Population Density and Demography of the Asian Elephant (Elephas maximus) during the First Wet Season at the

Bannerghatta National Park, Southern India.

Avinash Krishnan
August 2012

Post-Graduate Programme in Wildlife Management & Conservation

Centre for Wildlife Assessment & Conservation University of Reading Whiteknights Campus Reading RG6 6UA Berkshire, United Kingdom.

DECLARATION

The data outlined in this study were collected by myself and two volunteers during April-July 2012. These are compared with similar data collected prior to this date by Varma et al. (2009); data from this study has been reproduced in this thesis for comparative purposes. All the photographs of elephants presented in this study have been copyrighted by the researcher himself and hold no records anywhere or in any other medium. I declare that the thesis entitled, Population density and demography of the Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) during the first wet season at the Bannerghatta National Park, Southern India comprises of the research work done by me under the guidance of Dr. Phil J Baker from the University of Reading and in the co-guidance of Dr. Gopalakrishna SP from A Rocha India. Part of this work, which is similar or related to previously done studies have been referred into the thesis at appropriate instances. The results presented in this thesis have not been submitted previously to this or any other university for an M.Sc or any other equivalent degree.

Avinash Krishnan Post Graduate Student Wildlife Management & Conservation (2011-2012) University of Reading Whiteknights Campus Reading RG6 6UA Berkshire United Kingdom a.krishnan@student.reading.ac.uk

Contents
Page No. Abstract.................................................................................................................. List of figures and tables........................................................................................ Introduction............................................................................................................ Methodology Results Approach 1: Line transect dung count for elephant density.................. ... 14 Approach 2: Age and sex classification of elephants....................................18 Approach 3: Identification and recognition of induvidual elephants............ 22 Study area.................................................................................................... 6 Line transect dung count for elephant density............................................ 7 Age and sex classification of elephants...................................................... 9 Identification and recognition of induvidual elephants.............................. 12 1 2 3

Discussion............................................................................................................... 26 Acknowledgements................................................................................................ References.............................................................................................................. Appendices Appendix 1................................................................................................. Appendix 2................................................................................................. 38 39 31 32

ABSTRACT

The Bannerghatta National Park is the last remaining scrub forests located in the Eastern Ghats of Southern India. The park is relatively small when compared to its large density of Asian Elephants. Due to this tenacity of elephants neighbouring villages suffer depredations caused in terms of human-animal conflict and crop losses. The Forest Department has been instrumental in mitigating this ever persistent conflict but has been ineffective in addressing the needs of the forest dwelling communities and conserving the biodiversity of the area fostering an immediate need of community based conservation. Elephants suffer several biotic pressures such as habitat loss, quarry, sand mining and electrocution deaths. This causes a negative impact on the population as selective males are often killed as they frequently raid crop lands. The behaviour patterns suggest that these elephants use the park as a day time refuge to raid crops during the night. Studying the population structure with well associated density and demographic parameters in crucial from a conservation perspective, especially for male elephants. Application and testing of different scientific techniques with close comparison with previous studies in a less studied landscape like Bannerghatta, is pivotal for robust estimates of elephant numbers in the park. Elephant populations were estimated using direct (visual capture) and indirect (elephant dung count) methods of counting elephants. The data yielded significant results adding value to previous studies but depicting significantly higher numbers in terms of population size, density and sex ratios of elephants in this park. It was concluded that elephant density seemed over estimated but proved as a good indicator for population changes over a longer period of time. These changes can be attributed to seasonal influx of migratory elephants due to scarcity of water and other resources or the coincidence of the study during the driving operations of elephants might have altered the information collected.

Key words: Asian elephant, population density, demography, Bannerghatta, Eastern Ghats Cover picture: Avinash Krishnan (2012)

LIST OF FIGURES & TABLES

Figure 1: Map of habitat contiguity and location of the Bannerghatta National Park. Figure 2: Training and Capacity building during the All-India Synchronised Elephant Census 2012. Figure 3: Photographing free ranging elephants for age classification. Figure 4: Probability of detecting dung piles across different distance classes, (10m cut off) for Anekal range. Figure 5: Probability of detecting dung piles across different distance classes, (10m cut off) for Bannerghatta range. Figure 6: Probability of detecting dung piles across different distance classes, (10m cut off) for Anekal range. Figure 7: Photographs depicting different age classes of elephants. Figure 8: Percentage depiction of different age classes of elephants in Banerghatta. Figure 9: Percentage depiction of different sex classes of elephants in Bannerghatta. Figure 10: Identifcation plates based on morphological characteristics for Adult Male elephant. Figure 11: Identifcation plates based on morphological characteristics for Adult Female elephant.

Table 1: Age classification estimated based on height. Table 2: Mean elephant and dung density estimated, at a cut off width of 10m for different ranges in Bannerghatta National Park. three

INTRODUCTION The Asian Elephant (Elephas maximus) is the largest endangered land mammal (IUCN 1996) inhabiting the Indian sub-continent. It falls second, in terms of size only to the African Elephant (Loxodonta africana) (Sukumar 1989). Asian Elephants have experienced historic threats such as capture for domestic use, loss of habitat due to agriculture and human use which has led to its rapid decline in population numbers. Apart from habitat fragmentation, poaching of ivory was rampant for over several years and the ever persistent HumanElephant (HEC) conflict has contributed to this decline (Sukumar 2003; Blake and Hedges 2004). India contributes to about 50% of the world population of wild Asian elephant of which the elephant reserve located at the confluence of the Western and Eastern Ghats in South India contribute to the largest viable Asian elephant population (Varma et al 2009). Population estimation of elephants has been carried out since the year 1970 by the Forest Department, but however several factors such as the poor visibility in forested areas, risk of being killed by an elephant, financial constraints, observer fatigue due to surveying a large area and double counts (Kumaraguru et al. 2010) have led to inappropriate population estimates. Identification of induviduals and estimating populations is crucial in addressing vital issues related to ecology and conservation of the species. Assessing animal numbers in the field can be done either by induced or natural methods. It is imperative to study and analyse population structures, pattern of occurrence, identifying induvidual elephants, population sizes, sex ratios survival and mortality rates to ascertain a viable population. The methodology practised by (Burnham et al. 1980) has contributed significantly towards a more reliable and feasible approach in estimation of elephant numbers. Elephant densities are estimated through direct counts (Varma and Sukumar 1995; Bhaskaran and Desai 2000) in

areas of high elephant densities and enumeration of indirect evidence such as dung (Varma et al. 1995) in areas of poor elephant densities. The Bannerghatta National Park is one the last remaining tropical thorn forests located in the Eastern Ghats; it is highly irregular in shape and is considered to be one of the smallest elephant inhabitant parks in the country. Ironically it is part of the largest existing habitat for elephants and the last remaining preferred habitats for viable elephants in the Eastern Ghats. Elephants of Bannerghatta, experience severe Human-Elephant conflict which contributes majorly to its population decline. The park acts a day time refuge for elephants that raid crop lands during the night causing severe damage to crops, settlements and people. (Varma et al. 2009) Several ameliorable solutions initiated by the Forest Department to mitigate this conflict have been ineffective. Geographically, Bannerghatta National Park is connected to larger elephant habitats that lie in the surrounding; hence assessing the population of this keystone (Western 1989; Shoshani et al. 2004) flagship (Santiapillai and Jackson 1992) species is vital for a park of this dynamism, especially in a protected area under intense management (Sukumar 2003; Arivazhagan 2005). Over the years there have been instances of adult male elephants being electrocuted and killed. Hence a comprehensive understanding of this population is crucial for the conservation of this mega herbivore. Use of distance sampling techniques to estimate elephant densities in tropical thorn forests of Bannerghatta (Anand and Varma 2006) provide an opportunity to assess and review this methodology. The induvidual identities that were generated were analysed under the Capture-Mark Recapture framework of understanding. Elephants can be identified my morphological characteristics such as ear folds, shape of tusks, body markings, shape, height, size and additional features (Doughlas-Hamilton 1975). The population abundance and demographic

structure of elephants in Bannerghatta National Park landscape should be regularly monitored to understand the short term and long term dynamics of the population and to assess the impacts that lead to the decline of the species. Density estimates based on indirect dung

counts were correlated with variables such as dung densities, decay rates and defecation rates. The data on dung densities were obtained from line-transect sampling and in addition to the elephants that were sighted by direct counts were classified into age and sex basis. The ultimate aim was to estimate elephant density through dung counts and demographic classifications using photographic captures, as conflict level in the study area increases with respect to increase in elephant numbers during the first wet season (Anand 2011). According to the Synchronised Elephant Census conducted by the forest department in the years 2002, 2005 and 2007 by the Project Elephant the top governing body for the Conservation of the Asian Elephants in India, suggest that the park has an average elephant population of 71, 74 and 147 with a density of 0.68/km2 and 1.41/km2 respectively (Varma et al. 2009). Most of the data collected were done using forest watchers and volunteers who are untrained in scientific estimations hence these figures led to some sought of ambiguity. Hence an attempt to clearly estimate elephant numbers using the best science is a vital tool in understanding the conservation status of the Asian Elephant in Bannerghatta National Park.

METHODOLOGY Study area

The Bannerghatta National Park is a highly fragmented forest measuring up to an area of 103km2 (Singh 2008). It lies between 12034 and 12050 N latitudes and between 77031 and 77038 longitudes (Rajeev 2002). Being one of the smallest national parks in the country it forms a contiguous stretch in the south with larger scrubby forests the Hosur wildlife division belonging to the state of Tamilnadu and Kanakpura forest division in the west belonging to the State of Karnataka, the last remaining tropical thorn forests (Varma et al. 2009) (Figure 1)

Figure 1: Map of habitat contiguity and location of the Bannerghatta National Park Source: ANCF

The park is divided into three ranges, namely Bannerghatta, Anekal and Harohalli ranges for administrative purposes. The landscape is highly undulating with the mean altitude of 865m. The park receives an average annual rainfall of 937mm (Varma et al. 2009). Maximum rainfall is witnessed between the months August and October, whereas February and March are dry seasons, with little or no rainfall.
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Vegetation comprises of tropical thorn forests, ranging from scrub and deciduous type of vegetation (Varma et al. 2009). Fringe areas have dilute vegetation patterns due to human pressures and whereas the valleys, slopes, hills and riparian beds have thick deciduous growth making elephant observations difficult. The park is also home to variety of birds, mammals and reptiles such as the Indian Gaur (Bos gaurus), Axis deer (Axis axis), Sambar deer (Rusa unicolor), Indian Leopard (Panthera pardus), Wild dog (Cuon alpines), Sloth bear (Melurus ursinus) and other small mammals. (Gopalakrishna et al. 2010) The park posses extensive roadways that facilitate movement of communities within the nearby villages, who are often found dwelling in the fringe areas, in addition to this there are several water holes that occur naturally and artificially that help in witnessing large number of elephants during wet and dry seasons. The park is located very close to the city of Bangalore, one of Indias largest cities.

Line transect dung count for elephant density

The study was carried out in the months of April July. A total of 17 line transects each measuring approximately 2km in length that were established on random start points basis covering all habitats, by the Karnataka State Forest Department using a compass and a Global Positioning system (GPS) to carry out elephant studies, were used to conduct this study. An Average of two lines per day was walked with the help of a trained volunteer and a forest watcher. A total of 17 lines were covered in period of 8 days. Some of the lines were abandoned due to elephant presence as it was dangerous to continue with the survey but were walked again the next day. A 50m nylon rope was held, whilst walking the line to measure the perpendicular distance on encountering dung piles within the line of vision. A cut off width of 15 m from the transect

line to the dung pile was considered in this study but was later truncated to 10m for statistical purposes. The state of dung, ranging from Very Old (VO), Old (O), Very Fresh (VF) and Fresh (F) were also accounted. The circumference of three prominent dung piles was also recorded to estimate age classes of induviduals (Reily J 2002). An exclusive data sheet to record data was used in conducting the mentioned study (Appendix 1) The dung decay and defecation rates were used from earlier assessments done in similar landscapes to estimate elephant density. The dung density/km2 was calculated using DISTANCE version 6 and substituted in the following formula: (Varma and Sukumar 1995)

E=Yxr/D
Where; E= Elephant density/km2 Y= Density of dung piles/ km2 r = Dung decay rate/day D= Defecation rate/day

The length of the transect lines were also measured in the study. At every 50m of the line a tally mark was included. Therefore each line had accounted for 40 induvidual units. The GPS reading at the start point to end point were also accounted to witness the distribution of lines laid across the park. Most dominant tree species were all recorded to depict the vegetation type in the surrounding landscape. Weather patterns and other biotic factors were also calculated to ascertain this study.

The dung decay rate 0.0103 (SE=0.001) (Varma 1995) and Mean defecation rate = 16.33 (SE=0.8) dung piles/day (Watve 1992) for the Bannerghatta National park was used to convert dung density to elephant density. The data that was collected from line transects were used to calculate the dung density and then correlating it with the variables such as decay rate and defecation rate, the densities of elephants were estimated. There was scope to record dung densities in different habitats to correlate the findings as it was evident during the study that elephants preferred using dry deciduous habitats (Varma et al. 2009) but the duration of the study was a short coming.

Age and sex classifications of elephants

A study on the population size, age structure and sex rations are vital for a conservation, and ecological perspective (Sukumar 1989). An attempt to study and analyse age compositions on elephants were done using photographic evidence and recognition of induviduals such as solitary bulls and herds. Information through wireless from beat patrol guards on elephant movement played a key role in locating elephant herds and thus photographic them. Most observations and classifications were made on visual and photographic sightings of elephants. The All-India Synchronised elephant census was carried out from the 21rd to 25th of April 2012, to assess the population of elephants. A training and capacity building programme was carried out for interested volunteers and the forest department on elephant identification and classification skills (Figure 2). This programme overlapped with the study period building expertise on the method of classification of free ranging elephants.
Figure 2: Training and Capacity building for forest watchers, guards and volunteers on classification of free ranging elephants for the All-India Synchronised elephant census 2012.

Source: Manvi Rao (2012)

Asian elephants can be classified into 4 age classes on the basis of age, (Sukumar 1989) namely Calf (0-2years), Juvenile (2-5years), sub-adult (5-15years) and adult (>15years) and can be classified into sex groups based on height till the shoulder and morphological differences like the presence or absence of tusks/tushes. In the case of calves and Makhna; tuskless adult male elephant couldnt be sexed. While classifying elephants in the wild in open forest spaces like water holes, bamboo thickets, valleys and thick vegetation is when identification of induviduals becomes challenging and exceedingly arduous to locate sighted induviduals (Varma 2009), hence a practical approach based on height was relied upon to estimate with reference to nearby objects and height of other members of the herd to structure the induviduals. A standard height scale was used in identifying the induviduals. (Table 1) Sl. No 1 2 3 4 5 Age Structure Adult female / Adult male Sub-adult female / Sub-adult male Juvenile female / Juvenile male Calf Makhna Height at shoulder width (ft) > 7ft / > 8ft > 5-7ft / 5 - 8ft >4 - 5ft / >5 - 8ft = 3 - 4ft > 8ft

Table 1: Age classification estimated based on height

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In areas of elephant hot spots and less forest covers photography of induviduals was key in unambiguous identification. Most encounters were distant to the observer hence photographs werent reliable enough for clear classification hence visual classification using binoculars were used to minimise the ambiguity. Photographs were taken using a DSLR Canon 50D and a zoom lens 75-300mm f 5.6, 12.3 megapixel camera. (Figure 2)

Figure 3: Photographing free ranging elephants for age classification.

Source: Manvi Rao

2)

Identification on visual parameters of distant induviduals a Bushnell 8x40 binocular was used. Upon sighting an elephant the GPS reading of the area, location and dominant tree species were recorded to estimate elephant hit rates on a topographic map. Maximum elephant encounters were achieved whilst driving along game roads and near waterholes, enhanced by wireless information passed by the beat guards of different ranges. Elephants were photographed at stages of its anatomical structures such as head shots, tusks in case of males, ear shots, side flanks and rear body to locate the tail brush type to aid classification and induvidual recognition. Elephant herds were followed till the photographic requirements were achieved. The observer positioned himself on watch towers, trees, behind bushes and in the motor vehicle to get close up, very defined and clear photographs of elephant.
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Majority of field work was done using a motor vehicle or by foot. An exclusive data sheet for recording demography of elephants was used whilst conducting this study. (Appendix 2)

Identification and recognition of induvidual elephants

Elephants can be identified based on several morphological characteristics. Several studies in the past on the African Elephants depict that elephants induvidual differ from each other based on features of the ear, tusk, forehead, buccal cavity, tail brush and other unique markings on the body. (Moss 1996; Doughlas-Hamilton 1975; Varma 1989) With the Asian elephants each of the above mentioned categories were sub classified as follows: Tusks (convergent, divergent, parallel, equal, unequal, straight and broken), forehead and buccal cavity (depression or bulge), Tail length (ankle, knee or toe) (Varma et al. 2009). A unique photographic plate with time of the day, group size, location and GPS reading of every sighting was recorded to validate the results and to add more dimension. A robust estimate of elephant numbers can be generated using good photographic evidence, especially for adult male elephants or bulls. Such photo documentation can aid tracing elephant movement in and out of forest areas which can help management strategies to minimise poaching and conflict. (Goswami 2006) Similarly rogue elephants that frequently raid crops can also be identified using this photographic guide especially aiding the management of adult male elephants. Capturerecapture techniques were used to estimate the frequency of induvidual sighting and several male-alliances were also photographed to understand the dynamics of male elephants that contribute to a viable gene pool. On the other hand if the study period is over a longer duration and the study area is too small to include the normal ranging and movement patterns of the study animal it becomes difficult to assume closure. (Goswami 2006)

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The study was carried from mid April to the end of July. A period of 60 days of fieldwork, involved every day scanning of forests based on information provided by wireless telecommunications and indigenous communities of elephant presence was relied upon this study. Frequent crop raiders were photographed at the forest fringes during early hours in the morning. Due to climatic conditions and logistical constraints the efforts in terms of time spent and sampling occasion was not identical. The focus was more upon the Bannerghatta range of the park as from previous studies depict high elephant density in this region during the first wet season as there is plenty of water, shelter and fodder for elephants to forage upon. Classification of captured induviduals was done by a step by step elimination process of like induviduals in order to avoid double counts and over estimation which finally gave rise to visual compressions of only similar looking animals. A number of induviduals were frequently sighted located in the same area as the previous day. Care was taken not over look this aspect in order to avoid false estimations. Most of the classification was done based on the visual expertise of the researcher and the forest watcher that relied upon frequent sighting of elephants at different locations of the national park over several years of active monitoring.

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RESULTS Approach 1: Line transect dung count for elephant density

A total of 17 line transects were sampled from 3 different ranges of the Bannerghatta National Park. Bannerghatta, Anekal and Harohalli ranges had recorded evidence of 208, 185 and 100 dung piles respectively. Dungs were classified based on the following categories (Very Fresh = previous night, Fresh = 1-3 days, Old = 4-7 days and Very old = more than 7 days). The most predominant state of dung during this study was Very Old (VO). The defecation rate/day 16.33 (SE 0.8) and dung decay rate of 0.0103 (SE=0.001) (Varma et al. 1995) was used for the final density estimation. Induvidual dung densities/km2 was calculated for each of the ranges to depict elephant densities across the landscapes. The elephant densities for Anekal, Harohalli and Bannerghatta ranges was arrived at 4.99/km2, 0.71/km2 and 4.05/km2 Considering a cut off width of 10m, a histogram was generated depicting the detection probability for all three ranges, using the best fitted model based upon lowest AIC values. (Figure 4) (Figure 5) (Figure 6) Range 1: Anekal Model selected = Negative exponential with polynomial adjustment (Order 8): AIC value: 606.06281

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Figure 4: Probability of detecting dung piles across different distance classes, (10m cut off) for Anekal range.

Elephant density = (7841.7 * 0.0104) / 16.33 = 4.99 elephants km-2 Lower 95% CL = (4141.5 * 0.0104) / 16.33 = 2.63 elephants km-2 Upper 95% CL = (14848 * 0.0104) / 16.33 = 9.45 elephants km-2 In a total range area of 26.6 km2 this equates to a total population estimate of 132.7 elephants (95% confidence limit: 69.9 - 251.37 elephants) Range 2: Bannerghatta Model selected = Negative exponential with simple polynomial adjustment (Order 6) AIC value: 593.65955

Figure 5: Probability of detecting dung piles across different distance classes, (10m cut off) for Bannerghatta range.

Elephant density = (6371.9 * 0.0104) / 16.33 = 4.058 elephants km-2 Lower 95% CL = (2545.7 * 0.0104) / 16.33 = 1.621 elephants km-2 Upper 95% CL = (15949 * 0.0104) / 16.33 = 10.157 elephants km-2
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In a total range area of 43.6 km2 this equates to a total population estimate of 176.9 elephants (95% confidence limit: 70.7 - 442.8 elephants) Range 3: Harohalli Model selected = Negative exponential (AIC value: 388.24899)

Figure 6: Probability of detecting dung piles across different distance classes, (10m cut off) for Harohalli range.

Elephant density = (1114.4 * 0.0104) / 16.33 = 0.710 elephants km-2 Lower 95% CL = (501.8 * 0.0104) / 16.33 = 0.320 elephants km-2 Upper 95% CL = (2475.0 * 0.0104) / 16.33 = 1.576 elephants km-2 In a total range area of 33.9 km2 this equates to a total population estimate of 24.1 elephants (95% confidence limit: 10.8 53.4 elephants) A cut of width of 10m was used in processing the data as it is an ideal cut off width for estimating elephant densities of Bannerghatta National Park. (Varma et al. 2009) (Table 2)
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Sl No.

Range

Cut off Width (m)

Mean dung density/km2

Standard Error (SE)

Mean Elephant Density/km2

95% CI Lower limit Upper limit

1 2 3

Anekal Harohalli Bannerghatta

10 10 10

7841.7 1114.4 6371.9

184.7 379.8 2539.8

4.99 0.710 4.05

414.5 501.8

14848 2475

2545.7 15949

Table 2: Mean elephant and dung density estimated, at a cut off width of 10m for three different ranges in Bannerghatta National Park.

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Approach 2: Age and sex classifications of elephants

All the induviduals that were sighted during the study was classified into 4 sex classes viz., Adult Male / Sub-Adult Male / Juvenile Male, Adult Female/ Sub-adult Female / Juvenile Female and Calf. Unidentified induviduals and calves were not sexed but recorded.
(Figure 7: Photographic illustration of different age classes: A, B, C, D, E, F, G)

Source: Avinash Krishnan (2012)

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Figure 7: Identification Plates; A: Adult Male elephant (de-pigmentation and folding of the ear, thickness of the tusk, and sunken temporal glands, depict age characteristics equivalent to an adult male elephant) B: Subadult male elephant (slight de-pigmentation and folding of ears, less thick and smaller tusks, not very sunken temporal glands, shorter in height) C: Juvenile Male (back folding of the ear, no de-pigmentation, size of the tusk and forehead of the animal is in line with the adults belly. D: Adult Female (de-pigmentation and folding of the ear, sunken temporal glands, absence of tusks) E: Sub-adult female (slight de-pigmentation near ear tips, less folding of ears, temporal glad less sunken) F: Juvenile female (back fold and no de-pigmentation of the ear, less or no depression in the temporal gland) G: Calf (peak of calf under the adults belly) (Varma et al. 2009)

A total of 29 sightings of 159 induviduals, considering a different induvidual sighted at given time and space of the study was recorded. After further analysis using photographic evidence and step wise eliminations to remove the ambiguity of double counts and eliminating frequent sightings of common elephants, a total of 15 sightings of 89 induviduals were arrived at. From the (Figure 8) it was evident that adults contribute to the major class (38.4%) followed by the juveniles and the sub-adults, last being the calves. It is also reaffirms that the population of the elephants in Bannerghatta is adult dominated. (Varma et al 2009)

40 35 30 Percentage 25 20 15 10 5 0 AF AM SAF SAM JM JF Calf Age Class of elephants Figure 8: The percentage depiction of different age classes of elephants in Bannerghatta

Adult dominated populations are most common in nearby elephant reserves such as Nagarhole National Park (43.5%). (Arivazhagan 2005)
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The occurrence of lesser number sub-adults and more juveniles is a pattern that needs to be analysed further as it may perhaps account to the reproductive patterns and calving rates of the species. From the 86 induviduals that were sexed (excluding the calves, 3) a plot of males and females of different age classes is described below. (Figure 9)

40 35 30 Percentage 25 20 15 10 5 0 Adults Sub adults Age Class Figure 9: The percentage depiction of different sex classes of elephants in Bannerghatta Juveniles Males Females

The results depict the adult females (33%) are the dominant sex class of the population (Varma et al. 2009) followed by other sex classes such as sub adult and juvenile females. In this study adult males constitute 4% of the population, which could contribute to the extent of skewness in the sex ratios. (Varma et al. 2009)

Sex ratios and Encounter rates

A total of 89 induviduals in area of 104.2km2 (Singh 2008) were estimated. Harohalli range (33.9km2) had no elephant encounters during the period of study. From the number of sighted induviduals 86 induviduals were sexed and sex ratios adult male to adult female was found to be 1:4.06 which is relatively high for the region as on comparison with earlier studies in the

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same landscape where it was found to be 1:2.7 (Varma et al. 2009). However the adult male to adult female ratio during the wet season is known to arrive at 1:3 (Anand et al. 2011) Most of the elephant encounters were confined one region of the national park viz. Bannerghatta Range (10 recordings of 71 induvidual elephants). The average group size of the population was found to be 3.06, which comprised of 2 solitary bulls, 12 herds and a male alliance of 2 induviduals. The pattern of grouping was also studied and it was evident that the male elephants in the vicinity would form alliances with other males and tag along with matriarchal herds for foraging and during crop raids. An extent of four males was found together in herds that frequently raided villages abutting this range. The absence of elephants in one range could be accounted because the study coincided with the regular driving operations of elephants where elephants would be driven out of the ranges and other nearby elephant landscapes which are part of the management strategies of the Forest Department in regulating crop raids and equal distribution of elephants within the park. Bulls dont tend to move as they are escape the process easily and are daring to any force that tends to alter their comfort. Higher proportion of elephants was sighted in herds as elephants are highly social animals and tend to carry out their basic activities in union. This even distribution of elephants despite the management actions attributes to presence of food, shelter and water. (Sivaganesan 1991) The demographic study was carried between the end of April to the beginning of July a total of 310 hours in terms of effort and time spent on identifying, classifying and photographic induviduals in the wild. Hence the encounter rate was estimated to be 0.512/hr. A total 2600 photographs were taken and only 256 were usable in photographic classification.

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Majority of the elephants of were sighted at a beat (smaller regions within a range, for administrative purposes) or a micro habitat named Thatiguppe (4.3 elephants/km2) (Varma et al. 2009) belonging to the Bannerghatta Range of the national park. This region comprises of valleys, large water holes, dense bamboo vegetation and nearby cropping farms proved ideal for elephant inhabitation. (Varma et al. 2009)

Approach 3: Identification and recognition of induvidual elephants

Elephants that were sighted were induvidual marked based on morphological uniqueness. If all of these or either one of the characteristics taken into account does not match an induvidual is considered not similar. Elephants were classified according to demarcating features based on shape/folds of the ear, structure of the eye, length of the tail/brush type, morphology of the tusks and other unique markings. A comparison of two adult males and adult females were done to depict induvidual recognition. (Figure 10A and 10B) / Figure (11A and 11B)

Figure 9A: An adult male elephant (SAM) sighted at the Huchnakunte water hole, in the Bannerghatta.

Figure 9B: An adult male elephant (BHEEMA) sighted at Sadgal baylu area in the Anekal.

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IDENTIFCATION MARKS

IDENTIFICATION MARKS

A: Tusk convergent, slightly thick, sharp, balanced

A: Eye clear and open

B: Peak more pronounced, high and bony

B: Forehead protruding and bulged

C: Ear (R) slightly pigmented, forward lobed

C: Peak less pronounced, low, slopy back

D: Tail length till ankle, full brush, fish-tail

D: Ear no pigmentation, no folds, inward cuts

E: Ear (L) slightly pigmented, serrated, folds

E: Tusks divergent, thick, parallel, blunt, chipped

F: Tail length till knee, brush, pig-tail

G: Unique marks: swelling on the left foreleg

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Figure 10A: An adult female elephant (BK1) sighted at the Betadakere waterhole in Bannerghatta.

Figure 10B: An adult female elephant (BK2) sighted at Betadakere waterhole in Bannerghatta

IDENTIFCATION MARKS A: Tail knee length, full brush B: Peak medium and unbroken C: Ears half de-pigmented and torn D: Eye clear and full bush lashes E: Protruding mammary glands

IDENTIFICATION MARKS A: Tail ankle length, medium brush, fish-tail B: Peak high and unbroken C: Ears folded, no de-pigmentation D: Numerous bulges on right flank E: Eye clear medium bush lashes

All identification plate photographs/image morphs: Avinash Krishnan (2012)

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All other age classes of elephants were classified using the above mentioned features. Hence any induvidual within the same age classes could be identified and classified based on these differences. Calves couldnt be clearly identified as sighting them pr oved to be really conspicuous as their presence in herds wasnt clear enough to have visual definitions that could be noted. Hence in a belief that if the other members of the herd were different the calves sighted were also different and considered to be a new induvidual. Since the age and sex of the calves and the age of the cows were not estimated. The sex ratios and fecundity rates couldnt be clearly established. On a comparative note that since the adult male to female sex ratios of elephants in the Bannerghatta National Park was arrived at 1:2.7 (Varma et al. 2009) which simply means that there is a good balance in the adult male population in the park which can be hypothesised that calves born to mothers of an age bracket of 20-40 years give birth to more male calves in captive conditions. (Sukumar et al. 1997) During monitoring of population and demographic parameters a behaviour aspect was noted that mothers or cows which had newly born calves were located and re sighted often in the same area. Herds wouldnt take the risk in venturing out too much as it would fatigue the newly born and also was part of a defence strategy to isolate young ones from wandering males and other stochastic disturbances. On analysing their residence timings it was evident that elephants prefer areas that had more levels of forage, shade and shelter. (Anand et al. 2011) In conclusion it was estimated that dominated age class of elephants in the park was attributed to adult females (in herds) followed by adult male elephants (solitary) and least encountered were calves and all male alliances.

25

DISCUSSION
The Asian Elephant is of great conservation concern especially in Bannerghatta National Park. Displaying one of the most prevalent social behaviours, cognitional attributes and complex decision making clear states that these animals need to be thoroughly understood in terms of their behaviour and status before arriving at any scientific or management action. Human disturbances, habitat fragmentation and other stochastic events have influenced behavioural responses of these elephants, in terms of foraging rates, migratory patterns and increased stress levels. Elephants tend to display cryptic behaviours wherein they raid crops during the night and confine themselves into smaller group sizes to avoid detection in a way to enhance their efficacy whilst raiding crop lands (Anand et al. 2011) The park is an integral part of a larger vital and viable landscape which further strengths the strong hold to initiate conservation efforts. Preserving and securing this pristine landscape and ensuring ameliorable solutions to mitigate human-elephant conflict is essential for the long term protection of the species in this region. The attempt on studying the population density of the elephants in the Bannerghatta National Park is a fairly new study (Varma et al.. 2009). It was pioneered by a group of scientists in close cooperation with the Forest department. This study unravelled several findings that complimented several major aspects the previous work had established. The basis of estimating elephant density was a systematic representation using standardised values such as a 10m truncate for dung distance, previously recorded dung decay and defecation rate for this landscape were also tested. But however the estimates of elephant density in this study for this landscape is very high (4.99, 0.710, 4.05 elephants/km2 for all three ranges) as compared to earlier studies. The number of dung piles vary from seasons, this study was carried during the first wet season which could have attributed to a high influx of migratory elephants due to
26

scarcity of water in nearby landscapes that might have resulted in a higher dung density which therefore influenced the elephant density. The probability of dung decay rates being influenced by several factors such as rainfall, temperature and foraging of other fauna owing to the fact that the transect lines used were cut and altered for different study purposes in the region couldnt be completely relied upon. High dung density in the Bannerghatta range is resultant of nearby crop fields as elephants used the forest as a day time refuge to raid crops and returned to the crop field and hence the cycle continued. The presence of a large ever filled enriched naturally occurring water body Doddanna tank was the prime source of water complimented by the rich evergreen bamboo vegetation in the region might have influenced elephants to congregate in large numbers. The defecation rate of 16.33 dung piles/day was estimated by considering an average of 1 hour spent by an elephant at a water hole is not a precise and accurate estimate (Coe 1972) (Varma and Sukumar 1995) hence having a great influence on the elephant density. The cut off 10m width was used in estimating the dung density in this study as it proved to ideal for elephant density estimations for Bannerghatta National Park but due to limited time frame of this study it couldnt be tested statistically at different cut off widths which could also have resulted in this not so robust elephant density estimate. During the study period it was evident that the dung density varied from different habitats ranging from dry deciduous (more) to thorny vegetation (less) but an assessment of this was clearly necessary as the transect lines didnt cover all the habitat types within the park therefore to validate this hypothesis a comparative study was crucial to make sound estimates. An increased time frame, sample size and study over different seasons are prerequisites to make findings more sound and robust. The study on Asian elephant demography reaffirms and ascertains an adult dominated population that stably thrives in this region, comprising of more females and less males in the population. The sex ratio was arrived at 1: 4.06 which is seemingly high for this region (1:2.7

27

Varma et al. 2009) but is comparatively less when compared to nearby wider landscapes (Eastern Ghats 1:5, Sukumar 1996). This can be attributed by partial presence or selective elimination of adult males during the period of study due to stochastic events like, scanty rainfall due to the failure of monsoons and which might have resulted in the males to wander into other territories in search of forage and water. The indigenous driving operations initiated by the forest watchers of particular ranges targeting the avid crop raiding herds might have dispersed or congregated herds into a particular region hence over estimating the current trend. The study area was confined to the Bannerghatta National Park, but it cannot be viewed under isolation. Demographic studies were carried based on wireless information passed on by the forest watchers on encountering elephants in the whole of the park therefore data recording could have been influenced by double sightings of same elephant herds/induviduals in different regions of the park. Despite the photographic illustrations for better classifications some voids still exists. Elephants were photographed at different postures and mannerisms such as sleeping, foraging in tall bushes, bathing, rear faced towards the observed and at very long distances hence classification based on all these aspects couldnt have been accurate, hence making them the most difficult animal to classify. Increased female numbers can be attributed to the efficient management of the park, or the subdue in altruistic disturbances and reduced poaching caused by abutting villages and / or other factors. Congregations of elephants around forest boundaries during early mornings and late evenings due to their crop raiding behavioural schemes and time-activity budgets could have led to repeated sightings of similar looking elephants as most of data was recorded during these hours of the study. Due to repeated sampling at high density areas and a seasonal influx of migratory influenced might have caused an unruly estimate of elephant density which could have been avoided if long term analysis of identified herds, in terms of studying better photographic representations could have authenticated this study further.

28

A range of different techniques and methods in studying characteristics of induvidual elephants have been used in earlier studies. (Moss 1996; Moss 2001) Calves were indentified based on known mothers. Identification of induviduals in biological systems are efficiently achieved by radio telemetry but in a landscape like bannerghatta the sample sizes and the economic viability deter the probability of using this method, hence a similar equivalent using capture mark recapture methods to define marked induviduals from a population is a much easier and a convenient option, but however the landscape extends to large areas and requirement of longer study duration in avidly monitoring the populations are the shortcomings of this study. An attempt to use capture-mark-recapture type methodology was incorporated in this study. Identification based on photographs of induvidual elephants could have followed more rigorous protocols by framing character plates based on distinguishing features of elephants. Patten recognition and statistical testing using software such as MARK would have improved the robustness of the estimates. However there is ample room for improvement in terms of statistical analysis. An ideal situation would be to use a hybrid method based on visual and photographic classification done manually and a statistically run tool to authenticate the results and define the correlation. Incorporation of added information on location area, behaviour of elephants and crop raiding patterns would have made a precise decision of induvidual identity of elephants. A long term study based on the above mentioned criteria studying the entire national park, focussing on the occurrence of HD in Bannerghatta range during other wet seasons and achieving a global probability curve for elephant density for the entire park could have made the data more robust and realistic. The attempt to use circumference of elephant dung to correlate age classes of elephants couldnt be achieved due to the less duration in the study period and ambiguity behind

29

understanding the differences between an adult female and a sub adult male dung circumference. The elephant census data from 2002, 2005 and 2007 results show that the elephant population was arrived at 71, 74 and 148 elephants and with the density of 0.68, 0.71 and 1.41 (AERCC 2002, AERCC 2006) (Baskaran et al. 2007) shows a gradual increase in elephant numbers. The results in this study might overestimate the numbers when compared to the earlier estimates, but in fact suggests and recommends an increase in population numbers of elephants in the Bannerghatta National Park. The study period falling during the annual cropping seasons in this region (July-November) (Varma et al. 2009) might have resulted in the arrival of migratory elephants from surrounding areas and congregation of elephants near park fringes for crop raids. This study also falls in time of the National Elephant Census 2012 whose results havent been announced or published till date, hence this study gives an insight to an interim estimation of the elephant density and population demography during the first wet season and describes the current status of the Asian Elephant in the Bannerghatta National Park.

30

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Firstly, I would like to thank A ROCHA INDIA for providing me with this opportunity to conduct this study at the Bannerghatta National Park. I thank the Karnataka Forest Department, especially the Deputy Conservator of Forests (DCF), Mr. Devraj, IFS and the Range Forest Officers of Bannerghatta, Anekal and Harohalli ranges in the Bannerghatta National Park for their cooperation and logistical support. I am grateful to my off shore guides, Late. Dr. Vijay Anand, CEO and Dr. Gopalakrishna SP, Senior Research Officer, A Rocha India for providing me tremendous guidance, support and strength at every moment of this study. I thank, Dr. Graham Holloway, for entrusting me with this scientific work and providing able support. I would specially like to thank my guide Dr. Phil J Baker for advice on some of the statistical aspects and interpretation of results that were crucial to this study. I am grateful to the support rendered by Ms. Manvi Rao, Mr. T Ganapathy, Mr. Philip Santosh, Mr. Amit and Mr. Sunil Karthik for their relentless effort and support in the field. I thank the Guards and Watchers of Bannerghatta, Anekal and Harohalli ranges of the Bannerghatta National Park for managing the logistics in the field. Lastly, I extend my thanks to my family and friends for being a source of inspiration and support.

31

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Santiapillai, C. and Jackson , P. (1992) The Asian Elephant: An action plan for its conservation . IUCN/SSCN Asian Elephant Specialist group. Gland. Switzerland. Sawai Wanghongsa and Kalyanee Boonkrid (2002) Estimating elephant populations in dry evergreen forest of Thailand. Research results progress report for the year:2547 Shoshani, J et al. (2004) Elephants (Loxodonta africana) of Zoba Gash Barka, Eritrea: Part II: Numbers and distribution, ecology and behavior and flora and fauna in their ecosystem. Pachyderm 36: 52-68 Singh, V.V (2008) Wildlife Management Plan for Bannerghatta National Park, 2008-09 to 2012-13. Government of Karnataka: 158pp Sivaganesan, N. (1991) The Ecology of the Asian Elephant in Mudumalai Wildlife Sanctuary with special reference to habitat utilization. PhD . Bharathidasan University: Tiruchirapalli. Sukumar and Varma (1989) Ecology of the Indian Elephant in southern India: Movement and Habitat utilization patterns. Journal of tropical ecology 5: 1-18. Sukumar. R. (1989) The Asian Elephant: Ecology and Management. Cambridge studies in Applied Ecology and Resource Management. Cambridge University Press: Cambridge. Sukumar. R (1992) The Asian Elephant: Ecology and Management. Cambridge: Press syndicate University of Cambridge. Sukumar, R. (1996) Elephant Days & Nights. Ten years with the Indian elephant, Oxford University Press, New Delhi. Sukumar. R et al., (1997) Demography of captive Asian Elephants (Elephas maximus) in Southern India. Zoo Biology, 16, pp 263-272

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Sukumar, R. (2003). The Living Elephants: Evolutionary Ecology, Behavior and Conservation. Oxford University Press, New York, Pp. 476.

Surendra Varman. K (1995) Direct and Indirect methods of counting Elephants: A comparison of results from Mudumalai Sanctuary. Bombay Natural History Society: Oxford University Press. pp 331-339 Surender Varma et al. (2009) Ecology, Conservation and Management of the Asian Elephant in Bannerghatta National Park, southern India. A Rocha India/ANCF: Asian Elephant Ecology and Conservation Reference Series No 1: A Rocha/ANCF India. Pieter Olivier. I (2009) Dung survey bias and elephant population estimates in southern Mozambique. African Journal of Ecology, 47, pp 202-213 Vanitha. V et al. (2010) Demography of captive Asian Elephants (Elephas maximus

Linnaeus) in three management systems in Tamil Nadu, India. Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 107(1), pp 30-37 Varma, K.S and Sukumar, R (1995) The line transect method for estimating density of large mammals in a tropical deciduous forest: An evaluation of models and field experiments Journal of Biological Sciences, 20:273-287 Varma, K.S, Ramakrishnan, U. and Sukumar, R (1995) Direct method of counting elephants: A comparison of results from Mudumalai Sanctuary In: A week with elephants, ed. J.C Daniel and H. Datye, pp. 331-339. Bombay Natural History Society, Bombay and Oxford University Press, New Delhi.

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Varun R Gowsami (2006) Estimation of adult male Asian elephants (Elephas maximus indicus) population size in Nagarhole, Bandipur National Parks using capture recapture methods. Unpublished thesis (M.Sc) The Manipal Academy of Higher Education Vijay D Anand, Gopalakrishna and Nishanth (2011) Population, Behavior and Habitat use of the Asian Elephant (Elephas maximus) at Bannerghatta National Park, Karnataka and its implications to human elephant conflict. Performance report to the Karnataka Forest Department: A Rocha India. Watve, M.G. (1992) Factors affecting the duration of elephant dung piles in rain forest in the Lope Reserve, Gabon. African Journal of Ecology, 33:142-150 Wittemyer. G et al., (2005) Demographic status of elephants in the Samburu and Buffalo springs National reserves, Kenya. African Journal of Ecology, 43, pp 44-47 IUCN RED LIST (2012) The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species [WWW] Elephas maximus IUCN RED LIST. Available from: http://www.iucnredlist.org/details/7140/0 [Accessed: 19/08/2012]

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APPENDICES Appendix 1:
Population and Age Structure Estimation for Asian Elephants (Elephas maximus) at the Bannerghatta National Park. Direct Count
Data Sheet No:

General Information: Observer:

Date: Protected Area Name: Range Name: Beat: Location Name: General Vegetation type: (1. Weather: (Cloudy/Sunny/Rainy) Geo-coordinates: 2 Area: km

/ 2.

/ 3.

/4.

/5.

Elephant Information: Sl. No 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 Comments: Sighting

Start time End time

Number of induviduals

Age and Sex Classification

AF SAF JF AM SAM JM CALF UI

Remarks*

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Appendix 2:
Population and Age Structure Estimation for Asian Elephants (Elephas maximus) at the Bannerghatta National Park. Dung Count (Line-transect sampling)
Data Sheet No:

General Information: Observer:

Date: Protected Area Name: Range Name: Beat: Location Name: General Vegetation type: (1. Weather: (Cloudy/Sunny/Rainy) Starting time: Ending time: Transect length (km): Sl.No

/ 2. (GPS Reading: (GPS Reading:

/ 3.

/4. ) )

/5.

Perpendicular distance of dung pile from transect (in m up to 1 decimal)

Circumference of dung (in m up to 1 decimal)

Status of Dung (VO/O/F/VF)

Remarks

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 39

19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57

40

58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83

Tally Mark at every 50m of rope lengths:

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 11 31 12 32 13 33 14 34 15 34 16 36 17 37 18 19 20 38 39 40

State of Sign: Very Fresh (Previous night) Fresh (1 to 3 days old) Old (4 to 7days) VO (above 7 days).

41