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Prepared by: Prof. Nabil El-Tayeb

1b. Strains
OBJECTIVES:
To define the concept of normal strain
To define the concept of shear strain
To determine normal and shear strains in
engineering applications
1b. Strains

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Prepared by: Prof. Nabil El-Tayeb
1b. Strains
1. Deformation & Strain,
2. Generalized Hookes Law,
3. Relationship among E, G, v,
4. Composite Materials.
Application of a load to a body
Changes in the temperature of a body
DEFORMATION
Deformation is a change in the shape or size of
a body. It is a dimensional value.
Definition
Causes of Deformation
Outline

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Prepared by: Prof. Nabil El-Tayeb
1b. Strains
Normal strain
It is defined as the elongation or contraction of a line
segment per unit of length.

The distance S on the line AB after deformation,
changes to S`
Normal Strain

S
S`
F
F
AS/2

AS/2

+
-

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Prepared by: Prof. Nabil El-Tayeb
1b. Strains
Normal strain
Average normal strain c
avg
(epsilon) is:



As S 0, S` 0
Normal Strain (Cont.)
c
avg
=
S S`
S
Strain is dimensionless

S
S`
F
F
AS/2

AS/2


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Prepared by: Prof. Nabil El-Tayeb
1b. Strains
Normal strain, Final length and Initial length
For a given c, the following equation can be used to
obtain approx. final length of a short line segment.




Hence, when c is positive, initial line
elongates, if c is negative, the line contracts
Normal Strain (Cont.)
S` (1 + c) S

S
S`
F
F
AS/2

AS/2


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Prepared by: Prof. Nabil El-Tayeb
1b. Strains
Units
Normal strain is a dimensionless quantity, as
its a ratio of two lengths, meters/meter (m/m)
so it is normally expressed as (m/m)
Where: 1 m = 10
6
m

Also expressed as a percentage,
e.g., 0.001 m/m = 0.1 %
Normal Strain (Cont.)

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Prepared by: Prof. Nabil El-Tayeb
1b. Strains
Shear strain
Defined as the change in angle that occurs between two
line segments that were originally perpendicular to one
another

Shear Strain
This angle is denoted by
(gamma) and measured in
radians (rad).
u < t/2 shear strain is positive
u > t/2 shear strain is negative
A

u=90-

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Prepared by: Prof. Nabil El-Tayeb
1b. Strains
Shear strain
Consider line segments AB and AC originating
from same point A in a body, and directed along
the perpendicular n and t axes
After deformation, lines become curves, such that
angle between them at A is
Shear Strain (Cont.)

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Prepared by: Prof. Nabil El-Tayeb
1b. Strains
Undeformed element with dimensions of x, y and z
Cartesian strain components
After deformation, the dimensions became x, y and z
In 3-D, Cartesian strain components are:
(c
x
, c
y
, and c
z
)

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Prepared by: Prof. Nabil El-Tayeb
1b. Strains
Cartesian Strain components
Approx. final lengths of
sides of parallelepiped x,
y, and z are:
(1 + c
x
) x (1 + c
y
)y (1 + c
z
)z
Cartesian strain components
S` (1 + c) S
t
2

xy
t
2

yz
t
2

xz
Approx. final angles between the sides are:

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Prepared by: Prof. Nabil El-Tayeb
1b. Strains
The shown plate is deformed such as the
horizontal lines on the plate remain horizontal and
do not change their length.
Determine
(a) average normal
strain along side AB,
(b) average shear strain
in the plate relative
to x and y axes
Example 3.2 (Shear strain)

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Prepared by: Prof. Nabil El-Tayeb
1b. Strains
(a) Line AB, coincident with y axis, becomes line
AB after deformation. Length of line AB is
AB = (250 2)
2
+ (3)
2
= 248.018 mm
Example 3.2 (Shear strain)

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Prepared by: Prof. Nabil El-Tayeb
1b. Strains
(a) Therefore, average normal strain for AB is,
= 7.93(10
3
) mm/mm
(c
AB
)
avg
=
AB
AB` AB 248.018 mm 250 mm
250 mm
=
Negative sign means strain causes a
contraction of AB.
(a) average normal strain along side AB,
Example 3.2 (Shear strain)

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Prepared by: Prof. Nabil El-Tayeb
1b. Strains
(b) Due to displacement of
B to B, angle BAC
referenced from x, y
axes changes to .
Since
xy
= t/2 ,
thus

xy
= tan
1
3 mm
250 mm 2 mm
= 0.0121 rad
( )
(b) Shear strain in the plate relative to x and y
axes
Example 3.2 (Shear strain)

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Prepared by: Prof. Nabil El-Tayeb
1b. Strains
Poissons Ratio
0 = = =
z y
x
x
E
o o
o
c
The elongation in the x-direction is
accompanied by a contraction in the
other directions. Assuming that the
material is isotropic (no directional
dependence),
0 = =
z y
c c
Poissons ratio is defined as
x
z
x
y
c
c
c
c
v = = =
strain axial
strain lateral
For a slender bar subjected to axial loading only:

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Prepared by: Prof. Nabil El-Tayeb
1b. Strains
Generalized Hookes Law can be written as:
the normal strain components resulting
from the stress components may be
determined by applying the principle of
superposition. This requires:
1) strain is linearly related to stress
2) deformations are small
E E E
E E E
E E E
z
y
x
z
z
y
x
y
z
y
x
x
o
vo
vo
c
vo
o
vo
c
vo
vo
o
c
+ =
+ =
+ =
For an element subjected to multi-axial loading:
With these restrictions:
Example 3.4

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Prepared by: Prof. Nabil El-Tayeb
1b. Strains
Composite Materials
Fiber-reinforced composite materials are formed from
lamina of fibers of graphite, glass, or polymers
embedded in a resin matrix.
z
z
z
y
y
y
x
x
x
E E E
c
o
c
o
c
o
= = =
Normal stresses and strains are related by Hookes Law
but with directionally dependent moduli of elasticity,
x
z
xz
x
y
xy
c
c
v
c
c
v = =
Transverse contractions are related by directionally
dependent values of Poissons ratio, e.g.,
Materials with directionally dependent mechanical
properties are anisotropic.

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Prepared by: Prof. Nabil El-Tayeb
1b. Strains
Bulk Modulus
Relative to the unstressed state, the change in volume is
( )( )( ) | | | |
( )
e) unit volum per in volume (change dilatation
2 1
1 1 1 1 1 1
=
+ +

=
+ + =
+ + + = + + + =
z y x
z y x
z y x z y x
E
e
o o o
v
c c c
c c c c c c
For element subjected to uniform hydrostatic pressure,
( )
( )
modulus bulk
2 1 3
2 1 3
=

=
=

=
v
v
E
k
k
p
E
p e
Subjected to uniform pressure, dilatation must be
negative, therefore
2
1
0 < <v

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Prepared by: Prof. Nabil El-Tayeb
1b. Strains
Shearing Strain
A cubic element subjected to a shear stress
will deform into a rhomboid. The
corresponding shear strain is quantified in
terms of the change in angle between the
sides,
( )
xy xy
f t =
A plot of shear stress vs. shear strain is
similar to the previous plots of normal
stress vs. normal strain except that the
strength values are approximately half. For
small strains,
zx zx yz yz xy xy
G G G t t t = = =
where G is the modulus of rigidity or shear modulus.

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Prepared by: Prof. Nabil El-Tayeb
1b. Strains
A rectangular block of material with modulus of rigidity
G = 630 MPa is bonded to two rigid horizontal plates.
The lower plate is fixed, while the upper plate is subjected
to a horizontal force P. Knowing that the upper plate
moves through 1 mm under the action of the force,
determine a) the average shearing strain in the material,
and b) the force P exerted on the plate.
Apply Hookes law for shearing stress
and strain to find the corresponding
shearing stress.
Example 3.3

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Prepared by: Prof. Nabil El-Tayeb
1b. Strains
Example 3.3 (Cont)

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Prepared by: Prof. Nabil El-Tayeb
1b. Strains
Relation Among E, v, and G
An axially loaded slender bar will elongate
in the axial direction and contract in the
transverse directions.
( ) v + = 1
2G
E
Components of normal and shear strain are
related,
If the cubic element is oriented as in the
bottom figure, it will deform into a
rhombus. Axial load also results in a shear
strain.
An initially cubic element oriented as in the
top figure will deform into a rectangular
parallelepiped. The axial load produces a
normal strain.

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Prepared by: Prof. Nabil El-Tayeb
1b. Strains
A circle of diameter d = 225 mm
is scribed on an unstressed
aluminum plate of thickness
t = 18 mm. Forces acting in the
plane of the plate later cause
normal stresses o
x
= 84 MPa and
o
z
= 140 MPa. For E = 70 GPa
and n = 1/3, determine the
change in or the :
a) Final length of diameter AB,
b) Final length of diameter CD,
c) Final thickness of the plate, and
d) the volume of the plate.
Example 3.4
84MPa
140MPa
2
nd
we apply:
c
x
=o
AB
/d
AB
, c
z
=o
DC
/d
DC
,
c
y
=o
t
/t

1
st
, we calculate c
x
, c
y

& c
z

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Prepared by: Prof. Nabil El-Tayeb
1b. Strains
Next: Axial Loadings
Example 3.4

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Prepared by: Prof. Nabil El-Tayeb
1b. Strains
Summary
Loads cause bodies to deform, thus points in
the body will undergo displacements or
changes in position
Normal strain is a measure of elongation or
contraction of small line segment in the body
Shear strain is a measure of the change in
angle that occurs between two small line
segments that are originally perpendicular to
each other

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Prepared by: Prof. Nabil El-Tayeb
1b. Strains
State of strain at a point is described by six
strain components:
a) Three normal strains: c
x
, c
y
, c
z
b) Three shear strains:
xy
,
xz
,
yz
c) These components depend upon the orientation of
the line segments and their location in the body
Strain is a geometrical quantity measured
by experimental techniques. Stress in body
is then determined from material property
relations
Summary

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Prepared by: Prof. Nabil El-Tayeb
1b. Strains
Most engineering materials undergo small
deformations, so normal strain c << 1.
This assumption of small strain analysis
allows us to simplify calculations for
normal strain, since first-order
approximations can be made about their
size
Summary