Chapter 3.

Flow at high differencial pressures

3.3. Factors influencing the flow through nozzles
In fact, fluid flow is a complex process that takes place in complex conditions. It is
influenced by various factors, such as changes in flow section, the exchange of mechanical work,
heat and mass with the environment, the presence of friction.
Further action, will determine the sense of the factors actions mentioned above, about the
flow regime.
According to the continuity equation, the mass flow is given by:
Aw m
, which is
written in differential form as follows:
w
dw
A
dA d
m
m d
+ +

(3.30)
The equation of energy conservation (first principle of thermodynamics) for open systems,
differential form:
gdz l l wdw dh q
f
+ + + +
(3.31)
q
consists of heat received from the outside and inside, also.
l contains other forms of mechanical work than those explained in (3.31), for example
mechanical work produced by rotating a turbine equipmetn, and others.
First principle of thermodynamics for open systems, also can be written in the form:
vdp dh l dh q
t
+
Thus, the relation (3.31) can be written as:
0 + + + + +
f f
l l wdw vdp l l wdw vdp
Where, gdz component is neglected. Follows:
0 + + +
f
l l wdw
dp

(3.32)
Equation of state written in differential form:
T
dT d
p
dp
+

is inserted into (3.30) and it

obtains:
w
dw
A
dA
T
dT
p
dp
m
m d
+ +

(3.33)
From equation (3.32), multiplying by and dividing by p, we obtain:
( )
f
l l wdw
p p
dp

+ +
(3.34)
From caloric equation of state of perfect gases: dh=c
p
dT and equation (3.31) we obtain:
( ) wdw l l q
c c
dh
dT
f
p p

1
(3.35)
By introducing (3.34) and (3.35), equation (3.33) becomes:
( ) ( ) wdw l l q
T c
l l wdw
p w
dw
A
dA
m
m d
f
p
f
+ + +
1

(3.36)
2
a
k
kRT
k
p
k
k
p

(3.37)
1 1
2

k
a
RT
k
k
T c
p
(3.38)
Substituting relations (3.37) and (3.38,) the relation (3.36) becomes:
( ) ( ) wdw l l q
a
k
l l wdw
a
k
w
dw
A
dA
m
m d
f f

+ + +
2 2
1

(3.39)
Result:
1
q
a
k
l
a
l
a a
w
w
dw
A
dA
m
m d
f

2 2 2 2
2
1 1 1
1

,
_

(3.40)
But
2
2
2
M
a
w
, relation (3.40) becomes:
( ) q
a
k
l
a
l
a m
m d
A
dA
M
w
dw
f

2 2 2
2
1 1 1
1

(3.41)
Relation (3.41) shows the influence of each disturbing factor on variation of the
velocity of the gas flow. It is noted that under subsonic regime (M 1) influence is reversed,
and the supersonic regime (M> 1) the influence is direct.
According to equation (3.41), the variation of a parameter in one direction can cause changes
of gas flow velocity up to critical velocity. Critical velocity it can only by doing changing the
sense of variation of respectively parameter.
3.4. Types of nozzles
The nozzle is defined as a channel for the flow of gas to the existence of at least one
disturbing factor described in equation (3.41). Given that one of these factors may be predominant,
others are neglected. Thus, equation (3.41) is simplified, taking different forms depending on the
type of nozzle:
1. Nozzle geometric (Fig. 3.3.) is a channel of variable section, isolated adiabatic by flowing
gas constant flow, without friction and don't produce mechanical work (
; 0 dA ; ct m ; 0 l
; 0 q ) 0
f
l . Given these conditions, equation (3.41) becomes:
( )
A
dA
M
w
dw
1
2
(3.42)
- In the subsonic regime - M 1 - accelerating gas flow (dw 0) is obtained by reducing the
flow section (dA 0);
- The supersonic regime - M 1 - accelerating gas flow (dw 0) is obtained by increasing the
flow section (dA 0).
Fig.3.3. Geometrical nozzle
The geometrical nozzle is one of the most important nozzles used in thermal machines.
2. Nozzle mass (Figure 3.4.) is a channel with a constant cylindrical section (dA = 0), isolated
thermal and mechanical (
; 0 q ; 0 l
) in which flowing the gas without friction (
) 0
f
l
).
2
Flow gas it changes from one section to another ( 0 m d
). Under these conditions, equation
(3.41) becomes:
( )
m
m d
M
w
dw

1
2
(3.43)
- In the subsonic regime - M 1 - acceleration of gas flow (dw 0) is obtained if substance is
received continuously from outside the pipeline (dm 0);
- In the supersonic regime - M 1 - acceleration of gas flow (dw 0) is obtained if the system
gives substance (dm 0 )
- .
Fig. 3.4 Nozzle mass
3. Mechanical nozzle (Figure 3.5) is a pipe with constant cylindrical section (dA = 0), isolated
adiabatic (
0 q
) through which flows without friction (
) 0
f
l
) a gas which changes
mechanical work with external environment ( 0 l ) (eg the gas drives a rotor of a turbine, or
the gas receives mechanical work from a compressor blades). For such a nozzle, equation (3.41)
becomes:
( ) l
a
M
w
dw

2
2
1
1 (3.44)
- In the subsonic regime - M 1 - to accelerate the gas flow, it must produce mechanical work
(l 0) in a series of stages (steps) of a turbine;
- In the supersonic regime - M 1-for accelerating gas flow, it must receive mechanical work
(l 0) from a turbocharger (for example).
3
Fig. 3.5. Mechanical nozzle
4. Thermal nozzle (fig.3.6) is a pipe with constant cylindrical section (dA = 0), isolated
mechanically ( 0 l ), in which, the gas changes heat with the environment through pipe walls
(
0 q
), flow performed with constant flow (m=ct ) and frictionless (
) 0
f
l
. In this case,
equation (3.41) becomes:
( ) q
a
k
M
w
dw

2
2
1
1

(3.45)
Figure 3.6. Heat Nozzle
From equation (3.45) results the following:
- In the subsonic regime - M 1 - gas flow rate increases (dw 0) if the gas receives heat
(q 0);
-The supersonic regime - M 1 - gas flow rate increases (dw 0) if the gas gives off heat
(q 0).
3.5. Geometrical nozzle
Geometric nozzles are short channels (pipes), with variable cross section, for transformation
the pressure potential energy into kinetic energy of a gas, so the kinetic energy of the gas flowing
through the pipe is higher output than input.
The diffuser is a channel with variable section where that the kinetic energy of the gas
output is less than input. A diffuser, in subsonic regime, brakes the gas flow (its velocity decreases,
but increases pressure); under supersonic regime, increases velocity of gas flow (decreases pressure
along diffuser).
In the geometric nozzles, compressible fluids (gas or vapor) do not interact thermal or
mechanical with the environment.
According to variation of cross section, distinguish the following types of nozzles:
4
a) convergent nozzle (confusion) - the cross section decreases continuously along flow
direction (Fig. 3.7.a)
b) nozzle convergent - divergent (Laval nozzle) - the cross section decreases and then
increases along flow direction (Fig. 3.7.b)
Fig. 3.7. Geometric nozzles: a) convergent nozzle (confusion), b) nozzle convergent - divergent
(Laval nozzle)
It is required that the energy exchange of the system with the environment to be zero:
0
f
l l q
, also mass flow is constant: 0 m d
. Under these conditions equation of the first
principle of thermodynamics it is written:
0 + wdw dh sau ct
w
h +
2
2
(3.46)
Or, using the enthalpy's brake expression (3.16), we obtain:
ct h

(3.47)
Relation (3.47) shows that in the geometric nozzle, flow takes place so as enthalpy remains
constant. This equation, written in the current section and in a reference section marked with index
"0", the relationship becomes:
ct
w
h
w
h + +
2 2
2
0
0
2
(3.48)
It is convenient to choose the reference state, braked state, where the velocity is zero, and flow
section is infinite. Appropriate physical model is of a nozzle through which gas flows from a very
large tank, to the outside when the pressure is p
e
. In the tank, the gas is at rest, being in braked
condition (p * p
e
, T *, *, w = 0) which, due to the high volume is not affected by the flow
through the nozzle in a sufficient time short.
In a certain section of the nozzle, the gas has velocity w and reaches the state (p, T, ). The report
notes:
*
p
p

(3.49)
Detente of the gas in the nozzle is a transformation isentropic, so we can write the equation of
transformation:
1


,
_

k
k
T
T
p
p
(3.50)
5
Substituting into (3.49) we obtain:
1

,
_

k
k
T
T
(3.51)
From equation (3.16) resulting calculus formula of the velocity which is valid regardless of the gas
nature:
( ) h h w

2 [m/s] (3.52)
How
R
k
k
c
p
1

(Robert Mayer's relationship) and h=c

p
T (calorimetric equation of state), we
obtain:
( )

,
_

T
T
RT
k
k
T T c w
p
1
1
2 2 (3.53)
Or, using the relation (3.51) we obtain:

,
_

k
k
RT
k
k
w
1
1
1
2
(3.54)
Gas flow in section of area A is according the equation of continuity:
Aw m
[kg / s].
Substituting w in equation (3.54) and multiplying with *, we obtain:

,
_

k
k
RT
k
k
A m
1
1
1
2

(3.55)
Knowing that

RT
p
i
k
k
p
p
1
1

,
_

we obtain:

,
_

k
k
k
k
k
RT
p
A m
1 2
1
2
(3.56)
This relationship is used in both the sizing problems and the computation of a nozzle with given
geometry. To calculate sectional area A is known: the nature of the gas (k, R), flow (m), braked
condition (T *, p *) and pressure p in current section.
To calculate nozzle, can be calculated ratio

p
p

(pressure p) in a section with given area A, gas

mass flow is required (m) , the nature of the gas is also known (k, R) and extends from brake status
(T *, p *).
It has been shown that in the case of geometric nozzle:
( )
A
dA
M
w
dw
1
2
(3.57)
Given equations (3.14) and (3.54) relation (3.57) determines the status parameter variation and
speed along a geometric nozzle, depending on the type of nozzle and flow regime. Qualitative
representation of this variation is shown in Fig. 3.8.
6

Figure 3.8. - Variation of parameters (a, w, p, T) for: a, b convergent nozzle under supersonic or
subsonic regime; c, d - diffuser under subsonic or supersonic regime
3.5.1. Convergent nozzle
Convergent nozzle, under subsonic regime (M 1) allows acceleration of compressible fluid to a
maximum velocity equal to the velocity of sound. In the absence of friction, the feature size of a
convergent nozzle is exit section (A
2
) where the gas velocity is w
2
and has the status parameters: p
2
,

2
, T
2
.
For a convergent nozzle connected to a very large tank (fig.3.9) will track changes in pressure along
the nozzle and the relationship that is established between: p
2
(pressure in exit section of nozzle), p
e
(pressure of the extern environment); p * (gas pressure in the tank).
Fig.3.9. Convergent nozzle
The problem can be approached in two ways:
1. pressure p * it is considered fixed and the external pressure p
e
it changes (gradually
decreased); Fig.3.10. (a)
7
Fig.3.10. Flow through convergent nozzle
In case A, p
e1
= p
*
there is no pressure difference, ie there is no gas flow through the
nozzle.
In case B, the external pressure decreases slightly up to the p
e2
. This pressure variation is
a disturbance in the output section which is sent to the gas tank with sound speed a.
Gas rebound up to reaches velocity w
2
and pressure p
2
= p
e2
in the exit section.
Decreasing further of the external pressure, the gas inside tank adapts reaching external
pressure by accelerating ever higher. In this case, the convergent nozzle does "full"
detente of gas.
In case C, to p
e3
pressure, the gas velocity in nozzle-exit is equal to the speed of sound
(a), so the gas is in critical status (p
cr
, T
cr
,
cr
) and critical flow speed w
cr
=a
cr
.
Further reduction of external pressure (up to p
e4
) not affect the flow regime through the
nozzle, at the exit section of nozzle the pressure p
2
remains constant p
e3
=p
cr
. Relaxation
in this case is "incomplete" pressure decrease from p
2
to p
e4
is done outside the nozzle.
2. is considered a constant value of external pressure and gradually it is increased the value of
p* (inside the tank). Fig.3.10. (b)

For convergent nozzle, mass flow through the nozzle is imposed by minimum section which is
exit section A
2
. velocity in this section is (according to relation 3.54):

,
_

k
k
RT
k
k
w
1
2 2
1
1
2
(3.58)
According to 3.56, the flow is calculated by the formula:
(a) (b)
8

,
_

k
k
k
k
k
RT
p
A m
1
2
2
2
1
2
(3.59)
It is noted that the mass flow is canceled for
2
= 0 or
2
= 1. It is searching for maximum value
of the function ( )
2
2
f m . This solved the equation
0
1
2
2
2
2

,
_

+
k
k
k

which has the

solution:
( )
1
max 2
1

,
_

k
k
m
k
k

(3.60)
How
1
1
2

,
_

k
k
cr
k
p p according to relation 3.24 follows that
( )
cr m

max 2
. Follows that
the mass flow of gas is maximum to the critical regime in output section.
1
1
2 max
1
2

+

,
_

k
k
k
k
RT
p
A m (3.61)
Is denoted:

p
p
e
e

(3.62)
Between
( ) 1 ,
2 cr

corresponding subsonic regimes,
e

2
, detente is complete. So, in
this area, the mass flow equation (3.59) is written:

,
_

k
k
e
k
e
k
k
RT
p
A m
1 2
2
1
2
(3.63)
Figure 3.11. is the graphical representation of the function ( )
2
f m
. Real variation of mass
flow depending on external pressure is NM1 curve.
Figure 3.11. Graphical representation of the function ( )
2
f m
Figure 3.12. represents the detente in convergent nozzle in T-s or h-s diagram.
9
a) p
e
p
cr
b) p
e
p
cr
Figure 3.12. Working regimes of convergent nozzle: a) p
e
p
cr
; b) p
e
p
cr
3.5.2. Nozzle convergent divergent
Nozzle convergent - divergent consists of a confuser and diffuser and is designed to accelerate
the gas stream from subsonic flow regimes to supersonic flow regimes (fig.3.13)
Fig.3.13. - Nozzle convergent - divergent
Section of transition from one regime flow to another regime flow is called critical section and
is deduced from the relation (3.57):
( )
A
dA
M
w
dw
1
2
By requiring the condition of critical regime, it follows dA = 0. This section is the minimum
section which connects the convergence zone to the divergence zone.
Maximum flow is achieved in convergent nozzle without suffering some increase due to
acceleration through the diffuser.

1
1
max
1
2

+

,
_

+

k
k
cr
k
k
RT
p
A m m
(3.64)
The velocity in output section is:
( ) k
k
e
RT
k
k
w
1
2
1
1
2

(3.65)
Maximum value of velocity is achieved in case of rebound in vacuum, p
e
= 0 (decrease the
external pressure and increase the velocity w
2
,
e
= 0):

RT
k
k
w
1
2
max 2
(3.66)
10
Under these conditions the maximum coefficient of velocity is determined by the relationship
(3.26). It depends only on the nature of the gas:
1
1
max 2
max

+

k
k
w
w
cr

(3.67)
3.5.3. Flow with friction through the nozzle geometric
In real processes taking place in nature, gas flow is accompanied by friction between the gas
layers and between gas and pipe walls through which flow occurs.
It is further assumed that the mechanical work of friction is converted entirely into heat which is
taken - entirely - by the gas.
Under these conditions, the flow is adiabatic irreversible. According to the second principle of
thermodynamics, in this case, the gas entropy increases. (Fig. 3.14)
In figure 3.14 is shown irreversible rebound of a perfect gas in a nozzle, from the state braked
(T *, p *) to the pressure p
e
of outside.
Figura 3.14.
Transformation 1 * - 2s is ideal isentropic rebound ( detente) (without friction) of perfect gas,
and the transformation 1 * - 2ir is real dtente irreversible.
ct h dh

0 (3.68)
2 2
2
2
2
2
2
2
ir
ir
s
s
w
h
w
h h + +

(3.69)
Hence, result theoretical velocity, respectively, the real velocity outside of the nozzle:
( )
s p s s s
T c h h h w

2 2 2
2 2
(3.70)
( )
ir p ir ir ir
T c h h h w

2 2 2
2 2
(3.71)
In case of real flow, the coefficient of velocity is introduced:
1
2
2

s
ir
w
w

(3.72)
Values of velocity coefficient depend on the nozzle as follows: for convergent nozzles
=0.95 ... 0.99, and for convergent- divergent nozzles = 0.92 ... 0.95, in this case being
smaller due to the greater length of these nozzles.
11
Insert the notion of nozzle efficiency which is the ratio of the kinetic energy in the two cases
(irreversible and reversible):
1 1
2
2
2
2
2

cs
c
cs
c cs
s
ir
cs
cir
aj
e
e
e
e e
w
w
e
e

(3.73)
but,
ir
ir
cir
h h
w
e
2
2
2
2


and
s
s
cs
h h
w
e
2
2
2
2


result the expression of efficiency:
s
ir
aj
h
h

(3.74)
And for perfect gas:
s
ir
s
ir
aj
T T
T T
T
T
2
2

(3.75)
Real temperature in the nozzle exit section is:
( )
1
1
]
1

,
_

k
k
s ef ir
T T T T T
1
2
2 2
1 1
(3.76)
where:

p
p
2

is the degree of detente in the nozzle.

Kinetic energy loss due to friction in nozzle is:
( ) ( )
s ir p s ir
s ir s
cir cs c
T T c h h
w w w
e e e
2 2 2 2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
1
2 2 2
(3.77)
Heat generated by gazodynamic frictional is shown in relationship (3.79) according to figure
3.14:

1 , , , 2 , 1
2
1 2 2 s ir ir
ir
s s
f
A Tds q (3.78)
Mass flows in the two cases (isentropic and real) are:
s s s s
w A m
2 2 2

[kg/s] (3.79)
ir ir ir ir
w A m
2 2 2

[kg/s] (3.80)
Ratio of the two flows is:

s
ir
s
ir
s
ir
s
ir
s
ir
A
A
w
w
A
A
m
m
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2

(3.81)
Where:
s
ir
2
2

.
1
(3.82)

is the flow coefficient of the nozzle . Thus we get the relation:

s
ir
s
ir
A
A
m
m
2
2

(3.83)
Relation (3.83) is used for calculation in two ways:
a) When designing a nozzle, exit section is calculated taking into account that the flow is the
same for real case and izentropic case
ir s
m m
. Thus we get:

s
ir
A
A
2
2
.
12
b) If existing nozzle (A
2ir
=A
2s
), result
s ir
m m
, it means that the influence of friction reduces
gas flow which is distended in nozzle in comparison with theoretic case.
13