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Drilled Shaft Tutorial
Drilled Shaft Tutorial
❍ Welcome
● Contents Welcome to the Drilled Shaft
● Chapter 1 Inspector Tutorial
● Chapter 2
● Chapter 3 To start the course, you can click on the Contents heading to the left or
● Chapter 4 you can click on the Chapter 1 heading to the left.
● Chapter 5
● Chapter 6 Read each chapter carefully so you are prepared for the quiz at the end
● Chapter 7 of the chapter.
● Chapter 8
● Chapter 9 This tutorial was co-funded by the FHWA and Florida Department of
● Chapter 10 Transporation.
● Glossary
● Inspector math This tutorial has been developed as a companion training aid for NHI
tip sheet Course #132070A, Inspection of Drilled Shaft Foundations. It is
recommended that this tutorial be completed prior to attendance at the
NHI Inspector Qualification Course. Difficulties encountered during the
completion of the tutorial and associated quizzes should be discussed
and resolved with the participant's supervisor prior to attending the
course to ensure successful completion of the Qualification course and
associated examination.
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FHWA > NHI > TCCC > Tutorials > Drilled Shafts
● Welcome
❍ Contents Table of Contents
● Chapter 1
● Chapter 2 ● Welcome
● Chapter 3 ● Table of Contents
● Chapter 4 ● Chapter 1. Why a Tutorial
● Chapter 5 ● Chapter 2. What is a Drilled Shaft
● Chapter 6 ● Chapter 3. Drilled Shaft Construction Methods
● Chapter 7 ● Chapter 4. Drilled Shaft Equipment and Tools
● Chapter 8 ● Chapter 5. The Inspector's Role
● Chapter 9 ● Chapter 6. Contractor and Equipment Arrive on Site
● Chapter 10 ● Chapter 7. Shaft Excavation and Cleaning
● Glossary ● Chapter 8. Rebar Cage Fabrication and Positioning
● Inspector math ● Chapter 9. Concrete Operations
tip sheet ● Chapter 10. Post Installation Testing
● Appendix A. Glossary
● Appendix B. Inspector Math Tips Sheet
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FHWA > NHI > TCCC > Tutorials > Drilled Shafts
● Welcome
● Contents Chapter 1
Chapter 1
❍
Why a Tutorial?
● Chapter 2
● Chapter 3 Contents
● Chapter 4
Why a tutorial was developed.
Chapter 5
●
●
the Inspector means to the process.
Chapter 6
●
●
● Chapter 7
The tutorial is based upon the FHWA Publication IF-99-025, Drilled Shaft
● Chapter 8
Construction Procedures and Design Methods, including Chapter 15,
● Chapter 9
Guide Specifications
● Chapter 10
● Glossary
● Inspector math
tip sheet DRILLED SHAFT
FOUNDATION
INSPECTOR'S
QUALIFICATION
COURSE
Federal Highway
Administration
As part of this program, they have developed and instruct more than 100
courses dealing with the full range of transportation issues, from planning
to construction.
The Inspector serves as the link between the Engineer and Contractor.
The Engineer desires that the Contractor construct the project in
accordance with the Plans and Specifications and the Contractor desires
to build the the project in accordance with the plans and specifications. So
both the Engineer and Contractor have the same goal, getting a quality
project constructed, and someone needs to be the link that ensures this is
accomplished.
Engineer
Inspector
Contractor
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FHWA > NHI > TCCC > Tutorials > Drilled Shafts
● Welcome
● Contents
● Chapter 1
Chapter 2
❍ Chapter 2 What is a Drilled Shaft?
● Chapter 3
● Chapter 4 Contents:
Chapter 5
What is a drilled shaft.
●
●
Chapter 6
Drilled shaft uses.
●
●
Chapter 7
Advantages & Disadvantages of Drilled Shafts.
●
●
● Chapter 8
● Chapter 9
● Chapter 10
A Drilled Shaft is a deep foundation that is constructed by placing fluid
● Glossary
concrete in a drilled hole.
● Inspector math
tip sheet
Structures can be supported by a variety of foundations. The selection of the
foundation system is generally based upon several factors, such as:
● Loads to be imposed
● Site subsurface materials
● Special needs (high lateral capacity, etc.
● Cost
Drilled shafts (also called caissons, drilled piers or bored piles) have proven to be a cost effective, excellent
performing, deep foundation system, that is utilized world-wide. Typically they are used for bridges and
large structures, where large loads and lateral resistance are major factors.
Advantages
● Economics
● Minimizes pile cap needs
● Slightly less noise and reduced vibrations
● Easily adaptable to varying site conditions
Disadvantages
End Bearing
Friction
A shaft excavation that can be excavated to its designed depth without the need for slurry or casing.
he dry construction method is used at sites where the ground water level and soil and rock conditions are suitable to permit construction of
the shaft in a relatively dry excavation. and where the sides and bottom of the shaft may be visually inspected by the Engineer prior to
placing the concrete.
The dry method is by far the least expensive method for drilled shaft construction. Given the choice of drilling methods, Contractors will try
the dry method even in soil or rock of dubious quality.
Note that the Inspector can visually inspect the bottom of the shaft.
The dry method consists of drilling the shaft excavation, removing accumulated water and loose material from the excavation, placing the
reinforcement cage, and concreting the shaft in a relatively dry excavation.
Often called the "slurry-method", wet shaft construction is when a slurry or water is used to keep the hole stable for the entire depth of the
shaft.
Note the slurry in the hole. The Inspector's unable to visually inspect the bottom of the shaft,
as with the dry shaft seen earlier
When Used
Unlike the dry construction method, in this situation the water table may be above the shaft tip elevation or the geology consists of
unstable or "caving" soils. Think of trying to dig a hole at the beach or lake near the water's edge. The hole stays open until you reach or
get just below the water table or waterline. Then what happens? It collapses.
Well the same goes for drilled shafts excavated below the water table or in unstable soils. During the drilling of the hole, a slurry is
introduced that "stabilizes" the sides of the hole or casing is installed and prevents the soils from collapsing into the hole.
Upon reaching the designed shaft tip elevation, the hole is cleaned, then the rebar cage placed.
Unlike the dry shaft method, the concrete is being placed "under the water" and therefore a tremie is lowered into the hole and the
concrete placed through the tremie, which is carefully removed a little at a time to avoid "breaching" the concrete.
What is Slurry
What Does the Slurry Do?
Slurry is the fluid introduced into the excavation to assist in maintaining hole stability. Generally, three basic types of "slurries", Mineral,
Polymer and Water, are employed in drilled shaft construction.
In some instances, though not recommended, a blended slurry, consisting of mineral and polymer slurries is employed.
● Mineral Slurry
Bentonite slurries have been used commonly in drilled shaft construction in the United States since the 1960's. Other processed,
powdered clay minerals, notably attapulgite and sepiolite, have been used on occasion in place of bentonite, usually in saline
ground water conditions. However, Bentonite is the most common Bentonite and other clay minerals, when mixed with water in a
proper manner, form suspensions of microscopic, plate-like solids within the water. This suspension, in essence, is the drilling
slurry. If the fluid pressures within the slurry column in the borehole exceed the fluid ground water pressures in a permeable
formation (e.g., a sand stratum), the slurry penetrates the formation and deposits the suspended clay plates on the surface of the
borehole, in effect forming a membrane, or "mudcake" that assists in keeping the borehole stable.
● Polymer Slurry
Drilling slurries can also be made of mixtures of chemicals called polymers and potable water. Polymers have been used in
preference to bentonite in well drilling for some time in soil profiles that contain considerable clay or argillaceous (clay-based)
rock, because bentonite slurries have a tendency to erode clayey rocks and to produce enlargements and subsequent instabilities
in the boreholes. Polymer slurries require less conditioning before reuse than bentonite slurries and can be disposed of more
inexpensively than bentonite slurries.
It is also important that polymers be kept out of contact with cement as much as possible during the construction process, since
cement will cause the polymer to agglomerate.
● Water
Water is used in some areas as the drilling fluid, in lieu of mineral or polymer slurry.
In certain geologic conditions, water when combined with the naturally occurring subsurface materials creates it own "slurry".
A misconception by many is that because water is being used, slurry testing is not necessary. However, many local specifications
mandate that if water is used, it must still meet certain slurry properties and the only way to determine the specific properties
values is to test.
In some instances, though not recommended, a blended slurry, consisting of mineral and polymer slurries is employed.
The casing method is often used either when shown on the plans or at sites when construction methods are inadequate to prevent hole
caving or excessive deformation. In this method the casing may be either placed in a predrilled hole or advanced through the ground by
twisting, driving or vibration before being cleaned out. Casings and liners play an important role in the construction of drilled shafts, and
special attention must be given to their selection and use.
Casings are tubes that are relatively strong, usually made of steel, and joined, if necessary, by welding. Liners, on the other hand, are light
in weight and become a permanent part of the foundation. Liners may be made of sheet metal, plastic, or pressed fibers. While their use is
much less frequent than that of casings, liners can become important in some situations.
● In generally dry soils or rocks that are stable when they are cut but which will slough soon afterwards. In such a case the borehole
is drilled, and casing (a simple steel pipe) is quickly set to prevent sloughing.
● When there is a clean sand below the water table underlain by a layer of impermeable limestone or low permeability clay into
which the drilled shaft will penetrate. In this case, since the overlying sand is water bearing, it is necessary to seal the bottom of
the casing into the underlying rock/soil to prevent flow of water and caving of soils into the borehole.
Types of Casing
Temporary casing is used to retain the sides of the The use of permanent casing is implied by its name; the
borehole only long enough for the fluid concrete to be casing remains and becomes a permanent part of the
placed. The temporary casing remains in place until the foundation. An example of the use of permanent casing is
concrete has been poured to a level sufficient to withstand when a drilled shaft is to be installed through water and the
ground and groundwater pressures. The casing is removed protruding portion of the casing is used as a form. A
after the concrete is placed. Additional concrete is placed possible technique that has been used successfully is to
as the casing is being pulled to maintain the pressure set a template for positioning the drilled shaft, to set a
balance. Thereafter, the fluid pressure of the concrete is permanent casing through the template with its top above
assumed to provide borehole stability. the water and with its base set an appropriate distance
below the mudline, to make the excavation with the use of
drilling slurry, and to place the concrete through a tremie to
the top of the casing.
Note the casing is marked in 5 foot intervals. At the top, 1foot increments
are marked to facilitate more accurate measurement as the casing nears
the bottom.
Case- casing is then installed through the caving soils and drilling continues to desired depth
Place- concrete is placed. If temporary casing, casing slowly withdrawn as concrete level in hole rises
Chapter 7
A short quiz is provided at the end of the Chapter.
●
●
● Chapter 8
● Chapter 9
● Chapter 10
It is extremely important for the Drilled Shaft Inspector to be knowledgeable of the various types of
● Glossary
rigs and tools used in drilled shaft construction. Though not responsible for accepting or rejecting
● Inspector math
equipment and tools, the Inspector must be able to identify these items for documenting on the daily
tip sheet
report.
Drilled shaft construction equipment is typically divided into two categories Drilled Shaft Rigs and
Drilled Shaft Tools. Following are some examples of each.
Drilled shaft rig components, for the most part, are all essentially the same, regardless of the rig size as shown and described
below.
The rigs are typically classified by the carrier type and fall into these broad categories:
There are a variety of tools utilized by the Drilled Shaft Contractor when constructing drilled shafts. From a wide assortment of
drilling bits, for rock and soil, to casing and cleanout tools, the Drilled Shaft Contractor is equipped for whatever conditions they
anticipate on the project. Regardless of how powerful the rig is, if the wrong tool or poor quality tool is used, the results are not as
expected. The Inspector must be able to identify these tools for documenting on the daily report.
Drilled shaft construction tools are typically divided into the following categories:
Bits
Bits are used for drilling (excavating) the shaft (hole) and can be either Auger or Barrel. Typically the Auger bits are used for soil
and rock and the Barrel types used predominately for rock.Typically, the augers are turned into the material by the rig, and upon
achieving penetration equal to the bit length, the auger retracted from the hole, the material removed from the flights, and the
process started again
Auger Bits
Earth augers, like the one shown below, are typically Rock augers, like the one shown below, are typically
used in sands and cohesive materials. Earth augers used in soft to hard rock formations. Rock augers are
are typically constructed of lighter weight material and typically constructed of heavier material than the earth
flat augers and typically have replaceable conical or bullet
teeth for cutting, rather than the flat blades associated
with the earth augers. In addition, they are generally
constructed with a tapered geometry.
Single Flight/Single Cut Earth Auger Double Flight/Double Cut Earth Auger
Rock Bits
Quite often, when hard rock is encountered, auger bits cannot advance the hole and the Contractor must employ Rock Bits to drill
the harder rock.
This bit pulverizes the rock with many rolling bits and the
cuttings are carried away through reverse circulation of the
drilling slurry.
This bit grinds the rock up, first with the lead bit
(makes small hole, but weakens outer rock). The
other bits follow, gradually making the hole larger.
Compressed air is used to remove the cutting with
this type of bit.
Core Barrels
Core Barrels are different than Rock bits, in that the rock bits grind away the entire mass of rock in the hole, while barrels cut along
the perimeter of the barrel, hence less rock cutting. When a joint or discontinuities are encountered, the core breaks off and be be
removed. These are generally used where real hard rock is encountered and are often custom made for the project.
This is a double-wall rock core barrel. The outer barrel does the cutting while the
This is a single-wall rock core inner barrel remains stationary, holding the rock core in place.
barrel. Note that it is equipped
with replaceable bullet teeth.
Buckets
As the names imply, each has a designed use, one for advancing the hole, the other for cleaning the bottom of the hole. Typically,
the buckets are turned by the rig, and the bottom configuration either digs up material or collects material.
Generally, the digging buckets are equipped with flat cutting teeth while the cleanout bucket has a single flat blade.
Casing
Casing is used to maintain the stability of the hole and can be Temporary or Permanent, as discussed earlier in Chapter 3. In many
instances, a short piece of casing is used at the surface (called surface casing) to prevent the surface material from collapsing into
the hole and degradation of the top of the hole due to the in and out process of drilling.
Casing is typically made of strong steel and pieced together by welding to achieve the depths needed. It comes in a variety of
diameters, such as 30, 36, 42, 48 inches , etc.
Temporary Casing- Temporary casing is just that, temporary. The casing is used to maintain an open hole for the
construction process and is removed as the concrete is placed. This is the most common of the two casing types.
Permanent Casing- Permanent casing is just that, permanent. It is left in-place and becomes part of the drilled shaft. It is
generally used when conditions, such as voids, preclude the construction without casing, as concrete placement could not be
properly performed or maintained.
This picture shows a piece of casing being placed. In this picture, you can see the casing extending above
existing ground and the bit being lower.
Specialty Tools
The Contractors use a number of "specialty" tools during drilled shaft construction Some of these are "homemade" and some are
manufactured and used widely, such as Desanders.
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FHWA > NHI > TCCC > Tutorials > Drilled Shafts
● Welcome
● Contents Chapter 5
Chapter 1
●
The Inspector's Role
● Chapter 2
● Chapter 3 Contents
● Chapter 4
This Chapter contains an overview of the Inspector's main role
Chapter 5
●
❍
and responsibilities during the drilled shaft construction
● Chapter 6
process.
● Chapter 7
A short quiz is provided at the end of the Chapter.
Chapter 8
●
●
● Chapter 9
The Inspector is involved in all three
● Chapter 10 phases of the project:
● Glossary
● Inspector math Pre-construction
tip sheet
This would involve the review of the project plans, attending pre-
construction meetings and discussing, resolving, and clarifying any
questions you may have. These meeting provide the opportunity for all
parties to obtain a thorough understanding of the project details and
goals.
Construction
Post Construction
It is extremely
important for
the Drilled
Shaft Inspector
understand
their role in the
drilled shaft
construction
process. From
participating in
pre-
construction
meetings to
documenting
post
installation
testing, the
Drilled Shaft
Inspector is
intimately
involved and a
valuable team
player in
achieving the
results all
parties goal- a
quality drilled
shaft installed
in accordance
with the plans
and
specifications.
● Welcome
● Contents Chapter 6
Chapter 1
●
Contractor and Equipment Arrive on Site
● Chapter 2
● Chapter 3 Contents
● Chapter 4
This Chapter contains an overview of the drilled shaft construction from the Inspector's
Chapter 5
●
●
viewpoint and an overview of the Inspector's responsibilities during this phase of drilled
❍ Chapter 6
shaft construction.
● Chapter 7
A short quiz is provided at the end of the Chapter.
Chapter 8
●
●
● Chapter 9
Just as the Contractor has their tools, the Inspector needs to have their tools also. Without the
● Chapter 10
proper tools, the Inspector cannot perform their duties properly.
● Glossary
● Inspector math
The Inspector should not go to the site without the "tools" discussed below.
tip sheet
Documents Tools
Illustrated below is the drilled shaft construction process from the Inspector's viewpoint. During each
of these phases, the Inspector has specific responsibilities relating to verifying, measuring,
checking, and documenting.
Because the Inspector has no specific responsibilities during the development of the Drilled Shaft
Installation plan, other than to become familiar with it, and attend pre-construction meetings, as
discussed earlier, we will start with "Contractor Arrives On-site".
These include:
When the equipment arrives on site, it is the Inspector's responsibility to verify that the equipment
brought on-site matches the equipment listed in the approved Drilled Shaft Installation Plan.
The Inspector does not have the authority to reject equipment, but must accurately document the
Contractor's equipment. The equipment would have been detailed in the Contractor's Drilled Shaft
Installation Plan. In some instances the Contractor may not bring the equipment or tools or brings
different tools other than proposed. By documenting what equipment is on-site, should equipment
related questions arise later, the Inspector's documentation serves as a record.
Some projects will be near existing structures that could possibly be damaged by the construction.
Typically in these cases, the Contractor was required to submit a Protection of Existing Structures
Plan. In some instances, the construction, such as vibrating of casing in or actual drilling, can create
vibrations that can impact structures in the vicinity, such as cracking of walls, etc.
Generally, the specifications will outline the requirements of the Plan and it is the Contractor's
responsibility to execute that plan once approved.
It may call for surveying of potentially effected structures, within a specified distance, to document
their condition prior to construction. In addition, monitoring, for vibration and/or noise may be
specified, also for a specified distance, during construction.
If the project requires Protection of Existing Structures, the Inspector needs to review the approved
plan and document that the Contractor is executing it.
Chapter 7
shaft construction.
❍
Chapter 8
A short quiz is provided at the end of the Chapter.
●
●
● Chapter 9
● Chapter 10
Learning Objectives
● Glossary
● Inspector math When you have completed this Chapter, you will be able to:
tip sheet
● Describe, in general, the Inspector's role during the shaft excavation process
● Describe, in general, the Inspector's role during the shaft cleaning process
● Determine shaft tip elevations
Trial Shaft
On most projects, the Contractor will be required to install a "Trial" shaft. In some parts of the country these are also referred to as
Technique or test shafts. Regardless of the name, the purpose is the same; to determine if the method and equipment the
Contractor proposed in the Drilled Shaft Plan will work. This Trial shaft will help determine critical items such as:
The Inspector's role during shaft excavation is essentially the same as for production shafts, except that typically the trial shaft will
be located on the project plans a certain distance from the production shafts and the Inspector needs to verify that the shaft is
performed at the specified location. Upon successful completion of the shaft, the Inspector must verify it is "finished" per the plans.
In the event, the Contractor fails to install a successful trial shaft, they must revise the Drilled Shaft Plan and attempt another trial
shaft until successfully installing one that the Engineer accepts.
Shaft Excavation
Shaft Location This photograph shows the Inspector checking and verifying that the shaft is in the
and Alignment correct plan location.
This photograph shows the Inspector and Contractor checking This photograph shows the Inspector checking the vertical
and verifying, on the project plans, the shaft location(s). alignment of the kelly.
Excavation
If the Drilled Shaft Plan specified the use of casing and or slurry, the Inspector must verify and document its use.
On many projects, a "surface casing" will be temporarily installed to stabilize the surface soils during the construction process.
The constant in and out of the hole with drilling tools can quickly degrade the surface soils conditions if not protected.
● Documenting the type of drilling tool and its diameter, and condition. Also remember to record its length, as the Inspector
needs this to add to the kelly bar to determine depths.
● Documenting the length, diameter and type of any casing used.
● If slurry is used, verifying and documenting that the required sampling and testing is performed.
● Maintaining, in the required format, a log of the material excavated. Typically, there will be forms for Rock Coring, Soil/
Rock Excavation and possibly others.
Slurry Testing
Typically, the specifications for a project will specify the type and number of tests to be performed on the slurry.
● Viscosity- also know as Marsh Funnel Test, is the test used to measure the flow rate or consistency of slurry.
● Mud Balance Test- also known as the Mud Density Test, is used to measure the density of the slurry.
● pH Test- used to determine the alkalinity and acidity of the slurry.
● Sand Content Test- used to determine the sand content of the slurry. Generally the specifications have a
maximum allowable percentage of sand permitted.
Pictured here is the Inspector pouring slurry mud into the Pictured here is a typical "slurry sampler".
cup of the Mud Balance Test apparatus. When filled and
sealed, the knife (graduated bar) is placed on the fulcrum The lower cap is lower to the desired depth and the tube
and the sliding weight moved until the cup and arm are then lower on the cable to that depth. The top cap is allowed
balanced. The density of the mud is then read from the bar. to slide down thereby trapping slurry at the sample depth.
Shaft Cleaning
Depth Verification and Cleaning
During shaft excavation, the Inspector estimates the bottom of shaft depth by noting the depth marks on the kelly and adding the
length of the particular tool to it, the sum of which provides the total depth. Upon achieving the desired shaft tip elevation and
following cleaning of the shaft bottom, the Inspector needs to verify the depth and cleanliness.
Generally, cleanliness requirements will be specified and are typically based upon the amount, or thickness, of sediment
permitted on the bottom of the shaft.
In making this determination, the Inspector uses a weight tape and takes "soundings" at numerous locations (normally 5) around
and in the center of the shaft. These are recorded on the specified form. This should be done as soon as possible, as the longer
the hole is open, the greater the potential for problems.
and cleanliness.
The Designer has designed the drilled shaft foundations based upon a variety of factors and their design is based upon a certain
shaft diameter and depth of penetration below existing ground surface. Where the bottom of the shaft is to be located is referred
to as the "shaft tip elevation".
This elevation is determined from a fixed point elevation provided by the Contractor. Typically, this is the top of casing or some
other fixed reference. Using this elevation and the depth measured on the kelly or weighted tape, the Inspector calculates the
EXAMPLE:
Depth to bottom of
Shaft = 55.0 feet
Depth to bottom of
Shaft = 55.0 feet
● Welcome
● Contents Chapter 8
Chapter 1
●
Rebar Cage Fabrication and Positioning
● Chapter 2
● Chapter 3 Contents
● Chapter 4
This Chapter contains an overview of the fabrication and positioning, in the hole, of the rebar cage
Chapter 5
●
●
and an overview of the Inspector's responsibilities during this phase of drilled shaft construction.
● Chapter 6
A short quiz is provided at the end of the Chapter.
Chapter 7
●
●
❍ Chapter 8
Learning Objectives
● Chapter 9
● Chapter 10
When you have completed this Chapter, you will be able to:
● Glossary
● Inspector math
● Describe, in general, the Inspector's role during the rebar fabrication and positioning process
tip sheet
● Determine the circumference of the shaft and cage
Rebar Cage
Drilled shaft foundations are constructed with a rebar cage inside to provide for strength and stability. The
rebar cages are constructed to meet the needs of the design, both in rebar size and number required.
The Inspector must verify that the cages are fabricated, lifted and positioned properly and are within the
allowable tolerances for "top of cage elevation" after positioning.
Quite often, post installation integrity testing will be specified and the access tubes for performing these
test are part of the cage assembly.
Remember, it is imperative that the hole be clean and this should have been verified by the Inspector
before the rebar cage is installed.
Cage Fabrication
The Inspector must verify that the cages are constructed in accordance with the plans and specifications,
which includes verification of:
● Bar size
● Number of bars and condition
● Type and percentage of ties
● Diameter and length
● Couplers/splices
● Spacers and Standoff
Here the Inspector is checking the ties for compliance to the plans. Typically, the plans will specify a
certain percentage of the intersections be tied.
Following fabrication of the cage, the Contractor will then lift the cage and lower it into the shaft.
Remember that prior to cage placement the Inspector verified the shaft depth and cleanliness.
It is important that the Contractor properly support the cage during lifting to avoid bending the cage so
much that it is permanently distorted. If distorted to much, it won't fit down the shaft without damaging the
shaft walls.
Typically the cage will have standoffs on the bottom to maintain a certain clearance from the bottom of the
hole and spacers on the outer edges to maintain a specified distance from the shaft walls.
This space between the shaft walls and the cage is to provide for the specified "concrete coverage".
Once positioned in the shaft, the top of the cage is to be within a specified tolerance of the elevations
shown in the plans.
This photograph shows the cage being lowered Here is a photograph of the cage after being
into the hole. Notice that the standoffs and the positioned in the hole. The Inspector needs to
side spacers are used to maintain the proper verify and document the "top of cage" elevation
"coverage". and if it is within the specified allowable
construction tolerance.
Access Tubes
Post installation integrity testing of drilled shafts has become very popular throughout the country. More
economical than conventional load tests, some of the methods used provide a "picture" so to speak of the
shaft in the ground.
To perform these types of test, access tubes, which permit lowering of instrumentation down into the shaft,
must be installed on the cage prior to placing the cage in the hole.
The Inspector must verify and document that the tubes are of the length, diameter, and material specified,
together with verifying they are secured to the cage and straight in accordance with the the project plans.
Shown here is an access tube inside the cage. Normally, they are installed
on the inside of the cage, which helps protect them from damage.
Note the cap on the tube- this prevents debris or concrete from getting into
the tube, which can prevent the instrumentation from going down the tubes.
This photograph shows the access tubes installed on the outside of the
cage. Care must be taken by the Contractor when placing the cage to avoid
damage to the tubes.
Determining Circumferences
Determining circumferences is one of the math computations the Inspector must be proficient in
performing.
Typically the number of side spacers that help maintain the proper coverage distance, as discussed earlier
in this Chapter, are generally determined by the cage circumference. The plans or specifications will
typically indicate a certain number of spacers, based upon inches of circumference of the cage, be placed
per level.
To determine the circumference of a circular area, such as a drilled shaft or rebar cage;
Chapter 7
A short quiz is provided at the end of the Chapter.
●
●
● Chapter 8
❍ Chapter 9
● Chapter 10 Learning Objectives
● Glossary
● Inspector math When you have completed this Chapter, you will be able to:
tip sheet
● Describe, in general, the Inspector's role during the placement of concrete
● Describe, in general, the concrete placement methods and process
● Determine theoretical shaft concrete volumes and develop placed concrete volume curves
Concreting Operations
Concreting of the shaft is the final step in the construction process itself. Up until this time, the Contractor has been willing to spend time with the
Inspector but often this changes once the concrete is on the way. There are generally time limits, slump requirements, etc., a whole host of issues or
potential problems that can occur during this phase. Remember, if concreting goes bad, the shaft is lost and everything the Contractor has done up
until this point is essentially lost.
The Inspector needs to perform their duties promptly and efficiently. Speed is of the essence, but do not sacrifice quality and thoroughness.These
duties may, depending upon the specifications, include performing standard field concrete tests, monitoring concrete placement and development of
the placement curves.
When the concrete arrives on-site, the Inspector may be required to verify the proper mix design is being delivered, that it meets the slump
requirements and perform standard field tests. Typically there will be a time limit imposed by the specifications relating to the length of time for
concrete placement.
Remember, it is imperative that the hole be clean and this should have been verified by the Inspector before the rebar cage was installed.
Typical concrete field tests the Inspector may be required to perform include:
● Slump
● Air Content
● Temperature
● Test Specimens
Shown above is the typical slumps specified for drilled shaft concrete.
The slump to the left is OK for drilled shafts. Notice the concrete is plastic, not like the one pictured to the right, where the slump is Ok but the
concrete not plastic as the segregation of the concrete is visible.
The photo to the left shows a concrete with too low of a slump. Would be difficult to pump or place
through a tremie.
A variety of methods or techniques are used by the Contractor to place the concrete. This selection generally depends upon the type of shaft
construction being used and the most common one.
Tremie Placement - Gravity-fed tremie placement is generally used for wet shaft construction. In this method, the concrete is introduced into
the hole, starting at the bottom, using a water tight tremie (tube). The concrete is fed by pump or bucket into the tremie and falls by gravity and
continuously placed until the shaft is full.
Pump-line Placement - This method is similar to the tremie method except that the concrete is "pumped" into the hole, rather than gravity
fed. (A pump-line can be used to feed concrete to a tremie in tremie placement).
Free-Fall - In this method, the concrete is placed by free-falling from the top of the shaft to the bottom and is typically used for dry shaft or dry
cased shaft construction only. Of importance with this method is that the concrete must be directed to free-fall down the center of the cage and not
make contact with the cage or shaft walls. The specifications will often specify the maximum distance concrete may free-fall.
Pictured here is a tremie, with a hopper on top, placed in the shaft for
concrete placement.
The goal of concrete placement is to get the shaft filled with the specified concrete and have no voids or sediment/debris inclusions that effect the
structural integrity of the shaft.
During placement by tremie or pump-line, the discharge end is placed near the bottom of the hole and concrete flow started. The concrete, as it rises
and fills the shaft, displaces the sediments.
During the pour, whether by tremie or pump-line, the concrete flow must be continuous and the discharge end of tremie or pump-line must be
immersed in the concrete a specified distance, typically 5 ft. (1.5 m). If not, and the discharge end breaches (raised above the concrete flow level) the
shaft is rejected. The tremie is raised as the concrete level rises, but the required immersion distance maintained.
The placement continues until fresh concrete overflows the top of the shaft.
In this picture, the Inspector is checking the This picture is looking down inside a cased
tremie, for material, leaks, etc. shaft with the concrete being place by the
pump-line method.
This is a picture of concrete overflowing the
shaft.
Concrete Volumes
So, how much concrete should go into this hole and how do we know if sufficient concrete is being placed? The drilled shaft Inspector deals with two
concrete volumes, the theoretical and the actual.
Theoretically, the drilled shaft should take "x" cubic yards or cubic meters of concrete. By calculating the volume of the shaft, we can arrive at "x".
The actual must be determined during the actual placement. By comparing the actual, as it is placed, to the theoretical, the Inspector can get a "feel"
for what is happening below the ground surface. For example, if your gas tank was registering empty and holds 16 gallons, but when you gas up you
can only get 10 gallons in it, something is wrong. Something is taking up space in the tank or it has collapsed some, assuming the gauge works.On
the other hand, you reach 16 gallons, then 18, then 20 gallons, it is probably leaking.
But, what if the shaft looked like this below ground surface?
This subject, due to its complexity, is covered in detail in the Drilled Shaft Inspector course.
So, based upon these illustrations, we know that if we compare the actual to the theoretical volumes, during placement, we'll have a feeling for what is
happening below ground. This is done with the Concrete Volume Curves.
This is a large part of the Inspector's duties during concreting. The Inspector prepares the Concrete Volume graph, calculates the theoretical and plots
it. Then, during concrete placement, the Inspector determines the volume of concrete placed after each load, plots these values, which forms a plot
relative to the theoretical.
To obtain the actual volumes, the Inspector needs some basic information such as the volume per truck, the depth in the hole to the top of concrete
following each load and the elevation of the top of concrete after each load.
This is best collected in a table form, much like illustrated below. The elevation at the top of cumulative concrete amount after each load is plotted at
the corresponding top of concrete elevation.
The plot of the concrete volume curves is typically performed on a provided inspection form. Illustrated below is how the data and curves are
developed based upon the collected data.
First the Elevation and Cumulative Volume axis are labeled. Make sure the graph (see graph below) is labeled to include the bottom of shaft and top
of shaft elevations and the total cumulative cubic yards.
Next plot the theoretical volume. Plot the Bottom of Shaft elevation at 0 yards and the theoretical volume at the the corresponding Top of Shaft
Elevation.
Next plot each cumulative total at the corresponding elevations starting with 0 at the bottom of shaft elevation. Draw in the plot.
Now the shaft is in, we need to ascertain its structural integrity. Will it carry the load it was designed for? Are
there defects within the shaft caused by errors in construction?
● Load Tests - these are test to determine if the shaft, as constructed, will carry the loads designed for.
● Integrity Tests - these are tests to evaluate the soundness or "integrity" of the constructed shaft.
Load Tests
Load tests come in several different types, which are used to determine different load carrying or resistance capacity. The three typically
methods of load tests are:
Axial load tests - tests to determine if the shaft can carry the load imposed without settling.
Lateral load tests - these are test that test the shafts resistance to lateral forces.
Uplift tests - these tests are the opposite of axial, in that rather than push downward on the shaft, it is pulled upward to determine its
resistance to being "pulled out".
In these tests, reaction loads are jacked against, applying loads incrementally, and the movement measured and documented.
Some of the more common tests used are Static Load Test, Statnamic Load test and Osterberg Load test.
The photo above is of a typical, simple arrangement for loading a drilled shaft laterally. Two companion shafts are used to support the load
from the reaction beam. The test shaft is pushed away from the reaction shafts, not pulled toward them (which might produce excessive
stress overlaps in the soil). In a conventional test, shown at the right, reaction (anchor) shafts are installed on either side of the test shaft
(two or four can be used). The anchor shafts should normally be constructed first. Hydraulic jacks are placed on top of the test shaft,
usually on a steel plate that is carefully leveled. A reaction frame spans the anchor shafts, as shown. Potential disadvantages of this
method are that it is relatively expensive compared to the other methods and the capacity is limited because of the use of the reaction
frame. The conventional method can also be used to conduct uplift, or "pullout" test.
In a conventional test, shown above, reaction (anchor) shafts are installed on either side of the test shaft (two or four can be used). The
anchor shafts should normally be constructed first. Hydraulic jacks are placed on top of the test shaft, usually on a steel plate that is
carefully leveled. A reaction frame spans the anchor shafts, as shown. Potential disadvantages of this method are that it is relatively
expensive compared to the other methods and the capacity is limited because of the use of the reaction frame. The conventional method
can also be used to conduct uplift, or "pullout" test.
Pictured to the right is a Statnamic Test just after the charge was setoff. The
rings, which are now above the casing were originally set even with the top
of the casing
In the Osterberg Cell method the cell must be cast into the shaft at the time of construction, which means that the shafts to be tested must
be identified in advance, unlike the Static or Statnamic.
This photo shows one 3000-ton cell being used to test a socket in soft
rock. The socket diameter is 60 inches, so the 2-inch steel plates on
either side of the Osterberg Cell are 59 inches in diameter. In this case
the objective of the test was to find the ultimate side shearing resistance
in the soft rock.
Integrity Tests
Just as Load tests come in several different types, so do Integrity tests. Most are non-destructive and are used to identify anomalies or
defects in installed shafts.
Performing Sonic Echo test. Larger hammers, such as in this case, are used for
deeper tests
Sonic Echo / Impulse-response- test is performed on installed shaft- quick, easy and inexpensive.
Above is a schematic of a pulse-echo (sonic-echo) test. The principle is obvious from the sketch. Advantages of the test are that it can be
done on virtually any shaft without prior planning (no access tubes need be placed in the shaft) and is quick and inexpensive.
Disadvantages are that it is prone to showing false positives and to missing fairly large voids or inclusions in the concrete. It is essentially
100 per cent accurate only if the void or inclusion covers about half of the cross-sectional area of the shaft and is reasonably thick (say 18
inches (0.5 m) or thicker) and the test is performed correctly. This test is not usually effective in locating deep defects (depth > 60 feet (20
m) and cannot detect contact problems between the concrete and the soil or rock. False positives in this method come from changes in
cross-section that are not associated with an anomaly, from changes in concrete modulus (such as at the interface between concrete
placed from two different trucks), from changes in the stiffness of the soil or rock surrounding the shaft, which also dissipate sonic energy,
and from testing technique errors such as setting the sensor on weak or powdery concrete.
Sonic Echo test being performed on a shaft over water. Note the small hammer
being used to strike the shaft.
Cross-hole Acoustic (CSL) - these are test are performed in the access tubes installed on the rebar cage and is much more
accurate than Sonic Echo testing.
A primary use of access tubes is in the performance of cross-hole acoustic tests (usually ultrasonic in air but sonic in concrete), sometimes
called cross-hole sonic log tests or CSL tests. "Shots" are made from a source that generates acoustic energy to an energy receiver in
another tube at the same elevation, as depicted to the right. Both the time of travel from the source tube to the receiver tube and the
amount of energy transferred between tubes are indicators of the presence of either sound concrete or defective concrete. Good coverage
of the interior of the cage can usually be achieved, however, little information on concrete outside the cage can be obtained.
Several variations on this method are practiced by highly skilled specialists, involving placing source and receiver at different elevations to
develop a three-dimensional profile of the interior of the shaft, in a process referred to as tomography.
This method can be performed fairly quickly and is often more definitive than the pulse-echo method. However, as mentioned above, shafts
to be tested must be identified in advance of construction to permit installation of the access tubes.
Gamma-Gamma - these tests are also performed in access tubes with a nuclear density instrument. This test is also more definitive
than the Sonic Echo test.
Another successful down-tube integrity test is the gamma-gamma, or backscatter gamma test, illustrated to the right. The device is a
nuclear density meter that must be calibrated frequently. It measures density in the concrete to about 100 mm (4 inches) from the edge of
the tube. Newer devices can reportedly measure density to about twelve inches from the tube, but that characteristic is of little use if the
tube is less than twelve inches from the edge of the shaft. A disadvantage of the device is that it does not "shoot" across the shaft as does
a CSL device, so it does not test the entire cross-section, and it is sensitive to being placed too close to a longitudinal rebar. Otherwise, it is
a very definitive test.
This, like the CSL tests, requires advance identified of the shafts to be tested to allow for access tube installation.
Coring - this is the most destructive of the common tests as a drill rig cores the shaft and the retrieved concrete cores are examined.
This can be performed on any shaft and does nor require pre-installed instrumentation.
Coring of drilled shafts can be used as an independent integrity test method, or it can be used to attempt to confirm the presence of defects
that appear as anomalies on pulse-echo records.
Coring is performed by setting a drill rig over the finished shaft, and then performing continuous core runs, typically 5 ft. (1.5 m) in length, to
the bottom of the shaft. The individually retrieved cores are then set out, end to end, which gives a picture of the shaft concrete, etc.
The bottom left picture is an unacceptable shaft, based upon coring results and the bottom right picture is an acceptable shaft. Notice how
the cores from the acceptable shaft are more intact and solid.
Coring is not full-proof, however, as cores can bypass serious defects. So, coring is a way of potentially confirming that the shaft is
defective but not that it is not defective.
Very careful coring is sometimes an effective way to investigate whether there is a soft base in the drilled shaft.
Unacceptable Acceptable
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FHWA > NHI > TCCC > Tutorials > Drilled Shafts
● Welcome
● Contents Appendix A
Chapter 1
●
Glossary
● Chapter 2
● Chapter 3 Adhesion The property of a
● Chapter 4 substance (in our
● Chapter 5 case, cohesive soil) to
● Chapter 6 "stick", "cling", or
● Chapter 7 "adhere" to a solid
● Chapter 8 structural element
● Chapter 9 such as a concrete
● Chapter 10 pier or pile, and thus
❍ Glossary establish a resistance
● Inspector math to shearing movement
tip sheet between the soil mass
and the structural
element.
Calcarenite Mechanically
deposited carbonate
rocks consisting of
sand size carbonate
grains (1/16 to 2 mm
diameter)
Dense Compact
observation of
foundation
investigation and
foundation
construction.
Silt A fine-grained
nonplastic soil; often
mistaken for clay, but
quite different in its
behavior. (Particle
sizes ranging from
0.002 to 0.074 mm).
Appendix B
Inspector Math tip sheets
VOLUME OF A SHAFT
EQUATION EXAMPLE
VOLUME OF A BELL
EQUATION EXAMPLE
EQUATION EXAMPLE
CIRCUMFERENCES
SI Conversion Factors
APPROXIMATE CONVERSIONS FROM SI UNIT
Symbol When You Know Multiply By To Find Symbol
LENGTH
mm millimeters 0.039 inches in
m meters 3.28 feet ft
m meters 1.09 yards yd
km kilometers 0.621 miles mi
AREA
mm^2 square millimeters 0.0016 square inches in^2
m^2 square meters 10.764 square feet ft^2
ha hectares 2.47 acres ac
Notes: 1 kPa = kN/m2 = one kilopascal = one kilonewton per square meter
For dimensionless graphics and equations, a reference stress of one atmosphere can be used, such that σa = ρatm = 1 bar = 100
kPa = 1tsf = 1 kpg/cm2