a
system can be easily found.
The nomograms shown on pages 8.04 (pipe sizes 15 -100mm) and 8.05 (pipe/tube sizes
2.5 - 15mm) give a ready means of determining pressure drops through the general range of pipes
used in industry. They are based on the following formula which can also be used for pipe sizes
outside those shown in the nomograms:
Pressure Drop (bar)

800 L Q2
R d 5.3

Where:
L = length of pipe m
Q = flowrate of free air dm3/s
R = ratio of compression at the beginning of the pipe
d = internal pipe diameter mm

Interconnecting Pipework (sizing): for interconnecting pipework it is normal practice to use

much higher compressed air velocities. The reason for this is that pipe runs are generally short
and therefore the higher velocities do not cause an unduly high pressure drop. For air pressures
in the range 5.5 - 7 bar g, velocities of 18 - 24 m/s are common. For lower pressures, however,
more care should be exercised. The nomogram on page 8.06 gives details of the relationship
between pipe diameter, air pressure, flow rate and velocity. It is important to note when using this
nomogram that the pipe diameter referred to is the actual bore of the pipe and not the nominal bore
of the pipe. The minimum internal diameters for steel tubes to BS 1387, copper tubes to BS 2871
Part 2 and nylon tube to CETOP RP54P are shown on page 8.07.

EDB/1

8.03

Pressure drop in steel pipes (15-100mm)

Example: determine the size of pipe needed to pass 300 dm3/s of free air with a pressure drop
of not more than 300 mbar in 125m of pipe. The air pressure is 9 bar g.
A 300 mbar pressure drop in 125m length is equivalent to 300/125 or 2.4 mbar/m. Join 9 bar g
on the air pressure line to 2.4 mbar/m on the pressure drop line and project to cut the reference
line at X. Join X to 300 dm3/s on the flow of free air line and project to cut pipe size at approximately
61 mm. Therefore, choose a pipe having a minimum bore of at least 61 mm - referring to the standard
pipe/tube dimensions table on page 8.07, it is clear that a DN65 pipe will carry the load with a small
safety margin.

8.04

EDB/1

Pressure drop in pipes and tubes (2.5 - 15 mm)

Example: determine the amount of air that can be passed through a nominal 12mm (OD) tube
to CETOP RP54P so that the pressure drop does not exceed 10 mbar/m.
The first point to note is that the pressure drop through nylon tube is about 20% less than that through
steel; hence before using the nomogram we need to increase the available pressure drop by a
factor of 1/80%, i.e to 12.5 mbar/m. Join 7 bar g air pressure to 12.5 mbar/m and produce to meet
the reference line at Z. Join Z to the pipe size for 12 mm nylon tube; where this line cuts the flow
of free air line is the maximum flow if the pressure drop is not to be exceeded 3.1 dm3/s.

EDB/1

8.05

Pipe carrying capacities at varying velocities

Example: determine the velocity of compressed air flowing in a 12 mm diameter nylon tube, when
the flow rate is 3.1 dm3/s and the line pressure is 7 bar g. Join 7 bar g to 3.1 dm3/s and project
to cut reference line at Y. Join Y to pipe/tube diameter for 12 mm tube. Read the air velocity, in
this case it is just over 6 m/s.

8.06

EDB/1

Standard pipe/tube dimensions

Copper Tubes to
BS 2871 Part 2
Table 4 medium

Steel Tubes to BS 1387

Nominal
Bore
mm
6
8
10
15
20
25
32
40
50
65
80
100
125
150

Med weight
Min ID
mm
5.8
8.6
12.1
15.8
21.3
26.9
35.6
41.5
52.5
68.1
80.0
104.0
129.0
154.0

Heavy weight
Min ID
mm
4.5
7.5
11.0
14.6
20.1
25.3
34.0
39.9
50.8
66.4
78.4
102.0
128.0
153.0

OD

Thickness

mm
3
4
6
8
10
12
16

mm
0.6
0.6
0.8
0.8
0.8
1.0
1.0

Min
ID
mm
1.72
2.72
4.32
6.32
8.32
9.90
13.9

Nylon Tube
to CETOP RP54P
Light Gauge
OD
mm
4
5
6
8
10
12
16
18
22
28

Min
ID
mm
2.77
3.55
4.24
5.74
7.24
9.24
12.74
14.7
18.1
23.14

Typical air consumption of pneumatic tools and appliances at

5.5 bar g
Tool/appliance
Drills

Grinders for mounted points

For arbour mounted wheels
Sanders and polishers
Torque wrenches for nuts up to

Screwdrivers
Nut runners
Spray guns (at 3.4 bar g)
Blow guns
Air motors

EDB/1

Detail
7mm
10mm
13mm
25mm
50mm
75mm
Dia 50mm
Dia 150mm
7mm
13mm
25mm
38mm

Small
Medium
Large
< 1 kW
1-4 kW
> 4 kW

dm3/s of Free Air

4.7- 7.5
7.1- 9.4
11.8- 14.1
28.3- 37.7
37.7- 56.6
47.2- 61.4
4.7- 11.8
9.4- 11.8
23.6- 28.3
4.7- 21.1
4.7- 7.1
11.8- 16.5
18.9- 26.0
23.6- 33.0
3.3- 11.8
4.7- 14.1
0.47- 2.4
2.4- 5.7
5.7- 11.8
2.4
(per kW)14.1-16.5
(per kW)14.1
(per kW) 11.8

8.07

Typical compressed air installation

EDB/1

8.08

Area of circles
Austenitic steels - comparison table

Calorific value of various fuels

Index

Categories of hot water heating systems

Comparison of steam, high temperature hot water and high temperature oil
Compressed air:
condensation
consumption of pneumatic tools and appliances at 5.5 bar g
discharge of air through an orifice
drainage
pipe carrying capacities at varying velocities (nomogram)
power required to compress air
pressure drop in pipes and tubes 2.5-15mm (nomogram)
pressure drop in steel pipes 15-100mm (nomogram)
ratio of compression
receiver sizing
resistance of pipe fittings in equivalent length terms
sizing mains and interconnecting pipework
volume of compressed air carried by medium grade steel pipes
Condensate pipeline sizing:
flash steam velocity method
frictional resistance method
Control modes:
combinations of basic modes
derivative control (D control)
floating control
integral control (I control)
matching control modes and plant characteristics
on/off control
proportional control (P control)
P + I control
P + I + D control
summary of control mode characteristics
types

Control valve:
capacities (typical Kvs/DN)
characteristics
conversion factors (Av/Cv/Kv)
leakage rates
rangeability
Controls terminology
Corrosion resistance of metals and elastomers
Cost of steam
Cubic capacity per unit of circular length

End connections:
flanges:

Index

- dimensions:
- cast iron
- copper alloy
- sg (ductile) iron
- steel
- flange facings
- pressure ratings
- size definition
screwed
welded ends:
- butt weld
- socket weld

Flash steam
Flow coefficients (Capacity indices Av, Cv and Kv)

Graphical symbols:
circuit components
electrical circuit symbols and notations
pipeline features and general equipment
pipeline flexibility
switches, fuses and contacts
valves, actuating methods
valves, specific types

Guidance notes

Heat emission from steel pipes freely exposed in surroundings at 20 C

o

Humidification:
calculating humidification loads
relationship of RH, effective/wet-bulb/dry-bulb temperatures
relative humidity in percentage terms
steam .v. water

IP classification of enclosures (BS EN 60 529)

Kv :
sizing formulae
steam (saturated and superheated) sizing chart
water sizing chart

Masses of steel pipe (typical)

Index

Materials comparison, quick reference

Pipe/tube dimensions
PN controls-combinations of valve and actuator actions
Pressure powered pump/float trap combination:
general
sizing
stall chart (to use)
Pressure/temperature ratings:
for austenitic steel flanges
general
product limitations
Process control devices, typical mix with system elements
Psychrometric chart:
explained.
to use

Safety valve:

Index

relationship of system design pressure to safety valve set pressure etc

selection and sizing
SI system of units:
base and supplementary quantities and units.
derived units
prefixes
Space heating information:
flow of fluids in pipes and ducts
flow of water at 75oC in black steel pipes
heat losses (air changes/infiltration)
rule of thumb heat loss
system characteristics
- effects of various condition alterations to pump characteristics
- pumps
- pump curves (typical)
- velocity head factor for pipe fittings etc.
typical HWS storage and boiler power
U values
U values, definitions and symbols
Specific heats and relative densities:
of gases and vapours
of liquids
of various materials
Stainless steels, properties and composition
Standards, National, European and International
Steam consumption:
air heater batteries
air heating pipes
drying cylinders
general 2.07
heating calorifiers
hot water storage calorifiers
steam tracer loads

tank water heating

tanks and vats
Steam mains consumption:
one hour warm up/running loads (kg/h) per 50m of steam main
running losses
warming up losses
Steam metering:
errors due to absence of density compensation
terminology
Steam pipeline sizing :
chart (pressure drop method)
chart (velocity method)
saturated steam pipeline capacities at specific velocities
Steam produced per unit of fuel
Steam tables
Steam traps, energy requirements
Steam/energy wastage through leaks
Superheat, potential for after pressure reduction

Index

Thermal expansions of pipes

Units:
approximate conversion factors
conversion tables

Valve authority
Water and water treatment:
boiler water TDS measurement
calculating the required blowdown rate
controlling the TDS
dealkalization
demineralization
hardness
pH chart
pH value
softening