CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

A column is an upright compression member whose cross-sectional dimensions are small relative to its overall length. In practice, structural concrete columns are always subjected to bending moment as wells as axial compression. Shearing action is produced in columns by horizontal loading.

Furthermore, columns are structural compression members that transmit loads from the upper floors to the lower levels and then to the soil through the foundations. Since columns are compression elements, failure of one column in a critical location can cause the progressive collapse of adjoining floors, and in turn, even the collapse of the entire structure.

A column is defined in accordance to BS8110 as short when both the ratios lex/h and ley/b are less than 15 for braced and 10 for unbraced where h is the dimension of the column section in the plane of bending about the major axis with the effective height of lex. The dimensions b and ley refer to the minor axis. Short columns are dominated by the strength limit of the material that is depicted on the stress/slenderness graph below.

Figure 1.1: Stress/Slenderness Graph (www.efunda.com/formulae/ solid_mechanics/columns/index.cfm)

As mentioned earlier, compression members such as columns are mainly subjected to axial forces. The principal stress in a compression member is therefore the normal stress,

The failure of a short compression member resulting from the compression axial force looks like is as explained in Figure 1.2. In summary, the failure of a compression member has to do with the strength and stiffness of the material and the geometry (slenderness ratio) of the member.

Figure 1.2: Failure of a Short Compression Member Resulting from the Compression Axial Force (www.efunda.com/formulae/ solid_mechanics/columns/index.cfm)

3 During the last several decades, the FEM has evolved from a linear structural analysis procedure to a general technique for solving non-linear, transient, partial differential equations. An extensive literature on the method exists which describes the theory necessary to formulate solutions for general classes of problems, as well as, practical guidelines in its application to problem solution.

R. Courant, who utilized the Ritz method of numerical analysis and minimization of variational calculus to obtain approximate solutions to vibration systems, first developed FEA in 1943. Shortly thereafter, a paper published in 1956 by M. J. Turner, R. W. Clough, H. C. Martin, and L. J. Topp established a broader definition of numerical analysis. The paper centered on the "stiffness and deflection of complex structures".

Many problems in engineering are modeled using partial differential equations (PDE). The set of partial differential equations describing such problems is often referred to as the strong form of the problem. The differential equations may be either linear or non-linear. Linear equations are characterized by the appearance of the dependent variable(s) in linear form only, whereas, non-linear equations include non-linear terms also.

The FEM Program FEAP may be used to solve a wide variety of problems in linear and non-linear solid continuum mechanics. The FEM also known as the Personal Version (FEAPpv) is a computer analysis system designed for: i) Use in an instructional program to illustrate performance of different types of elements and modeling methods ii) In a research, and / or application environment which requires frequent modifications to address new problem areas or analysis requirements.

4 The FEA consists of a computer model of a material or design that is stressed and analyzed for specific results. It is used in new product design, and existing product refinement. A company is able to verify a proposed design thus enabling them to perform to the client's specifications prior to manufacturing or construction.

Therefore, Professor Robert L. Taylor from the Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of California at Berkeley developed the FEA Program, FEAP. Professor Robert L. Taylor has developed the FEAPpv program as an open code designed for research and educational use.

For that reason, this thesis is primarily centered on the stress distribution for short column using the FEA Program FEAP (Theory of Isotropic Linear Elastic Models), which would also be compared to the classical method of stress distribution.

The critical paths on how the stress is distributed in a short column using both the methods would be analysed, compared, tabulated and computed. Furthermore, the influences of variation in the Youngs Modulus and foundation thickness would also be studied.

5 1.1 Objective of Study

The objective of this study is to analyse the use of the FEA Program FEAPpv to obtain data on the stress distribution for a short column. This study would also review the differences between the classical method of stress distribution in a short column with this FEAPpv program and also the effects and influences of Youngs Modulus value variation and foundation thickness variation on the column and foundation by using the FEAPpv program.

1.2

Scope of Study

The main focus of this study is to obtain data on the stress distribution for a short column using the Finite Element Analysis Program FEAPpv where the column would be modeled using partial differential equations. Besides this, the study would also contain: i) the difference between the classical method and finite element program (FEAPpv) ii) the effects and influences of parameters and material variation of the foundation iii) graphical and numerical output of solution results

6 1.3 Research Problem

The FEA has become a solution to the task of predicting failure due to unknown stresses by showing problem areas in a material and allowing designers to see all of the theoretical stresses within. This method of product design and testing is far superior to the manufacturing costs, which would increase if each sample was actually built and tested.

According to BS8110, Clause 3.8.4.6, which explicates shear stress in columns, has been introduced for the reason being of that there was not a method for checking shear stress in columns in CP110. Clause 3.8.4.6 in BS8110 explains that the design shear strength of columns may be checked in accordance with clause 3.4.5.12 (shear and axial compression).

Clause 3.8.4.6 states that for rectangular sections; no check is required where M/N (moment/axial load) is less than 0.75h (depth) provided that the shear stress does not exceed 0.8(fcu) 1/2 or 5 N/mm2, whichever is lesser. (British Standard Institution (1985). BS8110: Part 1 Structural Use of Concrete. London: British Standard Institution)

In majority cases, columns do not have shear problems, but in the case of high moment and small axial load there could be. In this case, the design shear strength is checked in accordance to Clause 3.4.5.12 (shear and axial compression, beam section). (British Standard Institution (1985). BS8110: Part 1 Structural Use of Concrete. London: British Standard Institution)

7 Hence, a question of uniformity of stress distribution assumption in a short column arose leading a further review or clarification by comparing the usage of the finite element analysis, FEAPpv in acquiring the stress distribution for a short column to the classical method.

Besides this, this thesis was also ventured into as to dwell into the aspect of understanding the definition and differences of linear material models and understanding the concepts and applications of stress concentration factor (near the support) and stress intensity factor and effect of property materials in analysis and design.

In summary, the research problems are concentrated on these factors that were explained above: uniformity of stress distribution assumption in a short column

effect of isotropic material properties on stress distribution

stress concentration near support

effect and influences of column foundation thickness increment and Youngs Modulus value variation

Analysing the finite element program is the main focus in this study. The information regarding this finite element program was obtained from www.ce.berkeley.edu/_rlt/feappv/ which is the main website for this program developed by Professor Robert L. Taylor.

8 Therefore, to solve the research problem, several major procedures taken to develop the required program of stress distribution in a short column are: analysing the input data, hence run the FEAPpv program

obtain output data on stress distribution for short column and analyse the graphical and numerical output of solution results

differentiate the classical method with the FEAPpv program on stress distribution for short column

analyse the effect of Youngs Modulus value variation and foundation thickness variation by comparing the graphical output data with the basic model (of E of 2.5 x 107 and thickness of 0.025m)