CONTROL THEORY APPLICATION TO FLIGHT CONTROL SYSTEMS B. Tech.

., Aeronautical Engineering Fourth Year, First Semester JNTUH 2009-2013 to 2012-2016

UNIT I CONTROL SYSTEMS MODELING, PERFORMANCE TIME, FREQUENCY AND S-DOMAIN DESCRIPTION Note:
This unit is repeated four times citing examples from two text books Kuo and two editions of Ogata, three different prints -2000, 2005, 2007. Depending on the book you follow, you can choose the particular part, but cross references have been inevitable.

Letter refers to Author, first number refers to Section and the next number refers to page no. (The number occasionally refers to Example no.) Y Yechout, S&L Stevens & Lewis, O3- Ogata Third edition, O4(5) Ogata Fourth edition, 2005, O4(7) Ogata Fourth edition, 2007 N Nelson Kuo B.C. Kuo [More details at the end] Part1 of 4.

For the students who are primarily referring to B.C. Kuo:

Dynamic systems, principal constituents, input, output, process: Kuo Sec 4-3, pp138-145, S1-1-2, pp 2-8, Block diagram representation: S 1-1-3, 1-1-4, 1-2, 1-2-1, 1-2-2 pp 9-13 Inputs control input, noise: S1-2-4, 1-2-4, pp 14-15 Also read Section 1-3, 1-3-1,1-3-2 pp16-19 Discrete data system on page 17 pertains to Digital control system. [Read S 3-11, pp 106-117 before reading digital systems in Unit VIII] Tracking Performance: Section 10-5 O3, pp 686 Sensitivity:14 - Sensitivity of the gain of the overall system is defined in Sec 1-2-3, pp 13-

Function of control as regulation (hold), tracking (command) [See notes of Unit V, reproduced below] Autopilots purpose, functioning Y - 9.2 - 444 Inputs four cases are discussed. Hold keeping the output constant, command input, (Command here may be interpreted as a particular value) track follow a given input profile Pitch altitude hold Y 9.2.1 446 Altitude hold - flying at a constant height Y 9.2.2 447 Bank angle hold keeping roll angle constant Y 9.2.3 449 Heading hold maintaining a constant yaw and the required bank angle Y 9.2.4 450 [The above topics are given from page 327 onwards in S&L] Velocity hold S&L page 334-335 The Mach-hold autopilot is chiefly used on commercial passenger jets during climb and descent. During a climb the throttles may be set at a fairly high power lever, and feedback of Mach number to the elevator will be used to achieve a constant Mach climb(Ex 4.6-3 on page 335 of S&L) Figure on page 335 of Ref S&L or fig 9.25 on page 448 of Y may be modified to show velocity hold Block Diagram, by replacing h by v. Aircraft Transfer function may be replaced by a general TF and sensor is for measuring v. Aircraft Transfer functions are given in Block diagrams given in Ref Y. Maneuver autopilot Y 9.2 444 n is load factor coming on aircraft during manoeuvre. Pitch rate feedback Y Ex 9.5 page 459 Block diagrams of Control Systems: S3-3-1, pp 84 -88 Gain formula: S 3-9, pp99-100. Compare with Rules for Block diagram algebra in Ogata Section 3-3, page 68. Control in every day life, pervasiveness of control in nature, engineering and societal system, the importance of study of control system etc. - Examples in initial pages of all control system books refer to these. Robust control: S10-10, pp778-779 Robustness is insensitivity to external disturbance and parameter variation. Also, insensitivity to noise. Modelling of dynamical systems by differential equations: See spring-mass system etc., on page 16 (of the first set) of Notes of Prof. G.V.S.S. Sastry, Wg. Cdr. (Rtd.). Kuo Section 4, pp 134- 160. Ex 4-4, pp151-154, explains spring-mass model. Ex 4-6, pp155-158, explains a two-spring system. Stochastic control: See Page 8 (of the second set) of Notes of Prof. G.V.S.S. Sastry, Wg. Cdr. (Rtd.).

Linear time-invariant systems and linear time-varying systems: [See Ogata, S3-1, pp 58-59 of O3.] A differential equation is linear if the coefficients are constants or functions only of the independent variable. If the coefficients are constants, then they are time-invariant. A more rigorous definition is given below. Dynamic systems that are composed of linear timeinvariant lumped-parameter components may be described by linear time-invariant (constant coefficient) differential equations. Such systems are called linear time-invariant (or linear constant-coefficient) systems. Systems that are represented by differential equations whose coefficients are functions of time are called linear time-varying systems. Linear and non-linear systems: In linear systems, the coefficients of derivatives like are constants or functions only of the independent variable. Also, functions like sin or cos would not be present. Non-linear differential equations are those whose solutions do not obey the law of superposition. Definition: A linear system is a system which has the property that if: (a) an input x1(t) produces an output y1(t), and (b) an input x2(t) produces an output y2(t), then (c) an input c1 x1(t) + c2 x2(t) produces an output c1 y1(t) + c2 y2(t) for all pairs of inputs x1(t) and x2(t) and all pairs of constants c1 and c2. First order, Second order and higher order systems: Second order differential equation is of the form while first order differential equation is of the form See Ogata, S4-2, pp 136-139 of O3. Second order system: Earlier referred - Kuo Section 4, pp 134-160. S4-4, pp151-15, explaining spring-mass model, and Ex 4-6, pp155-158, explaining a two spring system are second order systems. Higher order systems Unit 6, 7 you study nth order systems. The differential equation contains the terms like . See Eq 3-3, p 79. Kuo Section 2-3, pp25-28. ,

SISO Single input single output systems MIMO Multiple input multiple output systems S 3-2-3, p81 referred to as multivariable system. Fig 3-5 - Block diagram on p87.

Linearization of non-linear systems Certain approximations have to be made to make the coefficients constants at for a limited interval. Time-invariant linear systems The differential equation is linear and the coefficients are constants and not functions of the independent variable or time. Control System performance time domain description output response to control inputs: As referred to earlier, Kuo Section 4, pp 134- 160. Ex 4-4, pp151-154, explains spring-mass model. The displacement as a function of time is given. Analysis without referring to Laplace Transforms is given in Ogata Ex 3-2, pp73-74. Here it is solved in state-space model. In the class it was solved as a solution of the second order differential equation. All of these are examples of time domain description, where system variables are obtained as functions of time, when acted on by an external force. The external force may be impulse, step or ramp (or any other function). Characteristic parameters, relation to system parameters explained in the examples shown above See the response curve given on page 29 of the first set of notes given by Prof. Sastry overshoot, steady state error, time constant, rise time, tmax etc. See Kuo S7-4, pp385-389. Indicial functions: The time response in lift and moment to step changes in angle of attack and pitch rate are termed indicial functions. [NACA R 1188, by Murray Tobak]. Transient Response of a second order system: Kuo, S7-5 pp387-388 Review Fourier transforms See your old notes of Mathematics. Laplace Transforms: Kuo S2-4, 2-4-2 pp28-30. Application to differential equations: [ ] [ [ ] ] ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( )

( )

( )

( ) , where,

( )

See tables in Ogata or any other text book. Laplace Transform: Kuo S2-6, pp 41-43 Transfer function: Kuo, S3-2, S3.3 pp78-88 Terminology on page 85 GH is loop transfer function. Ogata and many others call it Open-loop transfer function OLTF M is used only by some authors. is CLTF closed loop transfer function. Read Kuo, S3-10-1, 3-10-2, 3-10-3, pp 102-105 to arrive at state and output equations mentioned in Unit VI. Kuo - Section 3-11 for Digital system of Unit VIII.

Poles and zeros are defined in Kuo S2-2-4, 2-2-5, pp24-25. See Ex 2-6 on page 38. Characteristic equation: Kuo S3-2-2, page 80. 1+GH =0 is the characteristic equation of a closed loop control system with negative feedback.
Kuo, S3-2-2, page 80: The characteristic equation of a linear system is defined as the equation obtained by setting the denominator polynomial of the transfer function to zero.

Frequency and damping ratio of dominant poles: The lowest frequency pole is called
the dominant pole because it dominates the effect of all of the higher frequency poles [from Wikipedia]

Relation of transfer function to impulse response: I guess this means system response for impulse input. Measures of Performance (MOP): measures derived from the dimensional parameters (both physical and structural) and measure attributes of system behavior. MOPs quantify the set of selected parameters. Examples include sensor detection probability, sensor probability of false alarm, and probability of correct identification. Measures of Effectiveness (MOE): measure of how a system performs its functions within its environment. An MOE is generally an aggregation of MOPs. Examples include survivability, probability of raid annihilation, and weapon system effectiveness. [Download from Internet Establishing System Measures of Effectiveness by John M. Green.] Partial Fraction decomposition of transfer function: Kuo S 2-5, pp 34-37 Frequency domain description: Kuo, Appendix A, pp864Eq A-1 Magnitude of G(j) and phase of G(j) are defined. Please note this is not G(s), but the specific case, where the real part is zero. Polar plot A plot of the magnitude versus phase in the polar coordinates, as varies from zero to infinity. | ( )| versus in semi-log Bode plot A plot of the magnitude in decibels coordinates Section A1 Polar plot, Section A2 Bode Plot. The polar plot is often called Nyquist Plot. Polar plot is for any G. Nyquist plot is for GH, [loop transfer function or OLTF] Frequency Transfer function: I suspect it refers to G(j) Corner frequencies, resonant frequencies, peak gain Please study Bode plots. Resonant frequency is the frequency at which the peak resonance M, (Mr),

occurs. [Kuo, S9-1-2, p 544.] Some books use Mp as the symbol. The resonant frequency is the frequency at which the magnitude of M(j) is the highest. In general the Mr should be between 1.1 and 1.5. Characteristics of a system are stability, bandwidth, overall gain, disturbance and sensitivity. Bandwidth: Bandwidth BW is the frequency at which | ( )| drops to 70.7 percent or 3 dB down from its zero-frequency value. {Kuo} In general, the bandwidth of a control system gives an indication of the transient response properties in the time domain. Kuo, p544. The frequency range , in which the magnitude of the closed loop does not drop minus3dB is called the bandwidth of the system. {Ogata}. The bandwidth indicates the frequency where the gain starts to fall off from its low-frequency value. Thus, the bandwidth indicates how well the system will track an input sinusoid. The rise time and the bandwidth are inversely proportional to each other. Another definition: BW is that range of frequencies of the input over which the system will respond satisfactorily. Second order system is dealt with in Kuo, S 9-2, pp544- 549. First order system is given in Ogata S 4-2, pp136-139 of O3.

END OF Part 1.
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Part 2 of 4.

For students who are primarily referring to Ogata, Third Edition:

Dynamic systems, principal constituents, input, output, process: See Ogata, S1-2, pp 2-6 of Third edition [O(3)]. Block diagram representation: Ogata S3-3, pp63-67 of O3 Rules for block diagram algebra page 68 of O3 Inputs control input, noise: Control input is r(t) and R(s), Noise Block diagrams in Ogata, Section 10-3, pp 680-681 and 684-685 of O3 have noise as additional input N(s). This is usually measurement error of the output (referred to as sensor error). Discrete data system on {page 17 of Kuo} pertains to Digital control system. [Read Kuo. S 3-11, pp 106-117 before reading digital systems in Unit VIII] Tracking Performance: Ogata, Section 10-5 see page 686 and then page 685 of O3

( )

( )

, where Y(s) and R(s) are output and input respectively. Tracking error is the

difference between the desired output and achieved output. To keep it small, must be close to unity over a wide range of frequency.

Sensitivity: (i) - Sensitivity of the gain of the overall system is defined in Kuo, Sec 1-2-3, pp 13-14 Ogata Section 10-5 pp 686-687 of O3 (ii) Sd degree of disturbance rejection (iii) Sensitivity to modeling errors

Function of control as regulation (hold), tracking (command) [See notes of Unit V, reproduced below] Autopilots purpose, functioning Y - 9.2 - 444 Inputs four cases are discussed. Hold keeping the output constant, command input, (Command here may be interpreted as a particular value) track follow a given input profile Pitch altitude hold Y 9.2.1 446 Altitude hold - flying at a constant height Y 9.2.2 447 Bank angle hold keeping roll angle constant Y 9.2.3 449 Heading hold maintaining a constant yaw and the required bank angle Y 9.2.4 450 [The above topics are given from page 327 onwards in S&L] Velocity hold S&L page 334-335 The Mach-hold autopilot is chiefly used on commercial passenger jets during climb and descent. During a climb the throttles may be set at a fairly high power lever, and feedback of Mach number to the elevator will be used to achieve a constant Mach climb (Ex 4.6-3 on page 335 of S&L) Figure on page 335 of Ref S&L or fig 9.25 on page 448 of Y may be modified to show velocity hold Block Diagram, by replacing h by v. Aircraft Transfer function may be replaced by a general TF and sensor is for measuring v. Aircraft Transfer functions are given in Block diagrams given in Ref Y. Maneuver autopilot Y 9.2 444 n is load factor coming on aircraft during manoeuvre. Pitch rate feedback Y Ex 9.5 page 459 Block diagrams of Control Systems: Ogata, Examples 3-1, 3-2, pp 69-70 and pp73-75 of O3. [These are in addition to those cited earlier.] Control in every day life, pervasiveness of control in nature, engineering and societal system, the importance of study of control system etc. - Examples in initial pages of all control system books refer to these.

Robust control: Ogata, S10-5, pp 685-686 of O3 Robustness is insensitivity to external disturbance and parameter variation. Also, insensitivity to noise. Modelling of dynamical systems by differential equations: See spring-mass system etc., on page 16 (of the first set) of Notes of Prof. G.V.S.S. Sastry, Wg. Cdr. (Rtd.). Ogata, Ex 3-2, pp 73-74 of O3explains spring-mass model. Example in the sub-section Mechanical System, pp 83-85 of O3 explains a slightly different model, where the springmass system is on a cart. If you can read the electrical examples in the next few pages, it is good. But, before that read page 67 of O3, procedures for drawing block diagrams. Stochastic control: See Page 8 (of the second set) of Notes of Prof. G.V.S.S. Sastry, Wg. Cdr. (Rtd.). Linear time-invariant systems and linear time-varying systems: Ogata, Section 3-1, pp 58-59 of O3. A differential equation is linear if the coefficients are constants or functions only of the independent variable. It is time-invariant, if the independent variable is time and the coefficients are constant. A more rigorous definition for a linear system is given below. Dynamic systems that are composed of linear time-invariant lumped-parameter components may be described by linear time-invariant (constant coefficient) differential equations. Such systems are called linear time-invariant (or linear constant-coefficient) systems. Systems that are represented by differential equations whose coefficients are functions of time are called linear time-varying systems. In linear systems, the coefficients of derivatives like are constants or functions only of the independent variable. Also, functions like sin or cos would not be present. Non-linear differential equations are those whose solutions do not obey the law of superposition. Definition: A linear system is a system which has the property that if: (a) an input x1(t) produces an output y1(t), and (b) an input x2(t) produces an output y2(t), then (c) an input c1 x1(t) + c2 x2(t) produces an output c1 y1(t) + c2 y2(t) for all pairs of inputs x1(t) and x2(t) and all pairs of constants c1 and c2. First order, Second order and higher order systems: Second order differential equation is of the form while first order differential equation is of the form See Ogata, S4-2, page 136-139 of O3. ,

Second order system: Earlier referred example explaining spring-mass model is a second order system. Higher order systems Unit 6, 7 you study nth order systems. The differential equation contains the terms like . See Eq 3-3, p 79. Kuo Section 2-3, pp25-28. See Ogata, S4-3, pp 150-154 of O3. If you can study Section 4-3, pp 141-150 of O3, it will be helpful. SISO Single input single output systems MIMO Multiple input multiple output systems Kuo, S 3-2-3, p81 referred to as multivariable system. Kuo, Fig 3-5 - Block diagram on p87. Ogata, Section 3-4, page 70 of O3. Linearization of non-linear systems Certain approximations have to be made to make the coefficients constants at for a limited interval. Ogata, S3-10, pp 100-102 of O3. Time-invariant linear systems The differential equation is linear and the coefficients are constants and not functions of the independent variable, time. Control System performance time domain description output response to control inputs: As referred to earlier, Kuo Section 4, pp 134- 160. Ex 4-4, pp151-154, explains spring-mass model. The displacement as a function of time is given. Analysis without referring to Laplace Transforms is given in Ogata Ex 3-2, pp73-74 of O3. Here it is solved in state-space model. In the class it was solved as a solution of the second order differential equation. All of these are examples of time domain description, where system variables are obtained as functions of time, when acted on by an external force. The external force may be impulse, step or ramp (or any other function). Characteristic parameters, relation to system parameters explained in the examples referred to above See the response curve given on page 29 of the first set of notes given by Prof. G.V.S.S. Sastry overshoot, steady state error, time constant, rise time, tmax etc. Also, see S4-3, Sub-section Definitions of transient response specifications, page 150 of O3. Indicial function: The time response in lift and moment to step changes in angle of attack and pitch rate are termed indicial functions. [NACA R 1188, by Murray Tobak]. Transient Response of a second order system: Ogata, Section 4-3, page 150 of O3. Review Fourier transforms See your old notes of Mathematics. Laplace Transforms: Application to differential equations: [ ] [ ] ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )

( )

( ) , where,

( )

See tables in Ogata or any other text book. Laplace Transform: Ogata, S 2-3, pp 17- 23 of O3. Transfer function: S3-2, S3-3, page 60 and pp 65-66 of O3 Terminology is given clearly by Kuo, S3-3-1, page 85 GH is loop transfer function. Ogata and many others call it Open-loop transfer function OLTF M is used only by some authors. is CLTF closed loop transfer function. Read Kuo, S3-10-1, 3-10-2, 3-10-3, pp 102-105 to arrive at state and output equations mentioned in Unit VI. Kuo - Section 3-11 for Digital system of Unit VIII. Poles and zeros: Ogata, S2-2, page 16 of O3 Rigorous definition is given in the text. [Hint: Roots of the numerator equated to zero are zeros, and roots of the denominator equated to zero are poles, but definition in the text has to be used.] Characteristic equation: The equation 1+GH =0 is the characteristic equation of a closed loop control system with negative feedback. | is the characteristic polynomial of G(s). See Ogata, S3-4, at the In the state-space system, |
end of the Sub-section Correlation between transfer function and state-space equations, page 75 of O3. Kuo, S3-2-2, page 80: The characteristic equation of a linear system is defined as the equation obtained by setting the denominator polynomial of the transfer function to zero.

Frequency and damping ratio of dominant poles: The lowest frequency pole is called
the dominant pole because it dominates the effect of all of the higher frequency poles [from Wikipedia]

Relation of transfer function to impulse response: I guess this means system response for impulse input. Measures of Performance (MOP): measures derived from the dimensional parameters (both physical and structural) and measure attributes of system behavior. MOPs quantify the set of selected parameters. Examples include sensor detection probability, sensor probability of false alarm, and probability of correct identification. Measures of Effectiveness (MOE): measure of how a system performs its functions within its environment. An MOE is generally an aggregation of MOPs. Examples include survivability, probability of raid annihilation, and weapon system effectiveness. [Download from Internet Establishing System Measures of Effectiveness by John M. Green.]

Partial Fraction decomposition of transfer function: Ogata, S2-5, pp37-38 of O3. Frequency domain description: Ogata, S8-1, Subsection - Steady state output to sinusoidal inputs (Pp 471-472 of O3: Magnitude of G(j) is given as amplitude ratio, and phase of G(j) is defined as the phase shift of the output sinusoid with respect to the input sinusoid. Please note this is not G(s), but the specific case, where the real part is zero. Some call this simply angle of G(j). Polar plot A plot of the magnitude versus phase in the polar coordinates, as varies from zero to infinity. Ogata, S8-4, pp 504-505 of O3. | ( )| versus in semi-log Bode plot A plot of the magnitude in decibels coordinates. Bode diagrams are explained in Ogata, S8-2, pp 473-483 of O3. The General procedure for plotting Bode diagrams is given at the end of the section, pp 483-484 of O3. Bode pronounced Bodee, Boday (and as per internet, Bodah, probably in his mother tongue.] The polar plot is often called Nyquist Plot. Polar plot is for any G. Nyquist plot is for GH, [loop transfer function or OLTF] Frequency Transfer function: I suspect it refers to G(j) Corner frequencies, resonant frequencies, peak gain Please study Bode plots. Resonant frequency is the frequency at which the peak resonance M, (Mr), occurs. [Kuo, S9-1-2, p 544. Ogata, S8-2, page 483 of O3] Some books use Mp as the symbol. The resonant frequency is the frequency at which the magnitude of M(j) is the highest. In general the Mr should be between 1.1 and 1.5. Characteristics of a system are stability, bandwidth, overall gain, disturbance and sensitivity. Bandwidth: Bandwidth BW is the frequency at which | ( )| drops to 70.7 percent or 3 dB down from its zero-frequency value. {Kuo} In general, the bandwidth of a control system gives an indication of the transient response properties in the time domain. [See Kuo, p 544, Ogata, S8-9, pp 554-555 of O3] The frequency range , in which the magnitude of the closed loop does not drop minus3dB is called the bandwidth of the system. {Ogata}. The bandwidth indicates the frequency where the gain starts to fall off from its low-frequency value. Thus, the bandwidth indicates how well the system will track an input sinusoid. The rise time and the bandwidth are inversely proportional to each other.

Another definition: BW is that range of frequencies of the input over which the system will respond satisfactorily. Second order system is dealt with in Ogata S 4-2, pp136-139 of O3. First order system is given in Ogata, S4-3, pp 150-154 of O3.

End of Part 2.
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Part 3 of 4.

For students who are primarily referring to Ogata, Fourth Edition printed in 2005 [O4(5)]:

Dynamic systems, principal constituents, input, output, process: Ogata, S1-2, pp 2-6 of O4(5). Block diagram representation: Ogata S3-3, pp 58-63 of O4(5) Rules for block diagram algebra page 68 of O3 {not seen in O4(5)} Inputs control input, noise: Control input is r(t) and R(s), Noise Block diagrams in Ogata, Section 10-4, pp 701-705 of O4(5) have noise as additional input N(s). This is usually measurement error of the output (referred to as sensor error). Discrete data system on {page 17 of Kuo} pertains to Digital control system. [Read Kuo. S 3-11, pp 106-117 before reading digital systems in Unit VIII] Tracking Performance: Ogata, Section 10-5 see page 686 and then S10-4, page 685 of O3 {I could not see the relevant part in O4}
( ) ( )

, where Y(s) and R(s) are output and input respectively. Tracking error is the

difference between the desired output and achieved output. To keep it small, must be close to unity over a wide range of frequency. Sensitivity: (i) - Sensitivity of the gain of the overall system is defined in Kuo, Sec 1-2-3, pp 13-14 Ogata Section 10-5 pp 686-687 of O3 (ii) Sd degree of disturbance rejection (iii) Sensitivity to modeling errors

Function of control as regulation (hold), tracking (command) [See notes of Unit V, reproduced below] Autopilots purpose, functioning

Y - 9.2 - 444

Inputs four cases are discussed. Hold keeping the output constant, command input, (Command here may be interpreted as a particular value) track follow a given input profile Pitch altitude hold Y 9.2.1 446 Altitude hold - flying at a constant height Y 9.2.2 447 Bank angle hold keeping roll angle constant Y 9.2.3 449 Heading hold maintaining a constant yaw and the required bank angle Y 9.2.4 450 [The above topics are given from page 327 onwards in S&L] Velocity hold S&L page 334-335 The Mach-hold autopilot is chiefly used on commercial passenger jets during climb and descent. During a climb the throttles may be set at a fairly high power lever, and feedback of Mach number to the elevator will be used to achieve a constant Mach climb (Ex 4.6-3 on page 335 of S&L) Figure on page 335 of Ref S&L or fig 9.25 on page 448 of Y may be modified to show velocity hold Block Diagram, by replacing h by v. Aircraft Transfer function may be replaced by a general TF and sensor is for measuring v. Aircraft Transfer functions are given in Block diagrams given in Ref Y. Maneuver autopilot Y 9.2 444 n is load factor coming on aircraft during manoeuvre. Pitch rate feedback Y Ex 9.5 page 459 Block diagrams of Control Systems: Ogata, Examples 3-2, 3-3, pp 69-70 and pp73-75 of O4(5). [These are in addition to those cited earlier.] Control in every day life, pervasiveness of control in nature, engineering and societal system, the importance of study of control system etc. - Examples in initial pages of all control system books refer to these. Robust control: Ogata, S10-5, pp 685-686 of O3 Robustness is insensitivity to external disturbance and parameter variation. Also, insensitivity to noise. [Please see Ogata, Third Edition] Modelling of dynamical systems by differential equations: See spring-mass system etc., on page 16 (of the first set) of Notes of Prof. G.V.S.S. Sastry, Wg. Cdr. (Rtd.). Ogata, Ex 3-3, pp 73-74 of O4(5) explains spring-mass model. Example in the sub-section Mechanical Systems, Ex. 3-8 pp 81-82 of O4(5) explains a slightly different model, where the spring-mass` system is on a cart. If you can read the electrical examples in the next few pages, it is good. But, before that read page 67 of O3, procedures for drawing block diagrams. Stochastic control: See Page 8 (of the second set) of Notes of Prof. G.V.S.S. Sastry, Wg. Cdr. (Rtd.). Linear time-invariant systems and linear time-varying systems:

Ogata, Section 3-1, page 54 of O4(5). A differential equation is linear if the coefficients are constants or functions only of the independent variable. It is time-invariant, if the independent variable is time and the coefficients are constant. A more rigorous definition for a linear system is given below. Dynamic systems that are composed of linear time-invariant lumped-parameter components may be described by linear time-invariant (constant coefficient) differential equations. Such systems are called linear time-invariant (or linear constant-coefficient) systems. Systems that are represented by differential equations whose coefficients are functions of time are called linear time-varying systems. In linear systems, the coefficients of derivatives like are constants or functions only of the independent variable. Also, functions like sin or cos would not be present. Non-linear differential equations are those whose solutions do not obey the law of superposition. Definition: A linear system is a system which has the property that if: (a) an input x1(t) produces an output y1(t), and (b) an input x2(t) produces an output y2(t), then (c) an input c1 x1(t) + c2 x2(t) produces an output c1 y1(t) + c2 y2(t) for all pairs of inputs x1(t) and x2(t) and all pairs of constants c1 and c2. First order, Second order and higher order systems: Second order differential equation is of the form while first order differential equation is of the form See Ogata, S5-2, page 221-224 of O4(5). Second order system: Earlier referred example explaining spring-mass model is a second order system. Higher order systems Unit 6, 7 you study nth order systems. The differential equation contains the terms like . See Eq 3-3, p 79. Kuo Section 2-3, pp25-28. See Ogata, S5-3, pp 230-231 of O4(5). If you can study Section 5-3, pp224-230 of O4(5), it will be helpful. SISO Single input single output systems MIMO Multiple input multiple output systems Kuo, S 3-2-3, p81 referred to as multivariable system. Kuo, Fig 3-5 - Block diagram on p87. Ogata, Section 3-4, page 70, O4(5). Linearization of non-linear systems Certain approximations have to be made to make the coefficients constants at for a limited interval. Ogata, S3-10, pp 112-114 of O4(5). Time-invariant linear systems The differential equation is linear and the coefficients are constants and not functions of the independent variable, time. ,

Control System performance time domain description output response to control inputs: As referred to earlier, Kuo Section 4, pp 134- 160. Ex 4-4, pp151-154, explains spring-mass model. The displacement as a function of time is given. Analysis without referring to Laplace Transforms is given in Ogata Ex 3-3, pp73-74 of O4(5). Here it is solved in state-space model. In the class it was solved as a solution of the second order differential equation. All of these are examples of time domain description, where system variables are obtained as functions of time, when acted on by an external force. The external force may be impulse, step or ramp (or any other function). Characteristic parameters, relation to system parameters explained in the examples referred to above See the response curve given on page 29 of the first set of notes given by Prof. G.V.S.S. Sastry overshoot, steady state error, time constant, rise time, tmax etc. Also, see S5-3, Sub-section Definitions of transient response specifications, pp 229-231 of O4(5). Indicial function: The time response in lift and moment to step changes in angle of attack and pitch rate are termed indicial functions. [NACA R 1188, by Murray Tobak]. Transient Response of a second order system: Ogata, Section 5-3, page 230 of O4(5). Review Fourier transforms See your old notes of Mathematics. Laplace Transforms: Application to differential equations: [ ] [ [ ] ] ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( )

( )

( )

( ) , where,

( )

See tables in Ogata or any other text book. Laplace Transform: Ogata, S 2-3, pp 13-20 of O4(5). Transfer function: S3-2, S3-3, page 55 and pp 59-60 of O4(5). Terminology is given clearly by Kuo, S3-3-1, page 85 GH is loop transfer function. Ogata and many others call it Open-loop transfer function OLTF M is used only by some authors. is CLTF closed loop transfer function. Read Kuo, S3-10-1, 3-10-2, 3-10-3, pp 102-105 to arrive at state and output equations mentioned in Unit VI. Kuo - Section 3-11 for Digital system of Unit VIII. Poles and zeros: Ogata, S2-2, page 12 of O4(5). Rigorous definition is given in the text. [Hint: Roots of the numerator equated to zero are zeros, and roots of the denominator equated to zero are poles, but definition in the text has to be used.]

Characteristic equation: The equation 1+GH =0 is the characteristic equation of a closed loop control system with negative feedback. | is the characteristic polynomial of G(s). See Ogata, S3-4, at the In the state-space system, |
end of the Sub-section Correlation between transfer function and state-space equations, page 75 of

O4(5).
Kuo, S3-2-2, page 80: The characteristic equation of a linear system is defined as the equation obtained by setting the denominator polynomial of the transfer function to zero.

Frequency and damping ratio of dominant poles: The lowest frequency pole is called
the dominant pole because it dominates the effect of all of the higher frequency poles [from Wikipedia]

Relation of transfer function to impulse response: I guess this means system response for impulse input. Measures of Performance (MOP): measures derived from the dimensional parameters (both physical and structural) and measure attributes of system behavior. MOPs quantify the set of selected parameters. Examples include sensor detection probability, sensor probability of false alarm, and probability of correct identification. Measures of Effectiveness (MOE): measure of how a system performs its functions within its environment. An MOE is generally an aggregation of MOPs. Examples include survivability, probability of raid annihilation, and weapon system effectiveness. [Download from Internet Establishing System Measures of Effectiveness by John M. Green.] Partial Fraction decomposition of transfer function: Ogata, S2-5, pp 36-37 of O4(5). Frequency domain description: Ogata, S8-1, Subsection Obtaining steady state output to sinusoidal inputs [pp 493-494 of O4(5)]: Magnitude of G(j) is given as amplitude ratio, and phase of G(j) is defined as the phase shift of the output sinusoid with respect to the input sinusoid. Please note this is not G(s), but the specific case, where the real part is zero. Some call this simply angle of G(j). Polar plot A plot of the magnitude versus phase in the polar coordinates, as varies from zero to infinity. Ogata, S8-4, pp 523-526 of O4(5). | ( )| versus in semi-log Bode plot A plot of the magnitude in decibels coordinates. Bode diagrams are explained in Ogata, S8-2, pp 497-507 of O4(5). The General procedure for plotting Bode diagrams is given at the end of the section, page 507 of O4(5). [Bode pronounced Bodee, Boday (and as per internet, Bodah, probably in his mother tongue.]

The polar plot is often called Nyquist Plot. Polar plot is for any G. Nyquist plot is for GH, [loop transfer function or OLTF] Frequency Transfer function: I suspect it refers to G(j) Corner frequencies, resonant frequencies, peak gain Please study Bode plots. Resonant frequency is the frequency at which the peak resonance M, (Mr), occurs. [Kuo, S9-1-2, p 544. Ogata, S8-2, page 507 of O4(5)] Some books use Mp as the symbol. The resonant frequency is the frequency at which the magnitude of M(j) is the highest. In general the Mr should be between 1.1 and 1.5. Characteristics of a system are stability, bandwidth, overall gain, disturbance and sensitivity. Bandwidth: Bandwidth BW is the frequency at which | ( )| drops to 70.7 percent or 3 dB down from its zero-frequency value. {Kuo} In general, the bandwidth of a control system gives an indication of the transient response properties in the time domain. [See Kuo, p544, Ogata, S8-9, pp 572-573 of O4(5).] The frequency range , in which the magnitude of the closed loop does not drop minus3dB is called the bandwidth of the system. {Ogata}. The bandwidth indicates the frequency where the gain starts to fall off from its low-frequency value. Thus, the bandwidth indicates how well the system will track an input sinusoid. The rise time and the bandwidth are inversely proportional to each other. Another definition: BW is that range of frequencies of the input over which the system will respond satisfactorily. Second order system is dealt with in Ogata S 5-3, pp 224-233 of O4(5). First order system is given in Ogata, S5-2, pp 221-224 of O4(5).

End of Part 3.
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Part 4 of 4.

For students who are primarily referring to Ogata, Fourth Edition printed in 2007 [O4(7)]:

Dynamic systems, principal constituents, input, output, process: Ogata, S1-2, pp 14-18 of O4(7). Block diagram representation: Ogata S3-3, pp 70-75 of O4(7).

Rules for block diagram algebra page 68 of O3 {not seen in O4(5) or O4(7)} Inputs control input, noise: Control input is r(t) and R(s), Noise Block diagrams in Ogata, Section 10-4, pp 713-717 of O4(7) have noise as additional input N(s). This is usually measurement error of the output (referred to as sensor error). Discrete data system on {page 17 of Kuo} pertains to Digital control system. [Read Kuo. S 3-11, pp 106-117 before reading digital systems in Unit VIII] Tracking Performance: Ogata, Section 10-5 see page 686 and then S10-4, page 685 of O3 {I could not see the relevant part in O4}
( ) ( )

, where Y(s) and R(s) are output and input respectively. Tracking error is the

difference between the desired output and achieved output. To keep it small, must be close to unity over a wide range of frequency. Sensitivity: (i) - Sensitivity of the gain of the overall system is defined in Kuo, Sec 1-2-3, pp 13-14 Ogata Section 10-5 pp 686-687 of O3 (ii) Sd degree of disturbance rejection (iii) Sensitivity to modeling errors [Please see Kuo and Ogata, Third Edition]

Function of control as regulation (hold), tracking (command) [See notes of Unit V, reproduced below] Autopilots purpose, functioning Y - 9.2 - 444 Inputs four cases are discussed. Hold keeping the output constant, command input, (Command here may be interpreted as a particular value) track follow a given input profile Pitch altitude hold Y 9.2.1 446 Altitude hold - flying at a constant height Y 9.2.2 447 Bank angle hold keeping roll angle constant Y 9.2.3 449 Heading hold maintaining a constant yaw and the required bank angle Y 9.2.4 450 [The above topics are given from page 327 onwards in S&L] Velocity hold S&L page 334-335 The Mach-hold autopilot is chiefly used on commercial passenger jets during climb and descent. During a climb the throttles may be set at a fairly high power lever, and feedback of Mach number to the elevator will be used to achieve a constant Mach climb (Ex 4.6-3 on page 335 of S&L) Figure on page 335 of Ref S&L or fig 9.25 on page 448 of Y may be modified to show velocity hold Block Diagram, by replacing h by v. Aircraft Transfer function may be replaced by a general TF and sensor is for measuring v. Aircraft Transfer functions are given in Block diagrams given in Ref Y.

Maneuver autopilot Y 9.2 444 n is load factor coming on aircraft during manoeuvre. Pitch rate feedback Y Ex 9.5 page 459 Block diagrams of Control Systems: Ogata, Examples 3-2, 3-3, pp 81-82 and pp 85-86 of O4(7). [These are in addition to those cited earlier.] Control in every day life, pervasiveness of control in nature, engineering and societal system, the importance of study of control system etc. - Examples in initial pages of all control system books refer to these. Robust control: Ogata, S10-5, pp 685-686 of O3 Robustness is insensitivity to external disturbance and parameter variation. Also, insensitivity to noise. [Please see Ogata, Third Edition] Modelling of dynamical systems by differential equations: See spring-mass system etc., on page 16 (of the first set) of Notes of Prof. G.V.S.S. Sastry, Wg. Cdr. (Rtd.). Ogata, Ex 3-3, pp 85-86 of O4(5) explains spring-mass model. Example in the sub-section Mechanical Systems, Ex. 3-8 pp 93-94 of O4(7) explains a slightly different model, where the spring-mass` system is on a cart. If you can read the electrical examples in the next few pages, it is good. But, before that read page 67 of O3, procedures for drawing block diagrams. Stochastic control: See Page 8 (of the second set) of Notes of Prof. G.V.S.S. Sastry, Wg. Cdr. (Rtd.). Linear time-invariant systems and linear time-varying systems: Ogata, Section 3-1, page 56 of O4(7). A differential equation is linear if the coefficients are constants or functions only of the independent variable. It is time-invariant, if the independent variable is time and the coefficients are constant. A more rigorous definition for a linear system is given below. Dynamic systems that are composed of linear time-invariant lumped-parameter components may be described by linear time-invariant (constant coefficient) differential equations. Such systems are called linear time-invariant (or linear constant-coefficient) systems. Systems that are represented by differential equations whose coefficients are functions of time are called linear time-varying systems. In linear systems, the coefficients of derivatives like are constants or functions only of the independent variable. Also, functions like sin or cos would not be present. Non-linear differential equations are those whose solutions do not obey the law of superposition. Definition: A linear system is a system which has the property that if: (a) an input x1(t) produces an output y1(t), and

(b) an input x2(t) produces an output y2(t), then (c) an input c1 x1(t) + c2 x2(t) produces an output c1 y1(t) + c2 y2(t) for all pairs of inputs x1(t) and x2(t) and all pairs of constants c1 and c2. First order, Second order and higher order systems: Second order differential equation is of the form while first order differential equation is of the form See Ogata, S5-2, page 233-236 of O4(7). Second order system: Earlier referred example explaining spring-mass model is a second order system. Higher order systems Unit 6, 7 you study nth order systems. The differential equation contains the terms like . See Eq 3-3, p 79. Kuo Section 2-3, pp25-28. See Ogata, S5-3, pp 242-243 of O4(7). If you can study Section 5-3, pp 236-241 of O4(7), it will be helpful. SISO Single input single output systems MIMO Multiple input multiple output systems Kuo, S 3-2-3, p81 referred to as multivariable system. Kuo, Fig 3-5 - Block diagram on p87. Ogata, Section 3-4, page 82, O4(7). Linearization of non-linear systems Certain approximations have to be made to make the coefficients constants at for a limited interval. Ogata, S3-10, pp 124-126 of O4(7). . Time-invariant linear systems The differential equation is linear and the coefficients are constants and not functions of the independent variable, time. Control System performance time domain description output response to control inputs: As referred to earlier, Kuo Section 4, pp 134- 160. Ex 4-4, pp151-154, explains spring-mass model. The displacement as a function of time is given. Analysis without referring to Laplace Transforms is given in Ogata Ex 3-3, pp 85-86 of O4(7). Here it is solved in state-space model. In the class it was solved as a solution of the second order differential equation. All of these are examples of time domain description, where system variables are obtained as functions of time, when acted on by an external force. The external force may be impulse, step or ramp (or any other function). Characteristic parameters, relation to system parameters explained in the examples referred to above See the response curve given on page 29 of the first set of notes given by Prof. G.V.S.S. Sastry overshoot, steady state error, time constant, rise time, tmax etc. Also, see S5-3, Sub-section Definitions of transient response specifications, pp 241-243 of O4(7). Indicial function: ,

The time response in lift and moment to step changes in angle of attack and pitch rate are termed indicial functions. [NACA R 1188, by Murray Tobak]. Transient Response of a second order system: Ogata, Section 5-3, page 240 of O4(7). Review Fourier transforms See your old notes of Mathematics. Laplace Transforms: Application to differential equations: [ ] [ [ ] ] ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( )

( )

( )

( ) , where,

( )

See tables in Ogata or any other text book. Laplace Transform: Ogata, S 2-3, pp 25-30 of O4(7). Transfer function: S3-2, S3-3, page 67 and page 72 of O4(7). Terminology is given clearly by Kuo, S3-3-1, page 85 GH is loop transfer function. Ogata and many others call it Open-loop transfer function OLTF M is used only by some authors. is CLTF closed loop transfer function. Read Kuo, S3-10-1, 3-10-2, 3-10-3, pp 102-105 to arrive at state and output equations mentioned in Unit VI. Kuo - Section 3-11 for Digital system of Unit VIII. Poles and zeros: Ogata, S2-2, page 24 of O4(7). Rigorous definition is given in the text. [Hint: Roots of the numerator equated to zero are zeros, and roots of the denominator equated to zero are poles, but definition in the text has to be used.] Characteristic equation: The equation 1+GH =0 is the characteristic equation of a closed loop control system with negative feedback. | is the characteristic polynomial of G(s). See Ogata, S3-4, at the In the state-space system, |
end of the Sub-section Correlation between transfer function and state-space equations, page 87 of

O4(7).
Kuo, S3-2-2, page 80: The characteristic equation of a linear system is defined as the equation obtained by setting the denominator polynomial of the transfer function to zero.

Frequency and damping ratio of dominant poles: The lowest frequency pole is called
the dominant pole because it dominates the effect of all of the higher frequency poles [from Wikipedia]

Relation of transfer function to impulse response: I guess this means system response for impulse input. Measures of Performance (MOP): measures derived from the dimensional parameters (both

physical and structural) and measure attributes of system behavior. MOPs quantify the set of selected parameters. Examples include sensor detection probability, sensor probability of false alarm, and probability of correct identification. Measures of Effectiveness (MOE): measure of how a system performs its functions within its environment. An MOE is generally an aggregation of MOPs. Examples include survivability, probability of raid annihilation, and weapon system effectiveness. [Download from Internet Establishing System Measures of Effectiveness by John M. Green.] Partial Fraction decomposition of transfer function: Ogata, S2-5, pp 44-45 of O4(7). Frequency domain description: Ogata, S8-1, Subsection Obtaining steady state output to sinusoidal inputs [pp 505-506 of O4(7)]: Magnitude of G(j) is given as amplitude ratio, and phase of G(j) is defined as the phase shift of the output sinusoid with respect to the input sinusoid. Please note this is not G(s), but the specific case, where the real part is zero. Some call this simply angle of G(j). Polar plot A plot of the magnitude versus phase in the polar coordinates, as varies from zero to infinity. Ogata, S8-4, pp 535-538 of O4(7). | ( )| versus in semi-log Bode plot A plot of the magnitude in decibels coordinates. Bode diagrams are explained in Ogata, S8-2, pp 509-519 of O4(7). The General procedure for plotting Bode diagrams is given at the end of the section, page 519 of O4(7). [Bode pronounced Bodee, Boday (and as per internet, Bodah, probably in his mother tongue.] The polar plot is often called Nyquist Plot. Polar plot is for any G. Nyquist plot is for GH, [loop transfer function or OLTF] Frequency Transfer function: I suspect it refers to G(j) Corner frequencies, resonant frequencies, peak gain Please study Bode plots. Resonant frequency is the frequency at which the peak resonance M, (Mr), occurs. [Kuo, S9-1-2, p 544. Ogata, S8-2, page 519 of O4(7)] Some books use Mp as the symbol. The resonant frequency is the frequency at which the magnitude of M(j) is the highest. In general the Mr should be between 1.1 and 1.5. Characteristics of a system are stability, bandwidth, overall gain, disturbance and sensitivity.

Bandwidth: Bandwidth BW is the frequency at which | ( )| drops to 70.7 percent or 3 dB down from its zero-frequency value. {Kuo} In general, the bandwidth of a control system gives an indication of the transient response properties in the time domain. [See Kuo, p544, Ogata, S8-9, pp 584-585 of O4(7).] The frequency range , in which the magnitude of the closed loop does not drop minus3dB is called the bandwidth of the system. {Ogata}. The bandwidth indicates the frequency where the gain starts to fall off from its low-frequency value. Thus, the bandwidth indicates how well the system will track an input sinusoid. The rise time and the bandwidth are inversely proportional to each other. Another definition: BW is that range of frequencies of the input over which the system will respond satisfactorily. Second order system is dealt with in Ogata S 5-3, pp 236-245 of O4(7). First order system is given in Ogata, S5-2, pp 233-236 of O4(7).

End of Part 4.
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References:1. Y Yechout, Morris, Bossert and Hallgren, Introduction to Aircraft Flight Mechanics: Performance, Static Stability, Dynamic Stability, and Classical Feedback Control, 2003. 2. S&L Stevens & Lewis, Aircraft Control and Simulation, 2003. 3. O3 Ogata, Modern Control Engineering, Fourth Edition, Second Impression, 2000. 4. O4(5) Ogata, Modern Control Engineering, Fourth Edition, Second Impression, 2005. 5. O4(7) Ogata, Modern Control Engineering, Fourth Edition, Second Impression, 2007. 6. N Nelson, Flight Stability and Automatic Control, 2011. 7. Kuo B.C. Kuo, Automatic Control Systems, 2003.