History of Architecture (AP313) | Term Paper | 2013

AgeofEnlightenment-Effect on Neoclassicism

Term Paper for History of Architecture (AP131)

Vandana Vishnubhotla
Roll Number: 02816901611 Sushant School of Art and Architecture

ABSTRACT
What brings about an age of enlightenment? The philosophy of enlightenment As the rise of science was progressive it gave way to rational thinking when people began to question. And it became a guide to a conscious philosophical inquiry. In the tremendous intellectual progress of this era, the age of philosophy (in a broad sense) people realized the value of giving importance to their own thoughts. The task of characterizing scientific rationales to a questionable philosophy came out of French thinkers in the mid decades of eighteenth century. Even though the whole of Europe was awakening from traditional beliefs, enlightenment had boundaries such as geographical and temporal boundaries. Scottish enlightenment had Adam smith as a key figure, German enlightenment had Immanuel Kant as a key figure, and this concept is a general tendency of thought and cannot be characterized in specific terms or doctrines or theories. Immanuel Kant expresses these tendencies as humankinds release from self-incurred immaturity. The courageous of the lot dared to question and had confidence in humanitys intellectual capacities in determining what to believe and how to act. I think therefore I am by Rene Descartes became the fundamental element of western philosophy. The very act of doubting one's own existence arguably serves as proof of the reality of one's own existence, or at least of one's thought. A time when reason and individualism was valued above all else and even the church was questioned on the basis of reason. This emerging Philosophy translates into love of wisdom. Surely these philosophers were self-educators and educated the mankind later on. Free philosophic thought has a direct connection with practical freedom. Kant and Voltaire did not feel bounded by
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History of Architecture (AP313) | Term Paper | 2013

tradition and dared to take responsibility for mankind. There was never completely atheist, just disagreed with Christianity. They did not try to destroy peoples belief in god but tried to inculcate in them the concept of faith, in ones own self. Voltaire said if god did not exist, mans make-believe nature will make god exist because it is a tendency to look up to some source of guidance. In the later period when counter enlightenment gained force philosophers like Jean Jacques Rousseau reacted against rationalism and argued that instinct and feeling is more important than reason. If religion could be thrown out of the window so could reason. Some argued that if reason is a part of life, other traits such as instinct and feeling, basically emotion should be given equal consideration. This formed the romantic revolution against reason.

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History of Architecture (AP313) | Term Paper | 2013

BACKGROUND
Around eighteenth century, few people who were influenced by the scientific revolution believed in throwing some light on scientific discoveries and reason. This cut across conventional thinking and conventional expectations, in a period of optimism when those who thought differently and saw the world in a different way believed that rational thinking will help the society improve. These thinkers did not defy God but wanted to change the very perception of God. Existence of these thinkers who gave birth to philosophies, gave rise to a historical intellectual movement that led the world toward progress out of a long period of doubtful tradition full of irrationality, superstition and tyranny. Rococo artists of the 18th century opted for a more jocular, florid and graceful approach to the heavy Baroque art and architecture. The Rococo had more playful and often witty artistic themes. As with most rococo paintings the subject of Fragonards the swing is not very complicated. The woman is objectified and is meant for sensual appeasement. While a young lady is being pushed on a swing, her lover hides to get a view up her skirt when shes up in the air. This being an example of the immoral art the philosophers were to condemn. Likes good comedy, the evanescent spirit of rococo was difficult to sustain (1). The time was right for something new. In opposition to the frivolous sensuality of rococo artists like Jean Honouree Fragonard, the neo classicists looked to the poussinistes, a group of French conservative artists painting for their inspiration for ethical consideration. They believed that strong drawing was rational, therefore morally better. They believed that art should be cerebral, not sensual. Neo-classicism is referred to as a child of age of reason continuing the connection to the Classical tradition because it signified moderation and rational thinking but in a new and more politicallycharged spirit. One of the beneficial effects of the Industrial Revolution was a surge in the amount of reading material available to the general public. Consequently, the cost of such material decreased to the point that literature was no longer the sole purview of aristocrats and wealthy merchants.

RISE OF PUBLIC INSTITUTIONS

The first modern lending libraries began to dot the provincial capitals of Europe. And soon the trend reached America. A literate public was a more opinionated public and was more equipped to engage in discussions. When Gullivers travels was published, each chapter had a metaphorical relation to eighteenth century England. Many new institutions began to emerge with the socio-political developments. In the 17th and 18th centuries, political groups frequently used coffeehouses as meeting places. The variety of topics and groups the coffeehouses catered to rapidly increased and this public space rose to its peak in terms of popularity. The absence of alcohol created an atmosphere in which it was possible to engage in a more serious conversation.

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History of Architecture (AP313) | Term Paper | 2013

Later coffeehouses known as penny universities offered various forms of print items such as newspapers, journals, books etc. and began to be considered in the public sphere of age of enlightenment. Born in the age of revolution and political upheaval, they acted as a space where debate began to spill out of the institutions that had traditionally contained it. By the mid-18th century England fostered an active debating society culture. All societies, genders and social backgrounds were welcome making debating societies a large public sphere of the period of enlightenment. The pub culture was over powered by a more serious and formal nature of discussion that was emerging giving rise to public institutions that catered to this need. While the concept of enlightenment was diverse, one aspect common to each country was the rise of the public sphere. Enlightenment in France is closely associated with the rise of salons and academies. There was a new realm of communication that emphasized on debate and print culture. It acted as a platform for criticism and the development of new ideas and philosophy. The pubs and taverns converted into larger and more sophisticated rooms and halls. A certain amount of admission fee had set in and the new atmosphere contributed to a respectable audience. The eras characteristic emphasis on reason found its best expression in neo classicism. Because they were largely affected by tradition, individual feeling and patronage, arts was less responsive to scientific influences. They were rich and varied, with wider perspectives. Architecture started to draw upon western classical art, that of ancient Greece and ancient Rome.

CLASSICISM AND THE IDEA OF PROGRESS

There are several ways in which classical culture can be understood or misunderstood. It depends on our understanding of the universe, on whether we believe that progress and evolution have finality or not. A true cabinet-maker is inspired by the idea of the chair or table, whereas the lesser one is influenced by this particular chair. Great cultures imitate universal ideas while lesser ones copy particular cultures. (2) The origins of neoclassical style lie on the discovery of the ancient roman cities of Herculaneum and Pompeii. The preserved cultural artefacts educated and inspired roman archaeologists, artists, and architects. The extensive writings about the achievements of Greek sculptors encouraged artists to pursue classical forms and ideas. In the 18th century neoclassicism gathered full steam as people rebelled against baroque and rococo styles they felt were unethical and pursued a revival of the classical virtues or reason and order. A new age of style and sophisticated attitude found mass appeal. The enlightenment was a value system not a system of beliefs. Emerging as a direct result of historic activities combined with literacy among people, along with access to printed materials, forthright methods of journalism and a rapid development in the public sphere.
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History of Architecture (AP313) | Term Paper | 2013

Rousseau in social contract says that the king gathers his power not from God, rather from the general will of people, implying that people can also take that power away.Espousing similar political positions, Voltaire employed dry wit and sarcasm to entertain his readers while making convincing arguments for reform. The intellectuals practiced deismwhich is a rejection of organized, doctrinal religion in favour of a more personal and spiritual kind of faith. Criticism was the order of the day, and argumentation was the new mode of conversation. Neoclassical design was not a mere pastiche of columns, capitals, pediments and Palladio. It was an all embracing movement which lent itself not only to the grand designs of architects, but provided artistic inspiration to furniture makers, fabric designers and cabinet makers.(3) From each of these disciplines came something completely new and yet classically inspired. As an artistic phenomenon, neoclassicisms impact may be seen in an astonishing variety of objects from tea spoons and wallpapers to architecture and monuments.

THE GLORIES OF ANCIENT GREECE AND ROME

The ancient Greeks believed in harmony, and it was important to them that their architecture reflected the same. Romans however incorporated all this substance, knowledge and talent to their own culture. True to their role as avid colonisers, they exported these new standards of beauty and excellence all over their rapidly expanding world, for architecture was of great importance to the conquerors. (4) There are several attributes to classical architecture that make it universally appealing: symmetry, the grace of proportion and use of superior materials. Neoclassical architecture had a unique blend of elements of the classical era but not held to its strict rules; architects were able to pick and choose their favourite elements and held on to the principle of beauty. The final design only symbolised the idea of classical architecture. It seems interesting to utilize the basic geometric shapes and vocabulary of classic architecture such as orders, pediments and symmetry. The rectilinear profiles of buildings were treated as vast canvases of potential to which elegant details that were most appealing were added making it extremely versatile. Architecture began to adapt to suit almost any purpose and still please the eye. In France, Paris, J.-G. Souffl attempted and very nearly achieved ideal of a classical building Pantheon of Rome. Its design exemplified the neoclassical return to a strictly logical use of classical architectural elements. The facade, like that of the Roman Pantheon, is formed by a porch of Corinthian columns and triangular pediment attached to the ends of the eastern arm. The vaulted hall of Pantheon referenced to the Roman baths, whose grandiose planning and vaulted halls and chambers became leading inspirations on certain occasions. The Roman triumphal arch was one of the main sources of Neo classical expression with its tripartite division of four equal columns unequally spaced.

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History of Architecture (AP313) | Term Paper | 2013

PANTHEON, PARIS. Drawing elements from ancient Greek architecture and the renaissance dome. Now functioning as a secular mausoleum.
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England made the most determined effort to apply the new archaeological information to the creation of a new architecture directly inspired by the antique. Sometimes they changed their context to garden buildings and interior space.

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History of Architecture (AP313) | Term Paper | 2013

PANTHEON, ROME. Portico of Corinthian columns under a pediment. Temple for all the gods of ancient Rome.
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THE NEW, NEOCLASSICAL CITY

Burlington and William Kent's collaboration on the design of Holkham Hall produced the entrance hall of the century. The problem for interior, which had already faced Palladio, was simply that there was no information as to what the interiors of antique houses were actually like. Kent's solution was to devise an original interior combining elements from Vitruvius's Egyptian Hall, the colonnaded basilicas of ancient Rome, and the frieze from the Temple of Fortuna Virilise in Rome. James Stuart, William Chambers and Robert Adam, who had been energetically involved in archaeological activities and architectural study in Italy and Greece, returned to London. They revolutionized English architecture. The Somerset House (1776-80) by William Chambers has a subtle and sensitive interaction with the environment. The Strand front of Somerset House, with multiple courtyards and vaulted passages, deliberately echoes the Roman Colosseum. Robert Adam drew on four main sources to develop his own style. These were the Palladianism of the Burlington-Kent School, the French influence, the influence of the Renaissance masters and the archaeological influence from Italy, Syria and Greece.
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History of Architecture (AP313) | Term Paper | 2013

With Syon House, Adams creation was thoroughly Neo-classical, in the sense that it contains a variety of geometrical shapes, contrasting with each other and each originating in a classical prototype. The entrance hall, based on the basilica idea, is a rectangle with an apsidal end; the dining room is a long room with apses at the ends. The interior of Syon Hall has a Doric order with high attic and flatbeamed ceiling. In the adjoining ante-room, the twelve Ionic columns, some of whose shafts were found in Rome, are partly disposed in the manner of the classical triumphal arch. Simple geometric silhouettes and archaeological purity of detail go together in the great monuments of later Neo-classicism. Spread of neoclassical architecture is evident in the most important building of the United States, the capitol which has colonnades and the impact of the renaissance dome. If there is a historical moment that can be said to mark the beginning of the end of the Enlightenment, then that moment was the French Revolution. France in 1789 was an example of a civil society intoxicated with its own power. As the eighteenth century drew to its inevitable close, the passionate calls for social reform quieted down substantially. If nothing else, people were simply tired. The bloodshed in France and a variety of other upheavals had seemed to demonstrate that Enlightenment principles were not practical, or at least not yet. The next several decades were spent figuring that out. Despite its apparent failures and setbacks, the Enlightenment paved the way for the modern world. Rousseau had in his life endured several straits of harsh discipline that later formed a basis of hatred towards authority. After his school days he attempted a few unsuccessful apprenticeships. As he says at the start of his Confessions, comparing himself to other men, If I am not better, at least I am different. It needs twenty years to lead man from the plant state in which he is within his mother's womb, and the pure animal state which is the lot of his early childhood, to the state when the maturity of the reason begins to appear. It has needed thirty centuries to learn a little about his structure. It would need eternity to learn something about his soul. It takes an instant to kill him. ("Man", Philosophical Dictionary) Voltaire

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Bibliography
1. Caroline, Clifton-Mogg-The Neoclassical Sourcebook. Rizzoli International Publication, INC, USA 1991. ISBN: 0847813924, P.48 2. AndreasPapadakis, Harriet Walson-New Classicism.Rizzoli International Publication, INC, USA 1990. ISBN 0847812960, P.8 3. Ibid(1) 4. Ibid(1), P.12 5. http://www.martinfrost.ws/htmlfiles/enlightenment_age.html 6. http://www.neoclassic.com/characteristics-of-neoclassical-architecture.html 7. http://architecturestyles.org/neoclassical/

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