Prosecuting IP Crimes

U.S.
Department of Justice
Executive Office for United States Attorneys
PROSECUTING
INTELLECTUAL
PROPERTY CRIMES
Third Edition
Computer Crime and

Intellectual Property Section
Criminal Division September 2006
Michael Battle
Director, EOUSA PROSECUTING
Michael W. Bailie INTELLECTUAL
Director, OLE
PROPERTY
OLE CRIMES
Litigation Third Edition
Series
Ed Hagen
Assistant Director
OLE
James D. Donovan
Assistant Director
OLE
Michael M. DuBose Published by the

Deputy Chief for Office of Legal Education
Intellectual Property Executive Office for
United States Attorneys
CCIPS
Criminal Division
Managing Editor The Office of Legal Education intends that this
Manual be used by Federal Prosecutors for training
and law enforcement purposes.
The contents of this book provide internal

suggestions to Department of Justice attorneys.
Nothing in it is intended to create any substantive or
procedural rights, privileges, or benefits enforceable
in any administrative, civil, or criminal matter by
any prospective or actual witnesses or parties. See
United States v. Caceres, 440 U.S. 741 (1979).
Table of Contents
Preface and Acknowledgments

List of Chapters
I. Intellectual Property—An Introduction
II. Criminal Copyright Infringement—17 U.S.C. § 506 and
18 U.S.C. § 2319
III. Trafficking In Counterfeit Trademarks, Service Marks, and
Certification Marks—18 U.S.C. § 2320
IV. Theft of Commercial Trade Secrets—18 U.S.C. §§ 1831-1839
V. Digital Millennium Copyright Act—17 U.S.C. §§ 1201-1205
VI. Counterfeit and Illicit Labels, Counterfeit Documentation and
Packaging—18 U.S.C. § 2318
VII. Patent
VIII. Penalties, Restitution, and Forfeiture
IX. Charging Decisions
X. Victims of Intellectual Property Crimes—Ethics and Obligations
Appendices
A. Commonly Charged Intellectual Property Crimes
B-F. Indictments and Jury Instructions
G. Intellectual Property Contact List
H. Victim Referral and Witness Interview Forms
I. Maximum Statutory Penalties, Forfeiture, and Restitution
J. Examples of Traditional Assistance and Gifts to
Law Enforcement
Index
iii
Detailed Listing
I. Intellectual Property—An Introduction
I.A. Why Is Intellectual Property Enforcement Important? . . . . . . 1
I.B. What Is Intellectual Property? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
I.B.1. Copyright . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
I.B.2. Trademarks and Service Marks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
I.B.3. Patents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
I.B.4. Trade Secrets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
I.C. Why Criminal Enforcement? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
II. Criminal Copyright Infringement—17 U.S.C. § 506 and
18 U.S.C. § 2319
II.A. Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
II.A.1. What Copyright Law Protects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
II.A.2. Legal Basis for Copyright and Related Laws . . . . . . . 13
II.A.3. Relevance of Civil Cases to Criminal Prosecutions . . 14
II.A.4. Federal Preemption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
II.A.5. When Copyright Protection Begins and Ends . . . . . . 15
II.A.6. The Rights Protected by Copyright . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
II.A.7. When Infringement is Criminal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
II.B. Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
II.B.1. Existence of a Copyright . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
II.B.1.a. Copyrightability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
II.B.1.a.i. Original Work Fixed in a Tangible Medium . 19
II.B.1.a.ii. Short Phrases Are Not Copyrightable . . . . . . 20
II.B.1.a.iii. Expression of an Idea vs. Idea Itself . . . . . . . 20
II.B.1.b. Copyrights vs. Registrations vs. Certificates . . . . 20
II.B.1.c. New Procedure for “Preregistration” . . . . . . . . . . 21
II.B.1.d. Whether Registration or Preregistration is
Required to Prosecute . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
II.B.1.d.i. Liability for Infringement Committed Prior
to Registration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
II.B.1.d.ii. Unpublished or Pre-Release Works . . . . . . . . 25
II.B.1.d.iii. Registration of Particular Versions of a Work
................................... 26
II.B.1.e. Proof of Copyright at Trial . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
II.B.1.f. Copyright Notice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
II.B.2. The Defendant Acted “Willfully” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
II.B.2.a. Legal Standard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
II.B.2.b. Proof at Trial . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
iv Prosecuting Intellectual Property Crimes

II.B.3. Infringement of the Copyright . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
II.B.3.a. Infringement by Reproduction or Distribution . . 36
II.B.3.a.i. Reproduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
II.B.3.a.ii. Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
II.B.3.b. Infringement of at Least 10 Copies of 1 or More
Copyrighted Works With a Total Retail Value
Exceeding $2,500 Within a 180-Day Period . . . . 45
II.B.3.b.i. Generally . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
II.B.3.b.ii. Definition of “Retail Value” in this Context . 46
II.B.3.c. Distribution of a Work Being Prepared for
Commercial Distribution, by Making It Available
on a Publicly-Accessible Computer Network, if
the Defendant Knew or Should Have Known
the Work Was Intended for Commercial
Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
II.B.3.c.i. Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
II.B.3.c.ii. Making the Work Available on a Computer
Network Accessible to Members of the Public 50
II.B.3.c.iii. Work Being Prepared for Commercial
Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
II.B.3.c.iv. The Defendant Knew or Should Have Known
that the Work Was Intended for Commercial
Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
II.B.4. Additional Element for Enhanced Sentence: Purpose of
Commercial Advantage or Private Financial Gain . . . 53
II.B.4.a. History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
II.B.4.b. Legal Standard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
II.B.5. Misdemeanor Copyright Infringement . . . . . . . . . . . 57
II.C. Defenses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
II.C.1. Statute of Limitations: 5 years . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
II.C.2. Jurisdiction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
II.C.3. Venue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
II.C.4. The First Sale Doctrine—17 U.S.C. § 109 . . . . . . . . 60
II.C.4.a. Operation of the Doctrine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
II.C.4.b. Affirmative Defense or Part of the Government's
Case-in-Chief? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
II.C.4.c. Disproving First Sale at Trial . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
II.C.4.d. Special Rules for Rental, Lease, and Lending . . . 64
II.C.5. Fair Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
II.C.5.a. Unpublished Works . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
II.C.5.b. Fair Use in Criminal Cases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
II.C.6. “Archival Exception” for Computer Software—
17 U.S.C. § 117 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
Table of Contents v
II.D. Special Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
II.E. Penalties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
II.E.1. Statutory Penalties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
II.E.2. Sentencing Guidelines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
II.F. Other Charges to Consider . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
III. Trafficking In Counterfeit Trademarks, Service Marks, and

Certification Marks—18 U.S.C. § 2320
III.A. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
III.A.1. Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
III.A.2. Why Criminal Law Protects Trademarks, Service
Marks, and Certification Marks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
III.B. Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
III.B.1. The Trademark Counterfeiting Crime in General . . . 87
III.B.2. Relevance of Civil Trademark Law in Criminal Cases 89
III.B.3. Intentionally Trafficked or Attempted to Traffic in
Goods or Services [after March 16, 2006: or Labels,
Documentation, or Packaging for Goods or Services] 90
III.B.3.a. Intentionally . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
III.B.3.b. Trafficked or Attempted to Traffic . . . . . . . . . . . 90
III.B.3.b.i. General Definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
III.B.3.b.ii. Consideration vs. Commercial Advantage and
Private Financial Gain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
III.B.3.b.iii. Making and Obtaining Counterfeits vs.
Possession with Intent to Traffic . . . . . . . . 92
III.B.3.b.iv. Importing and Exporting Related to
Transporting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
III.B.3.c. Goods and Services [after March 16, 2006: and
Labels, Patches, Stickers, Wrappers, Badges,
Emblems, Medallions, Charms, Boxes, Containers,
Cans, Cases, Hangtags, Documentation, or
Packaging of Any Type or Nature] . . . . . . . . . . . 94
III.B.4. The Defendant Used a “Counterfeit Mark” On or In
Connection With Those Goods or Services [after March
16, 2006: or a Counterfeit Mark Was Applied to Labels,
Documentation, or Packaging for Those Goods or
Services] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
III.B.4.a. Definition of Counterfeit Mark Generally: Not
Genuine or Authentic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
III.B.4.b. The Counterfeit Mark Must Be Identical to or
Indistinguishable from a Genuine Mark Owned
by Another . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
vi Prosecuting Intellectual Property Crimes

III.B.4.c. The Genuine Mark Must Be Federally Registered on
the U.S. Patent and Trademark Office's Principal
Register . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
III.B.4.d. The Genuine Mark Must Have Been in Use by the
Mark-Holder or Its Licensee . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
III.B.4.e. Use of the Counterfeit Mark “On or In Connection
With” Goods or Services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
III.B.4.f. The Counterfeit Mark Must Have Been Used for the
Same Type of Goods or Services for Which the
Genuine Mark Was Registered . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
III.B.4.g. Likelihood of Confusion, Mistake, or Deception
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
III.B.5. The Defendant Used the Counterfeit Mark “Knowingly”
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
III.B.6. Venue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
III.C. Defenses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
III.C.1. Authorized-Use Defense: Overrun Goods . . . . . . 114
III.C.2. Authorized-Use Defense: Gray Market Goods . . . 117
III.C.3. Repackaging Genuine Goods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
III.C.4. Lanham Act Defenses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
III.C.5. Statute of Limitations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
III.D. Special Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
III.D.1. High-Quality and Low-Quality Counterfeits . . . . . 123
III.D.2. Counterfeit Goods with Genuine Trademarks . . . 124
III.D.3. Selling Fakes While Admitting That They Are Fakes
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
III.D.4. Selling Another's Trademarked Goods As One's Own
(Reverse Passing-Off) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
III.D.5. Mark-Holder's Failure to Use ® Symbol . . . . . . . . 124
III.D.6. Storage Costs and Destruction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
III.D.7. Units of Prosecution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
III.D.8. Olympic Symbols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
III.E. Penalties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
III.E.1. Fines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
III.E.2. Imprisonment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
III.E.3. Restitution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
III.E.4. Forfeiture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
III.E.5. Sentencing Guidelines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
III.F. Other Charges to Consider . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
Table of Contents vii

IV. Theft of Commercial Trade Secrets—18 U.S.C. §§ 1831-1839
IV.A. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
IV.B. The Economic Espionage Act of 1996,
18 U.S.C. §§ 1831-1839 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
IV.B.1. Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
IV.B.2. Relevance of Civil Cases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
IV.B.3. Elements Common to 18 U.S.C. §§ 1831, 1832 . . . 142
IV.B.3.a. The Information Was a Trade . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
IV.B.3.a.i. Generally . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
IV.B.3.a.ii. Employee’s General Knowledge, Skill, or
Abilities Not Covered . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
IV.B.3.a.iii. Specification of Trade Secrets . . . . . . . . . 145
IV.B.3.a.iv. Novelty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
IV.B.3.a.v. Secrecy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
IV.B.3.a.vi. Disclosure’s Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
IV.B.3.a.vii. Reasonable Measures to Maintain Secrecy
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
IV.B.3.a.viii. Independent Economic Value . . . . . . . . . . 152
IV.B.3.a.ix Example: Customer Lists . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
IV.B.3.b. Misappropriation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
IV.B.3.b.i. Types of Misappropriation . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
IV.B.3.b.ii. Memorization Included . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
IV.B.3.b.iii. Lack of Authorization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
IV.B.3.b.iv. Misappropriation of Only Part of a
Trade Secret . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
IV.B.3.b.v. Mere Risk of Misappropriation Not
Prosecutable, but Attempts and
Conspiracies Are . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
IV.B.3.c. Knowledge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
IV.B.4. Additional 18 U.S.C. § 1831 Element: Intent to
Benefit a Foreign Government, Foreign
Instrumentality, or Foreign Agent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
IV.B.5. Additional 18 U.S.C. § 1832 Elements . . . . . . . . . . 158
IV.B.5.a. Economic Benefit to a Third Party . . . . . . . . . . 158
IV.B.5.b. Intent to Injure the Owner of the Trade Secret
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
IV.B.5.c. Product Produced for or Placed in Interstate or
Foreign Commerce . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
IV.B.6. Attempts and Conspiracies, Including the
Impossibility Defense . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
IV.C. Defenses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
IV.C.1. Parallel Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
IV.C.2. Reverse Engineering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
viii Prosecuting Intellectual Property Crimes

IV.C.3.Impossibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
IV.C.4.Advice of Counsel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
IV.C.5.Claim of Right—Public Domain and
Proprietary Rights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
IV.C.6. The First Amendment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
IV.C.7. Void-for-Vagueness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
IV.D. Special Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
IV.D.1. Civil Injunctive Relief for the United States . . . . . 168
IV.D.2. Confidentiality and the Use of Protective Orders
....................................... 169
IV.D.3. Extraterritoriality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
IV.D.4. Department of Justice Oversight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
IV.E. Penalties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
IV.E.1. Statutory Penalties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
IV.E.1.a. Imprisonment and Fines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
IV.E.1.b. Criminal Forfeiture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
IV.E.1.c. Restitution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
IV.E.2. Sentencing Guidelines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
IV.F. Other Charges to Consider . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
V. Digital Millennium Copyright Act—17 U.S.C. §§ 1201-1205
V.A. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
V.A.1. DMCA's Background and Purpose . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
V.A.2. Key Concepts: Access Controls vs. Copy Controls,
Circumvention vs. Trafficking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
V.A.2.a. Access Controls vs. Copy/Use Controls . . . . . . . 186
V.A.2.b. Circumvention vs. Trafficking in Circumvention
Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
V.A.3. Differences Between the DMCA and Traditional
Copyright Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
V.A.4. Other DMCA Sections That Do Not Concern Prosecutors
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
V.B. Elements of the Anti-Circumvention and Anti-Trafficking
Provisions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
V.B.1. Circumventing Access Controls—
17 U.S.C. §§ 1201(a)(1) and 1204 . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
V.B.1.a. Circumventing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
V.B.1.b. Technological Measures That Effectively Control
Access (“Access Control”) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
V.B.1.c. To a Copyrighted Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
V.B.1.d. How Congress Intended the Anti-Circumvention
Prohibition to Apply . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
Table of Contents ix
V.B.1.e.
Regulatory Exemptions to Liability Under
§ 1201(a)(1) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
V.B.2. Trafficking in Access Control Circumvention Tools and
Services—17 U.S.C. §§ 1201(a)(2) and 1204 . . . . . 200
V.B.2.a. Trafficking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
V.B.2.b. In a Technology, Product, Service, or Part Thereof
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
V.B.2.c. Purpose or Marketing of Circumvention Technology
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
V.B.2.c.1. Primarily Designed or Produced . . . . . . . . . 203
V.B.2.c.2. Limited Commercially Significant Purpose Other
Than Circumvention . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
V.B.2.c.3. Knowingly Marketed for Circumvention . . 204
V.B.3. Trafficking in Tools, Devices, and Services to
Circumvent Copy Controls—17 U.S.C. §§ 1201(b)(1)
and 1204 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
V.B.3.b. Technological Measure That Effectively Protects a
Right of a Copyright Owner Under This Title
(“Copy Control”) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
V.B.4. Alternate § 1201(b) Action—Trafficking in Certain
Analog Videocassette Recorders and Camcorders . . 207
V.B.5. Falsifying, Altering, or Removing Copyright
Management Information—17 U.S.C. § 1202 . . . . 208
V.C. Defenses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
V.C.1. Statute of Limitations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
V.C.2. Librarian of Congress Regulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
V.C.3. Certain Nonprofit Entities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
V.C.4. Information Security Exemption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
V.C.5. Reverse Engineering and Interoperability of Computer
Programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
V.C.6. Encryption Research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
V.C.7. Restricting Minors' Access to the Internet . . . . . . . . 214
V.C.8. Protection of Personally Identifying Information . . 215
V.C.9. Security Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
V.C.10. Constitutionality of the DMCA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
V.C.10.a. Congress's Constitutional Authority to Enact § 1201
of the DMCA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
V.C.10.b. The First Amendment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
V.C.10.b.i. Facial Challenges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
V.C.10.b.ii. “As Applied” First Amendment Challenges to
the DMCA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
V.C.10.c. Vagueness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
x Prosecuting Intellectual Property Crimes

V.C.10.d. Fair Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
V.D. Penalties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
VI. Counterfeit and Illicit Labels, Counterfeit Documentation and
VI.A. Distinguished from Trademark and Copyright Statutes . . . 226
VI.B. Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
VI.B.1. The Defendant Acted “Knowingly” . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
VI.B.2. The Defendant Trafficked . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
VI.B.3. Trafficking in Labels Affixed to, Enclosing, or
Accompanying (or Designed to be Affixed to, Enclose, or
Accompany) a Phonorecord, Computer Program, Motion
Picture or Other Audiovisual Work, Literary, Pictorial,
Graphic, or Sculptural Work, or Work of Visual Art, or
Documentation or Packaging for Such Works (i.e.,
Trafficked Either in Documentation or Packaging for
Such Works Itself, or in Labels for Such Documentation
or Packaging) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
VI.B.4. The Labels, Documentation, or Packaging Materials Are
Counterfeit or Illicit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
VI.B.5. Federal Jurisdiction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
VI.B.6. Venue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
VI.C. Defenses: Statute of Limitations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
VI.D. Special Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
VI.D.1. Electronic Copies of Labels, Documentation,
or Packaging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
VI.D.2. Advantages of Charging a § 2318 Offense . . . . . . 237
VI.E. Penalties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
VI.E.1. Fines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
VI.E.2. Imprisonment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
VI.E.3. Restitution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
VI.E.4. Forfeiture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
VI.E.5. Sentencing Guidelines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
VI.E.5.a. Retail Value of Copyrighted Goods vs. Counterfeit
Labels, Documentation, and Packaging . . . . . . . 238
VI.E.5.b. Number of Infringing Copyrighted Goods vs.
Number of Labels, Documents, or Packaging Items 240
VI.F. Other Charges to Consider . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
VII. Patent
VII.A. Overview of Patent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
VII.B. Forgery of Letters Patent—18 U.S.C. § 497 . . . . . . . . . . . 245
VII.C. False Marking of Patent—35 U.S.C. § 292 . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
Table of Contents xi
VII.D. No Prosecution for Interstate Transportation or Receipt of
Stolen Property—18 U.S.C. §§ 2314, 2315 . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
VIII. Penalties, Restitution, and Forfeiture
VIII.A. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
VIII.B. Statutory Penalties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
VIII.C. Sentencing Guidelines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
VIII.C.1. Offenses Involving Copyright (Including Bootleg
Music, Camcorded Movies, and the Unauthorized
Use of Satellite, Radio, and Cable Communications),
Trademark, Counterfeit Labeling, and the DMCA
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
VIII.C.1.a. Applicable Guideline is § 2B5.3 . . . . . . . . . 253
VIII.C.1.b. Base Offense Level . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
VIII.C.1.c. Adjust the Offense Level According to the
“Infringement Amount”—U.S.S.G. §
2B5.3(b)(1) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
VIII.C.1.c.i. Formula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
VIII.C.1.c.ii. Number of Infringing Items . . . . . . . . . 256
VIII.C.1.c.iii. Retail Value . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
VIII.C.1.c.iv. Determining Amounts and
Values—Reasonable Estimates Allowed 261
VIII.C.1.c.v. Cross-Reference to Loss Table in
U.S.S.G. § 2B1.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
VIII.C.1.d. Pre-Release Piracy Increases the Offense Level by
2—U.S.S.G. § 2B5.3(b)(2) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
VIII.C.1.e. Manufacturing, Importing, or Uploading
Infringing Items Increases the Offense Level by
2—U.S.S.G. § 2B5.3(b)(3) [before October 24,
2005: § 2B5.3(b)(2)] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264
VIII.C.1.f. Offense Not Committed for Commercial
Advantage or Private Financial Gain Reduces the
Offense Level by 2—U.S.S.G. § 2B5.3(b)(4)
[before October 24, 2005: § 2B5.3(b)(3)] . 266
VIII.C.1.g. Offense Involving Risk of Serious Bodily Injury
or Possession of a Dangerous Weapon Increases
the Offense Level by 2—U.S.S.G. § 2B5.3(b)(5)
[before October 24, 2005: § 2B5.3(b)(4)] . 266
VIII.C.1.h. Decryption or Circumvention of Access Controls
Increases the Offense Level—U.S.S.G. § 3B1.3267
VIII.C.1.i. Upward Adjustment for Harm to Copyright or
Mark-Owner's Reputation, Connection with
Organized Crime, or Other Unspecified Grounds 267
xii Prosecuting Intellectual Property Crimes

VIII.C.1.j. Vulnerable Victims—U.S.S.G. § 3A1.1(b) . 267
VIII.C.1.k. No Downward Departure for the Victim's
Participation in Prosecution . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
VIII.C.2. Offenses Involving the Economic Espionage Act 268
VIII.C.2.a. Applicable Guideline is § 2B1.1 Except for
Attempts and Conspiracies . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
VIII.C.2.b. Base Offense Level—U.S.S.G. § 2B1.1(a) . . 269
VIII.C.2.c. Loss—U.S.S.G. § 2B1.1(b)(1) . . . . . . . . . . . 269
VIII.C.2.c.i. Use Greater of Actual or Intended Loss . . 269
VIII.C.2.c.ii. Reasonable Estimates Acceptable . . . . . . . 269
VIII.C.2.c.iii. Methods of Calculating Loss . . . . . . . . 269
VIII.C.2.d. Intent to Benefit a Foreign Government,
Instrumentality, or Agent—U.S.S.G. §
2B1.1(b)(5) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
VIII.C.2.e. Sophisticated Means—U.S.S.G. § 2B1.1(b)(9)(C)
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
VIII.C.2.f. Upward Departure Considerations—
U.S.S.G. § 2B1.1 cmt. n.19(A) . . . . . . . . . . 278
VIII.C.2.g. Downward Departure Considerations—
U.S.S.G. § 2B1.1 cmt. n.19(C) . . . . . . . . . . 278
VIII.C.2.h. Abuse of a Position of Trust—U.S.S.G. § 3B1.3
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278
VIII.C.2.i. Use of Special Skill—U.S.S.G. § 3B1.3 . . . . 278
VIII.C.2.j. No Downward Departure for Victim's
Participation in Developing the Case . . . . . 279
VIII.D. Restitution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
VIII.D.1. Restitution is Available—and Often Required—in
Intellectual Property Prosecutions . . . . . . . . . . . 280
VIII.D.2. Victims Include Owners of Intellectual Property and
Consumers Who Were Defrauded . . . . . . . . . . 284
VIII.D.3. Determining a Restitution Figure . . . . . . . . . . . 288
VIII.E. Forfeiture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292
VIII.E.1. Property Subject to Forfeiture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293
VIII.E.2. Overview of Forfeiture Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . 293
VIII.E.2.a. Administrative Forfeiture Proceedings . . . . 293
VIII.E.2.b. Civil and Criminal Proceedings . . . . . . . . . . 294
VIII.E.2.c. Table of Forfeiture Provisions Arranged by
Criminal IP Statute . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
VIII.E.3. Choosing a Forfeiture Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298
VIII.E.4. Civil Forfeiture in IP Matters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299
VIII.E.4.a. Proceeds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300
VIII.E.4.b. Infringing Items, Other Contraband, and
Facilitating Property . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300
Table of Contents xiii

VIII.E.4.c. Innocent Owner Defense . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
VIII.E.4.d. Victims' Ability to Forfeit Property . . . . . . . 302
VIII.E.5. Criminal Forfeiture in IP Matters . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302
VIII.E.5.a. Proceeds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303
Facilitating Property . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304
IX. Charging Decisions
IX.A. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
IX.B. The Federal Interest in Intellectual Property Crimes . . . . . . 306
IX.B.1. Federal Law Enforcement Priorities . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306
IX.B.2. The Nature and Seriousness of the Offense . . . . . . . 307
IX.B.3. The Deterrent Effects of Prosecution . . . . . . . . . . . 309
IX.B.4. The Individual's History of Criminal Offenses and
Civil Intellectual Property Violations . . . . . . . . . . . 309
IX.B.5. The Individual's Willingness to Cooperate in the
Investigation or Prosecution of Others . . . . . . . . . . 310
IX.C. Whether a Person is Subject to Prosecution in
Another Jurisdiction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310
IX.D. The Adequacy of Alternative Non-Criminal Remedies . . . . 311
IX.E. Special Considerations in Deciding Whether to Charge
Corporations and Other Business Organizations . . . . . . . . . 312
X. Victims of Intellectual Property Crimes—Ethics and Obligations
X.A. Victims' Rights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315
X.B. The Victim's Role in the Criminal Prosecution . . . . . . . . . . 317
X.B.1. Reporting an Intellectual Property Crime . . . . . . . . 317
X.B.2. Ethical Concerns When the Criminal Prosecution
Results in an Advantage in a Civil Matter . . . . . . . . 318
X.B.2.a. Victims Who Seek Advantage by Threats of
Criminal Prosecution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318
X.B.2.b. Global Settlement Negotiations . . . . . . . . . . . . 319
X.B.3. Parallel Civil Suits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320
X.B.3.a. Private Civil Remedies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321
X.B.3.b. Advantages and Disadvantages of Parallel Civil and
Criminal Proceedings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321
X.B.3.c. Stays and Protective Orders to Delay Civil
Proceedings During Criminal Prosecution . . . . . 323
X.C. Offers of Assistance From Victims and Related Parties . . . . 324
X.C.1. Gift Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325
X.C.1.a. Applicable Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325
X.C.1.b. Distinction Between “Assistance” and “Gifts” . 326
X.C.1.b.i. Assistance from Victims and Related Parties
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327
xiv Prosecuting Intellectual Property Crimes

X.C.1.b.ii. Private Investigators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328
X.C.1.b.iii. Cash . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329
X.C.1.b.iv. Storage Costs in Counterfeit or Infringing
Products Cases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330
X.C.1.b.v. Resources Donated for Ongoing Use by Law
Enforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330
X.C.1.b.vi. Assistance from Private Third Parties . . . . . 331
X.C.1.c. Departmental Procedures for the Solicitation and
Acceptance of Gifts and Assistance . . . . . . . . . . 333
X.C.1.c.i. Consultative Process for Acceptance of
Assistance and Gifts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333
X.C.1.c.ii. Solicitation of Gifts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333
X.C.1.c.iii. Acceptance of Gifts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333
X.C.2. Professional Responsibility Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335
X.C.3. Strategic and Case-Related Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336
X.C.4. Help and Advice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339
Table of Contents xv
Preface and Acknowledgments
This Manual builds on the success of the editions published in 2001

and 1997 by giving much broader and deeper treatment to all subject
areas, while also adding several new topics. To say that this publication
is simply an "updated version" of the 2001 manual would seriously
understate the nature and scope of the changes. The 2006 Manual was
restructured to present the material in a more consistent format that is
easier to use; all the chapters were rewritten to add broader and more
in-depth coverage of all areas; recent changes to the case law, statutes, and
sentencing guidelines are addressed; and new chapters were added to
address the Digital Millennium Copyright Act, patent law, and victim
issues. Throughout, we try to present material in a way that will be of the
most practical use to prosecutors.
This publication is the result of a tremendous amount of work by
many individuals in the Computer Crime and Intellectual Property
Section. Although it is undeniably a group effort, no one deserves more
credit than Senior Counsel Scott Garland. Scott had primary
responsibility for the project, wrote portions of various chapters, and
assumed chief editing duties. Many other CCIPS attorneys made
significant writing and editing contributions as well, including in
alphabetical order: Lily Chinn (on detail), Jason Gull, Eric Klumb,
Marie-Flore Kouame, Marc Miller, Jay Prabhu, Jason Reichelt, Andrea
Sharrin, Corbin Weiss, and John Zacharia. Former CCIPS attorneys
whose efforts also contributed include Michael O'Leary and Ken
Doroshow. CCIPS supervisory paralegal specialist Kathleen Baker
deserves special mention for her superior editing and proofing
contributions. Other paralegals and summer interns who contributed to
this publication over the past few years include: Jennifer Freundlich,
Michael Radosh, Douglas Bloom, Myles Roberts, Tara Swaminatha,
Meghan McGovern, and Rebecca Bolin.
Finally, we are grateful to Ed Hagen, Nancy Bowman, and others at
the Office of Legal Education for putting this Manual into final form
worthy of publication.
This Manual is intended as assistance, not authority. The research,
analysis, and conclusions herein reflect current thinking on difficult areas
of the law; they do not represent the official position of the Department
of Justice or any other agency. This Manual has no regulatory effect,
confers no rights or remedies, and does not have the force of law or a U.S.
xvii
Department of Justice directive. See United States v. Caceres, 440 U.S.
741 (1979).
If you have questions about anything in this book, we invite you to
call the Computer Crime and Intellectual Property Section at (202)
514-1026. Attorneys are on duty every day for the specific purpose of
answering such calls and providing support to U.S. Attorney's Offices
nationwide.
Michael M. DuBose,
Deputy Chief
Computer Crime & Intellectual Property Section
Criminal Division
Department of Justice
xviii Prosecuting Intellectual Property Crimes

I.
Intellectual Property—
An Introduction
I.A. Why Is Intellectual Property Enforcement Important? . . . . 1

I.B. What Is Intellectual Property? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
I.B.1. Copyright . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
I.B.2. Trademarks and Service Marks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
I.B.3. Patents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
I.B.4. Trade Secrets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
I.C. Why Criminal Enforcement? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
I.A. Why Is Intellectual Property

Enforcement Important?
Intellectual property (“IP”) is critical to the vitality of today's
economy. IP is an engine of growth, accounting for an increasing share of
jobs and trade. In 2002, the core copyright industries alone were
estimated to account for 6% or more of U.S. GDP, and in 2005 the
overall value of the “intellectual capital” of U.S. businesses—including
copyrights, trademarks, patents, and related information assets—was
estimated to account for a third of the value of U.S. companies, or about
$5 trillion. Stephen Siwek, Copyright Industries in the U.S. Economy:
The 2004 Report 11 (Oct. 2004) (core copyright industries statistic),
available at http://www.iipa.com/pdf/2004_SIWEK_FULL.pdf; Robert J.
Shapiro & Kevin A. Hassett, The Economic Value of Intellectual Property
18 (Oct. 2005) (overall value of intellectual property statistic), available
at http://www.usaforinnovation.org/news/ip_master.pdf.
Intellectual property rights create incentives for entrepreneurs, artists,
firms and investors to commit the necessary resources to research, develop
and market new technology and creative works. As one court observed,
“[t]he future of the nation depends in no small part on the efficiency of
1
industry, and the efficiency of industry depends in no small part on the
protection of intellectual property.” Rockwell Graphic Sys., Inc. v. DEV
Indus., Inc., 925 F.2d 174, 180 (7th Cir. 1991). Therefore, effective
protection of intellectual property rights is essential to fostering creativity
and to supporting our economic and financial infrastructure.
This is a pivotal time for intellectual property enforcement. Market
and technological developments have converged to create an environment
in which the distribution of both legitimate and illegitimate goods
flourishes as never before. As economic freedom expands to more and
more countries, their manufacturers and consumers are increasingly
interconnected due to advances in telecommunication networks,
integrated financial markets, and global advertising.
This interconnected global economy creates unprecedented business
opportunities to market and sell intellectual property worldwide.
Geographical borders present no impediment to international distribution
channels. Consumers enjoy near-immediate access to almost any product
manufactured in the United States or abroad, and they are accustomed
to using the international credit card system and online money brokers
(such as PayPal) to make payment a virtually seamless process worldwide.
If the product can not be immediately downloaded to a home PC, it can
be shipped to arrive by next day air.
However, the same technology that benefits rights-holders and
consumers also benefits IP thieves seeking to make a fast, low-risk buck.
Total global losses to United States companies from copyright piracy
alone in 2005 were estimated to be $30-$35 billion, not counting
significant losses due to Internet piracy, for which meaningful estimates
were not yet available. See International Intellectual Property Alliance
Submission to the U.S. Trade Representative for the 2006 Special 301
Report on Global Copyright Protection and Enforcement, at 21 (Feb. 13,
2006), available at http://www.iipa.com/pdf/2006SPEC301COVER
LETTERwLTRHD.pdf.
Trafficking in counterfeit merchandise presents economic
consequences no less severe. It has been estimated that between 5% and
7% of world trade is in counterfeit goods, which is equivalent to
approximately $512 billion in global lost sales. U.S. Chamber of
Commerce, What Are Piracy and Counterfeiting Costing the American
Economy? 2 (2005), available at http://www.uschamber.com/ncf/
initiatives/counterfeiting.htm (following links re “Scope of the Problem”).
Counterfeit products are not limited to bootleg DVDs or fake “designer”
purses; they include prescription drugs, automobile and airline parts, food
products, and insecticides. See Stop Counterfeiting in Manufactured
2 Prosecuting Intellectual Property Crimes

Goods Act, Pub. L. No. 109-181 § 1(a)(2) (“Findings”), 120 Stat. 285,
285 (2006). As a result, the trade in counterfeit merchandise threatens
the health and safety of millions of Americans and costs manufacturers
billions of dollars each year.
Whether sold via the Internet or at sidewalk stands on New York's
famous Canal Street, the harm to the U.S. economy from IP theft is
substantial. Total losses suffered by U.S. industries due to their products
being counterfeited is estimated at between $200 and $250 billion per
year, costing 750,000 American jobs. U.S. Chamber of Commerce, What
Are Piracy and Counterfeiting Costing the American Economy? 2 (2005).
Strong enforcement, both civil and criminal, is therefore essential to
fostering creativity and protecting our economic security.
I.B. What Is Intellectual Property?

Similar to the way the law recognizes ownership rights in material
possessions such as cars and homes, it also grants rights in intangible
property, such as the expression of an idea or an invention. Federal law
protects intellectual property in four distinct areas: copyright, trademark,
patent, and trade secrets.
I.B.1. Copyright
The law of copyright is designed to foster the production of creative
works and the free flow of ideas by providing legal protection for creative
expression. Copyright provides protection against the infringement of
certain exclusive rights in “original works of authorship fixed in any
tangible medium of expression,” including computer software; literary,
musical, and dramatic works; motion pictures and sound recordings; and
pictorial, sculptural, and architectural works. See 17 U.S.C. § 102(a).
These exclusive rights include the rights of reproduction, public
distribution, public performance, public display, and preparation of
derivative works. 17 U.S.C. § 106. Legal protection exists as soon as the
work is expressed in tangible form. Copyright law protects the physical
expression of an idea, but not the idea itself.
Although civil law protects all the copyright owner's exclusive rights,
criminal law primarily focuses on the rights of distribution and
reproduction. See 17 U.S.C. § 506(a) and 18 U.S.C. § 2319. Those
convicted of criminal copyright infringement face up to five years'
imprisonment and a $250,000 fine. Id.
I. Introduction 3
I.B.2. Trademarks and Service Marks
The federal law of trademarks and service marks protects a
commercial identity or brand used to identify a product or service to
consumers. The Lanham Act, 15 U.S.C. §§ 1051-1127, prohibits the
unauthorized use of a trademark, which is defined as “any word, name,
symbol, or device” used by a person “to identify and distinguish his or her
goods, including a unique product, from those manufactured or sold by
others and to indicate the source of the goods.” 15 U.S.C. § 1127. By
registering trademarks and service marks with the U.S. Patent and
Trademark Office, the owner is granted the exclusive right to use the
marks in commerce in the United States, and can exclude others from
using the mark, or a comparable mark, in a way likely to cause confusion
in the marketplace. A protected mark might be the name of the product
itself, such as “Pfizer” or “L.L. Bean”; a distinguishing symbol, such as the
Nike “swoosh” or the MGM lion; or a distinctive shape and color, such
as the blue diamond shape of a Viagra tablet. Certain symbols like the
Olympic rings also receive like protection.
Legal protections for trademarks and service marks not only help
protect the goodwill and reputation of mark-owners, but also promote fair
competition and the integrity of markets, and protect consumers by
helping to ensure they receive accurate information about the origins of
products and services.
Federal criminal law has long prohibited trafficking in goods or
services that bear a counterfeit mark. 18 U.S.C. § 2320. As discussed
more fully in subsequent chapters, in March 2006 the criminal trademark
statute was amended to also prohibit trafficking in labels or packaging
bearing a counterfeit mark, even when the label or packaging is
unattached to the underlying good. Individuals convicted of § 2320
offenses face up to 10 years' imprisonment and a $2,000,000 fine.
I.B.3. Patents
Patents protect the world of inventions. In its simplest form, a patent
is a property right for an invention granted by the government to the
inventor. A patent gives the owner the right to exclude others from
making, using, and selling devices that embody the claimed invention. See
35 U.S.C. § 271(a). Patents generally protect products and processes, not
pure ideas. Thus, Albert Einstein could not have received a patent for his
theory of relativity, but methods for using this theory in a nuclear power
plant are patentable. Inventors must file for patent protection with the
U.S. Patent and Trademark Office.

There are three types of patents: utility, design, and plant. Utility
patents are the most common form and are available for inventions that
are novel, non-obvious, and useful; that is, “any new and useful process,
machine, manufacture, or composition of matter, or any new and useful
improvement thereof.” 35 U.S.C. § 101. Examples of utility patents
include the ingredients of Silly Putty (1949) and the diagnostic x-ray
system known as the CAT-Scan (1975).
Unlike copyright and trademark infringement, there are no
criminal—only civil—penalties for committing patent infringement.
However, there are some criminal and quasi-criminal penalties for certain
conduct related to patents.
I.B.4. Trade Secrets

A trade secret is any secret formula, pattern, device or compilation of
information used in a business that has some independent economic value
and which is used to obtain an advantage over competitors who do not
know or use it. See 18 U.S.C. § 1839(3). One of the most famous trade
secrets is the formula for manufacturing Coca-Cola. Coca-Cola was
accorded trade secret protection in 1920 because the recipe had been
continuously maintained as a trade secret since the company's founding
in 1892, and it apparently exists to this day. See Coca-Cola Bottling Co.
v. Coca-Cola Co., 269 F. 796 (D. Del. 1920) (holding that Coca-Cola
retained legal title to its formula upon entering a bottling contract because
it kept the formula secret).
Trade secrets are broader in scope than patents, and include scientific
and business information (e.g., market strategies). However, the
information can be freely used if it is obtained or learned through
legitimate means, such as reverse engineering. Moreover, if the trade
secret is publicly disclosed, it loses its legal protection.
The theft of trade secrets is punishable by up to fifteen years'
imprisonment and a $500,000 fine if done to benefit a foreign
government or agent, 18 U.S.C. § 1831, and up to ten years'
imprisonment and a $250,000 fine in other cases.
I.C. Why Criminal Enforcement?

Although civil remedies may help compensate victimized intellectual
property rights-holders, criminal sanctions are often warranted to punish
and deter the most egregious violators: repeat and large-scale offenders,
I. Introduction 5
organized crime groups, and those whose criminal conduct threatens
public health and safety. Indeed, because many violations of intellectual
property rights involve no loss of tangible property and, for infringement
crimes, do not even require direct contact with the rights-holder, the
intellectual property owner often does not know that it is a victim until
an infringer's activities are investigated and prosecuted.
The Department pursues a three-front approach to ensure aggressive
and effective prosecution. First, the Criminal Division's Computer Crime
and Intellectual Property Section (“CCIPS”), based in Washington, D.C.,
provides a core team of expert intellectual property prosecutors who
investigate, prosecute, and coordinate national and international cases of
intellectual property theft. This group of specialists helps develop and
execute the Department's overall intellectual property enforcement
strategy, and provides training and 24/7 support to Assistant U.S.
Attorneys nationally. This Manual, for instance, is one of the training
tools that CCIPS provides.
Second, because primary responsibility for prosecution of federal
crimes generally—and intellectual property offenses specifically—falls to
the 94 U.S. Attorneys' Offices across the United States and its territories,
the Justice Department has designated at least one, and oftentimes more,
Computer Hacking and Intellectual Property (“CHIP”) Coordinator in
every U.S. Attorney's Office in the country. CHIP Coordinators are
Assistant U.S. Attorneys with specialized training in prosecuting
intellectual property and computer crime who serve as subject-matter
experts within their districts. As of this writing, there are approximately
230 CHIP prosecutors designated to handle both computer crime and
intellectual property matters nationwide.
Third, CHIP Units augment the extensive network of CHIP
prosecutors. Each CHIP Unit consists of a concentrated number of
trained Assistant U.S. Attorneys in the same office. CHIP Units are
strategically located in districts that experience a higher incidence of
intellectual property and cyber-crime, or where such crimes have the
highest economic impact. These specialized squads focus on prosecuting
intellectual property offenses such as trademark violations, copyright
infringement, and thefts of trade secrets. In addition, they prosecute high-
technology offenses including computer hacking, virus and worm
proliferation, Internet fraud, and other attacks on computer systems.
CHIP Unit attorneys are also actively involved in regional training of
other prosecutors and federal agents regarding high-tech investigations,
and they work closely with victims of intellectual property theft and
cyber-crime on prevention efforts. There are currently 25 CHIP Units

consisting of approximately 80 Assistant U.S. Attorneys, in addition to
the approximately 150 CHIP prosecutors in the remaining districts and
Justice Department divisions.
The combined prosecution efforts of the CHIP network, CHIP Units,
and CCIPS create a formidable three-front enforcement attack against
intellectual property thieves and counterfeiters. These enforcement efforts
will be even more necessary in the future, as advancing technology and
changing economies continue to present new challenges.
I. Introduction 7
I.
Intellectual Property—
An Introduction
I.A. Why Is Intellectual Property Enforcement Important? . . . . 1

I.B. What Is Intellectual Property? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
I.B.1. Copyright . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
I.B.2. Trademarks and Service Marks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
I.B.3. Patents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
I.B.4. Trade Secrets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
I.C. Why Criminal Enforcement? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

Intellectual property (“IP”) is critical to the vitality of today's
economy. IP is an engine of growth, accounting for an increasing share of
jobs and trade. In 2002, the core copyright industries alone were
estimated to account for 6% or more of U.S. GDP, and in 2005 the
overall value of the “intellectual capital” of U.S. businesses—including
copyrights, trademarks, patents, and related information assets—was
estimated to account for a third of the value of U.S. companies, or about
$5 trillion. Stephen Siwek, Copyright Industries in the U.S. Economy:
The 2004 Report 11 (Oct. 2004) (core copyright industries statistic),
available at http://www.iipa.com/pdf/2004_SIWEK_FULL.pdf; Robert J.
Shapiro & Kevin A. Hassett, The Economic Value of Intellectual Property
18 (Oct. 2005) (overall value of intellectual property statistic), available
at http://www.usaforinnovation.org/news/ip_master.pdf.
Intellectual property rights create incentives for entrepreneurs, artists,
firms and investors to commit the necessary resources to research, develop
and market new technology and creative works. As one court observed,
“[t]he future of the nation depends in no small part on the efficiency of
1
industry, and the efficiency of industry depends in no small part on the
protection of intellectual property.” Rockwell Graphic Sys., Inc. v. DEV
Indus., Inc., 925 F.2d 174, 180 (7th Cir. 1991). Therefore, effective
protection of intellectual property rights is essential to fostering creativity
and to supporting our economic and financial infrastructure.
This is a pivotal time for intellectual property enforcement. Market
and technological developments have converged to create an environment
in which the distribution of both legitimate and illegitimate goods
flourishes as never before. As economic freedom expands to more and
more countries, their manufacturers and consumers are increasingly
interconnected due to advances in telecommunication networks,
integrated financial markets, and global advertising.
This interconnected global economy creates unprecedented business
opportunities to market and sell intellectual property worldwide.
Geographical borders present no impediment to international distribution
channels. Consumers enjoy near-immediate access to almost any product
manufactured in the United States or abroad, and they are accustomed
to using the international credit card system and online money brokers
(such as PayPal) to make payment a virtually seamless process worldwide.
If the product can not be immediately downloaded to a home PC, it can
be shipped to arrive by next day air.
However, the same technology that benefits rights-holders and
consumers also benefits IP thieves seeking to make a fast, low-risk buck.
Total global losses to United States companies from copyright piracy
alone in 2005 were estimated to be $30-$35 billion, not counting
significant losses due to Internet piracy, for which meaningful estimates
were not yet available. See International Intellectual Property Alliance
Submission to the U.S. Trade Representative for the 2006 Special 301
Report on Global Copyright Protection and Enforcement, at 21 (Feb. 13,
2006), available at http://www.iipa.com/pdf/2006SPEC301COVER
LETTERwLTRHD.pdf.
Trafficking in counterfeit merchandise presents economic
consequences no less severe. It has been estimated that between 5% and
7% of world trade is in counterfeit goods, which is equivalent to
approximately $512 billion in global lost sales. U.S. Chamber of
Commerce, What Are Piracy and Counterfeiting Costing the American
Economy? 2 (2005), available at http://www.uschamber.com/ncf/
initiatives/counterfeiting.htm (following links re “Scope of the Problem”).
Counterfeit products are not limited to bootleg DVDs or fake “designer”
purses; they include prescription drugs, automobile and airline parts, food
products, and insecticides. See Stop Counterfeiting in Manufactured

Goods Act, Pub. L. No. 109-181 § 1(a)(2) (“Findings”), 120 Stat. 285,
285 (2006). As a result, the trade in counterfeit merchandise threatens
the health and safety of millions of Americans and costs manufacturers
billions of dollars each year.
Whether sold via the Internet or at sidewalk stands on New York's
famous Canal Street, the harm to the U.S. economy from IP theft is
substantial. Total losses suffered by U.S. industries due to their products
being counterfeited is estimated at between $200 and $250 billion per
year, costing 750,000 American jobs. U.S. Chamber of Commerce, What
Are Piracy and Counterfeiting Costing the American Economy? 2 (2005).
Strong enforcement, both civil and criminal, is therefore essential to
fostering creativity and protecting our economic security.

Similar to the way the law recognizes ownership rights in material
possessions such as cars and homes, it also grants rights in intangible
property, such as the expression of an idea or an invention. Federal law
protects intellectual property in four distinct areas: copyright, trademark,
patent, and trade secrets.
I.B.1. Copyright
The law of copyright is designed to foster the production of creative
works and the free flow of ideas by providing legal protection for creative
expression. Copyright provides protection against the infringement of
certain exclusive rights in “original works of authorship fixed in any
tangible medium of expression,” including computer software; literary,
musical, and dramatic works; motion pictures and sound recordings; and
pictorial, sculptural, and architectural works. See 17 U.S.C. § 102(a).
These exclusive rights include the rights of reproduction, public
distribution, public performance, public display, and preparation of
derivative works. 17 U.S.C. § 106. Legal protection exists as soon as the
work is expressed in tangible form. Copyright law protects the physical
expression of an idea, but not the idea itself.
Although civil law protects all the copyright owner's exclusive rights,
criminal law primarily focuses on the rights of distribution and
reproduction. See 17 U.S.C. § 506(a) and 18 U.S.C. § 2319. Those
convicted of criminal copyright infringement face up to five years'
imprisonment and a $250,000 fine. Id.
I. Introduction 3
I.B.2. Trademarks and Service Marks
The federal law of trademarks and service marks protects a
commercial identity or brand used to identify a product or service to
consumers. The Lanham Act, 15 U.S.C. §§ 1051-1127, prohibits the
unauthorized use of a trademark, which is defined as “any word, name,
symbol, or device” used by a person “to identify and distinguish his or her
goods, including a unique product, from those manufactured or sold by
others and to indicate the source of the goods.” 15 U.S.C. § 1127. By
registering trademarks and service marks with the U.S. Patent and
Trademark Office, the owner is granted the exclusive right to use the
marks in commerce in the United States, and can exclude others from
using the mark, or a comparable mark, in a way likely to cause confusion
in the marketplace. A protected mark might be the name of the product
itself, such as “Pfizer” or “L.L. Bean”; a distinguishing symbol, such as the
Nike “swoosh” or the MGM lion; or a distinctive shape and color, such
as the blue diamond shape of a Viagra tablet. Certain symbols like the
Olympic rings also receive like protection.
Legal protections for trademarks and service marks not only help
protect the goodwill and reputation of mark-owners, but also promote fair
competition and the integrity of markets, and protect consumers by
helping to ensure they receive accurate information about the origins of
products and services.
Federal criminal law has long prohibited trafficking in goods or
services that bear a counterfeit mark. 18 U.S.C. § 2320. As discussed
more fully in subsequent chapters, in March 2006 the criminal trademark
statute was amended to also prohibit trafficking in labels or packaging
bearing a counterfeit mark, even when the label or packaging is
unattached to the underlying good. Individuals convicted of § 2320
offenses face up to 10 years' imprisonment and a $2,000,000 fine.
I.B.3. Patents
Patents protect the world of inventions. In its simplest form, a patent
is a property right for an invention granted by the government to the
inventor. A patent gives the owner the right to exclude others from
making, using, and selling devices that embody the claimed invention. See
35 U.S.C. § 271(a). Patents generally protect products and processes, not
pure ideas. Thus, Albert Einstein could not have received a patent for his
theory of relativity, but methods for using this theory in a nuclear power
plant are patentable. Inventors must file for patent protection with the
U.S. Patent and Trademark Office.

There are three types of patents: utility, design, and plant. Utility
patents are the most common form and are available for inventions that
are novel, non-obvious, and useful; that is, “any new and useful process,
machine, manufacture, or composition of matter, or any new and useful
improvement thereof.” 35 U.S.C. § 101. Examples of utility patents
include the ingredients of Silly Putty (1949) and the diagnostic x-ray
system known as the CAT-Scan (1975).
Unlike copyright and trademark infringement, there are no
criminal—only civil—penalties for committing patent infringement.
However, there are some criminal and quasi-criminal penalties for certain
conduct related to patents.
I.B.4. Trade Secrets

A trade secret is any secret formula, pattern, device or compilation of
information used in a business that has some independent economic value
and which is used to obtain an advantage over competitors who do not
know or use it. See 18 U.S.C. § 1839(3). One of the most famous trade
secrets is the formula for manufacturing Coca-Cola. Coca-Cola was
accorded trade secret protection in 1920 because the recipe had been
continuously maintained as a trade secret since the company's founding
in 1892, and it apparently exists to this day. See Coca-Cola Bottling Co.
v. Coca-Cola Co., 269 F. 796 (D. Del. 1920) (holding that Coca-Cola
retained legal title to its formula upon entering a bottling contract because
it kept the formula secret).
Trade secrets are broader in scope than patents, and include scientific
and business information (e.g., market strategies). However, the
information can be freely used if it is obtained or learned through
legitimate means, such as reverse engineering. Moreover, if the trade
secret is publicly disclosed, it loses its legal protection.
The theft of trade secrets is punishable by up to fifteen years'
imprisonment and a $500,000 fine if done to benefit a foreign
government or agent, 18 U.S.C. § 1831, and up to ten years'
imprisonment and a $250,000 fine in other cases.

Although civil remedies may help compensate victimized intellectual
property rights-holders, criminal sanctions are often warranted to punish
and deter the most egregious violators: repeat and large-scale offenders,
I. Introduction 5
organized crime groups, and those whose criminal conduct threatens
public health and safety. Indeed, because many violations of intellectual
property rights involve no loss of tangible property and, for infringement
crimes, do not even require direct contact with the rights-holder, the
intellectual property owner often does not know that it is a victim until
an infringer's activities are investigated and prosecuted.
The Department pursues a three-front approach to ensure aggressive
and effective prosecution. First, the Criminal Division's Computer Crime
and Intellectual Property Section (“CCIPS”), based in Washington, D.C.,
provides a core team of expert intellectual property prosecutors who
investigate, prosecute, and coordinate national and international cases of
intellectual property theft. This group of specialists helps develop and
execute the Department's overall intellectual property enforcement
strategy, and provides training and 24/7 support to Assistant U.S.
Attorneys nationally. This Manual, for instance, is one of the training
tools that CCIPS provides.
Second, because primary responsibility for prosecution of federal
crimes generally—and intellectual property offenses specifically—falls to
the 94 U.S. Attorneys' Offices across the United States and its territories,
the Justice Department has designated at least one, and oftentimes more,
Computer Hacking and Intellectual Property (“CHIP”) Coordinator in
every U.S. Attorney's Office in the country. CHIP Coordinators are
Assistant U.S. Attorneys with specialized training in prosecuting
intellectual property and computer crime who serve as subject-matter
experts within their districts. As of this writing, there are approximately
230 CHIP prosecutors designated to handle both computer crime and
intellectual property matters nationwide.
Third, CHIP Units augment the extensive network of CHIP
prosecutors. Each CHIP Unit consists of a concentrated number of
trained Assistant U.S. Attorneys in the same office. CHIP Units are
strategically located in districts that experience a higher incidence of
intellectual property and cyber-crime, or where such crimes have the
highest economic impact. These specialized squads focus on prosecuting
intellectual property offenses such as trademark violations, copyright
infringement, and thefts of trade secrets. In addition, they prosecute high-
technology offenses including computer hacking, virus and worm
proliferation, Internet fraud, and other attacks on computer systems.
CHIP Unit attorneys are also actively involved in regional training of
other prosecutors and federal agents regarding high-tech investigations,
and they work closely with victims of intellectual property theft and
cyber-crime on prevention efforts. There are currently 25 CHIP Units

consisting of approximately 80 Assistant U.S. Attorneys, in addition to
the approximately 150 CHIP prosecutors in the remaining districts and
Justice Department divisions.
The combined prosecution efforts of the CHIP network, CHIP Units,
and CCIPS create a formidable three-front enforcement attack against
intellectual property thieves and counterfeiters. These enforcement efforts
will be even more necessary in the future, as advancing technology and
changing economies continue to present new challenges.
I. Introduction 7
II.
Criminal Copyright
Infringement—
17 U.S.C. § 506 and
18 U.S.C. § 2319
II.A. Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
II.A.1. What Copyright Law Protects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
II.A.2. Legal Basis for Copyright and Related Laws . . . . . . . . . 13
II.A.3. Relevance of Civil Cases to Criminal Prosecutions . . . . 14
II.A.4. Federal Preemption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
II.A.5. When Copyright Protection Begins and Ends . . . . . . . 15
II.A.6. The Rights Protected by Copyright . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
II.A.7. When Infringement is Criminal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
II.B. Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
II.B.1. Existence of a Copyright . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
II.B.1.a. Copyrightability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
II.B.1.a.i. Original Work Fixed in a Tangible Medium . 19
II.B.1.a.ii. Short Phrases Are Not Copyrightable . . . . . 20
II.B.1.a.iii. Expression of an Idea vs. Idea Itself . . . . . . 20
II.B.1.b. Copyrights vs. Registrations vs. Certificates . . . . . 20
II.B.1.c. New Procedure for “Preregistration” . . . . . . . . . . . 21
II.B.1.d. Whether Registration or Preregistration is Required to
Prosecute . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
II.B.1.d.i. Liability for Infringement Committed Prior
to Registration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
II.B.1.d.ii. Unpublished or Pre-Release Works . . . . . . . 25
9
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
II.B.1.e. Proof of Copyright at Trial . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
II.B.1.f. Copyright Notice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
II.B.2. The Defendant Acted “Willfully” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
II.B.2.a. Legal Standard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
II.B.2.b. Proof at Trial . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
II.B.3. Infringement of the Copyright . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
II.B.3.a. Infringement by Reproduction or Distribution . . . 36
II.B.3.a.i. Reproduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
II.B.3.a.ii. Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
Copyrighted Works With a Total Retail Value Exceeding
$2,500 Within a 180-Day Period . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
II.B.3.b.i. Generally . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
II.B.3.b.ii. Definition of “Retail Value” in this Context 46
II.B.3.c. Distribution of a Work Being Prepared for Commercial
Distribution, by Making It Available on a Publicly-Accessible
Computer Network, if the Defendant Knew or Should Have
Known the Work Was Intended for Commercial Distribution
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
II.B.3.c.i. Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
II.B.3.c.ii. Making the Work Available on a Computer
Network Accessible to Members of the Public . . . . 50
II.B.3.c.iii. Work Being Prepared for Commercial
Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
II.B.3.c.iv. The Defendant Knew or Should Have Known that
the Work Was Intended for Commercial Distribution 52
Commercial Advantage or Private Financial Gain . . . . . . . 53
II.B.4.a. History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
II.B.4.b. Legal Standard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54

II.B.5. Misdemeanor Copyright Infringement . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
II.C. Defenses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
II.C.1. Statute of Limitations: 5 years . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
II.C.2. Jurisdiction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
II.C.3. Venue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
II.C.4. The First Sale Doctrine—17 U.S.C. § 109 . . . . . . . . . . 60
II.C.4.a. Operation of the Doctrine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
Case-in-Chief? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
II.C.4.c. Disproving First Sale at Trial . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
II.C.4.d. Special Rules for Rental, Lease, and Lending . . . . 64
II.C.5. Fair Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
II.C.5.a. Unpublished Works . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
II.C.5.b. Fair Use in Criminal Cases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
II.C.6. “ A r c h i v a l E x c e p t i o n ” f o r C o m p u t e r S o f t w a r e —
17 U.S.C. § 117 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
II.D. Special Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
II.E. Penalties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
II.E.1. Statutory Penalties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
II.E.2. Sentencing Guidelines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
II.F. Other Charges to Consider . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
Willful copyright infringement is criminalized by 17 U.S.C. § 506(a)

which defines what conduct is prohibited, and 18 U.S.C. § 2319, which
sets the punishment. Felony penalties attach when the violation consists
of the reproduction or distribution of at least ten copies that are valued
together at more than $2,500, or, under amendments enacted in 2005,
when the violation involves distribution of a work being prepared for
commercial distribution over a publicly-accessible computer network.
This Chapter provides an overview of copyright law, an analysis of the
elements of copyright infringement, a review of the defenses to the crime,
and a summary of the statutory penalties arising from convictions. Finally,
II. Criminal Copyright Infringement 11

this chapter explores some of the novel copyright infringement issues
presented by new technologies. Forms providing sample indictments and
jury instructions for criminal copyright infringement are provided in
Appendix B.
Prosecutors may also wish to consult Nimmer on Copyright, a leading
treatise on copyright law, with many of its sections being cited by courts
as if they were black-letter law, including a chapter on criminal offenses.
See Melville B. Nimmer & David Nimmer, Nimmer on Copyright (2005).
Other major treatises and articles that may be instructive include William
F. Patry, Copyright Law and Practice (1994 & Supps. 1995-2000); Patry
on Copyright (West Publishing, forthcoming 2006); Sylvia Albert et al.,
Intellectual Property Crimes, 42 Am. Crim. L. Rev. 631 (2005); Michael
Coblenz, Intellectual Property Crimes, 9 Alb. L.J. Sci. & Tech. 235
(1999).
II.A. Overview
II.A.1. What Copyright Law Protects
Copyright law has two goals: to protect the rights of authors, and,
thereby, to foster development of more creative works for the benefit of
the public. The Constitution, in granting Congress the power to enact
intellectual property laws, describes both these goals and the means to
achieve it: “To promote the Progress of Science and useful Arts, by
securing for limited Times to Authors and Inventors the exclusive Right
to their respective Writings and Discoveries.” U.S. Const., art. I, § 8, cl.
8. Maintaining an appropriate balance between protecting works and
incentives for creators of works, on the one hand, and disseminating
knowledge and information to the public, on the other, is a constant
theme throughout the history of copyright law. See Twentieth Century
Music Corp. v. Aiken, 422 U.S. 151, 156 (1975).
The creator of an original work of expression, fixed in a tangible
medium, is granted for a limited time a copyright, which is the exclusive
right to copy, distribute, and make certain other uses of the work.
Copyright law protects all “original works of authorship fixed in any
tangible medium of expression, now known or later developed, from
which they can be perceived, reproduced, or otherwise communicated,
either directly or with the aid of a machine or device.” 17 U.S.C. § 102(a)
(emphasis added). “Originality” in copyright law is a low threshold: the
work need only have been independently created by the author, as

opposed to copied from another, previous work, and it must possess only
a minimal degree of creativity. See Section II.B.1.a. of this Chapter.
An important limitation of copyright is that it protects only the
creative expression of an idea, but not the idea itself. See Section II.B.1.a.
of this Chapter. Novel ideas, methods, and processes may enjoy
protection under patent law (or other areas of law, such as trade secret
protection), but are not copyrightable. For example, consider a
microbiologist who invents a new technique for modifying particular genes
in a cell, then writes an article for a magazine that describes the
technique. The article may be protected by copyright as the author's
original expression of his or her ideas regarding this new technique. The
technique itself, however, would not be copyrightable, although it may be
patentable.
Copyrights are also distinct from trademarks, which protect the
exclusive use of certain names, pictures, and slogans in connection with
goods or services. They are discussed in Chapter III of this Manual.
Trademarks need not be original or creative. Moreover, many trademarks
consist of short single words or short phrases that are ineligible for
copyright protection. See Section II.B.1.a.ii. of this Chapter. Despite the
differences between copyrights and trademarks, some items may be both
copyrighted and trademarked, such as the image of Disney's Mickey
Mouse.
II.A.2. Legal Basis for Copyright and Related Laws

The Constitution grants Congress the power to regulate copyright:
“[t]o Promote the Progress of Science and useful Arts, by securing for
limited Times to Authors and Inventors the exclusive Right to their
respective Writings and Discoveries,” U.S. Const., art. I, § 8, cl. 8.
Congress also derives authority to regulate some copyright-related issues
from the Commerce Clause, U.S. Const. art. I, § 8, cl. 3.
Copyright protection is principally statutory. Sony Corp. v. Universal
City Studios, Inc., 464 U.S. 417, 429-31 (1984). Federal copyright
statutes are found primarily in Title 17 of the U.S. Code, of which
sections 101 through 1101 are called the “Copyright Act,” and the
penalties for criminal infringement are set forth in 18 U.S.C. § 2319.
A number of important copyright provisions that were originally
devised by courts, such as the doctrines of fair use and first sale, are now
codified in Title 17. E.g., 17 U.S.C. §§ 107, 109. And courts often
interpret copyright law in light of new events and technological
developments, which in turn creates significant judge-made law that might

not otherwise be obvious from the statutes. E.g., Metro Goldwyn-Mayer
Studios, Inc. v. Grokster, Ltd., 545 U. S. __, 125 S. Ct. 2764 (2005);
Sony, 464 U.S. 417.
II.A.3. Relevance of Civil Cases to Criminal Prosecutions

In applying the criminal copyright statutes, civil precedents are often
helpful. The vast majority of copyright case law is civil, rather than
criminal, and often civil cases provide the only judicial authority available
in criminal prosecutions. See United States v. Wise, 550 F.2d 1180, 1189
n.14 (9th Cir. 1977) (noting “general principle in copyright law of looking
to civil authority for guidance in criminal cases”); United States v.
Manzer, 69 F.3d 222, 227 (8th Cir. 1995) (same); United States v. Cross,
816 F.2d 297, 303 (7th Cir. 1987) (same, with respect to jury
instructions); Kelly v. L.L. Cool J., 145 F.R.D. 32, 39 (S.D.N.Y. 1992)
(noting that conduct that does not support a civil action for infringement
cannot constitute criminal infringement); 4 Nimmer on Copyright
§ 15.01.
But what makes a good civil case does not necessarily make a good
criminal case. Civil and criminal copyright law sometimes differ sharply.
For example, a defendant can be civilly liable for copyright infringement
as a matter of strict liability, with no intent to copy. See Bright Tunes
Music Corp. v. Harrisongs Music, Ltd., 420 F. Supp. 177 (S.D.N.Y.
1976) (finding infringement where composer “subconsciously” copied
earlier song). By contrast, a criminal copyright defendant can be convicted
only if he infringed willfully. See Section II.B.2. of this Chapter.
II.A.4. Federal Preemption

In addition to being primarily statutory, copyright law is also
primarily a matter of federal law. For most of the history of the United
States, state- and common-law copyright protections coexisted with
federal copyright laws. See, e.g., Wheaton v. Peters, 33 U.S. 591, 597-98
(1834). But the Copyright Act of 1976 amended Title 17 to preempt
state laws that provide rights “equivalent to” rights granted under federal
copyright law. 17 U.S.C. § 301(a).
Despite this preemption, copyright law continues to be intertwined
with state law in certain cases, such as those involving license agreements
and other contracts governing ownership and use of copyrighted works.
E.g., Storage Technology Corp. v. Custom Hardware Eng'g & Consulting,
Inc., 421 F.3d 1307 (Fed. Cir. 2005). State copyright law also continues
to apply to sound recordings recorded before 1972, because sound
recordings were not protected by federal copyright law until 1972.

Consequently, pre-1972 sound recordings may still be protected by state
copyrights until 2067. See La Cienega Music Co. v. ZZ Top, 53 F.3d 950
(9th Cir. 1995); 17 U.S.C. § 301(c).
II.A.5. When Copyright Protection Begins and Ends

A work is protected by copyright law from the moment it is created,
even if it is not registered. See 17 U.S.C. §§ 101-102(a), 408(a). Although
registration with the Register of Copyrights is not a prerequisite to
copyright protection, it generally is a prerequisite to civil enforcement and
to some remedies. Registration is generally a prerequisite to a copyright
holder's civil suit for infringement. See 17 U.S.C. § 411. If the work was
registered only after infringement, the plaintiff may still collect actual
damages for infringement committed prior to registration, but generally
cannot collect statutory damages or attorneys' fees. See 17 U.S.C. § 412.
The Department's position that registration is not a prerequisite to
criminal enforcement, including CCIPS's recommendation that
prosecutors obtain registration certificates before trial, is discussed in
Section II.B.1. of this Chapter.
Works created in 1978 or later are protected by copyright for the life
of the author plus 70 years. See 17 U.S.C. § 302(a). For a work with one
or more joint authors, the life of the surviving author is used. § 302(b).
Works made for hire (e.g., works made by or at the behest of a
corporation) and anonymous works are protected for 95 years from the
date of first publication, or 120 years from creation (whichever comes
first). 17 U.S.C. § 302(c). Most pre-1978 works are protected for 95 years
from the date that copyright was first secured (generally their date of
publication). 17 U.S.C. § 304.
II.A.6. The Rights Protected by Copyright

Copyrighted law grants copyright holders six exclusive rights to their
works: (1) reproduction, (2) preparation of derivative works based upon
the original copyrighted work, (3) public distribution, (4) public
performance of certain types of works, (5) public display of certain types
of works, and (6) performance of sound recordings by means of digital
audio transmission. See 17 U.S.C. § 106(1)-(6); 17 U.S.C. § 101 (defining
“sound recording” to exclude audiovisual works); 17 U.S.C. § 114(j)(5)
(excluding transmission of audiovisual works from the definition of
“digital audio transmission”); 17 U.S.C. § 114(d) (limitations including
exemptions for certain broadcast transmissions, subscription
transmissions, and licensed transmissions).

The exclusive rights set forth in 17 U.S.C. § 106 are subject to a
number of exceptions and limitations in §§ 107-122, such as the right to
make limited or “fair use” of a work, to resell one's personal copy of a
work, and to reproduce computer software that one owns as an essential
step in using it, or to make an archival copy. Those exceptions are
addressed throughout this Chapter.
Exercising one of the exclusive rights under § 106 without the
copyright holder's authorization or other legal authority is infringement.
17 U.S.C. § 501. But not every unlicensed use constitutes an
infringement. “An unlicensed use of the copyright is not an infringement
unless it conflicts with one of the specific exclusive rights conferred by the
copyright statute.” Sony Corp. v. Universal City Studios, Inc., 464 U.S.
417, 447 (1984) (citation omitted); see also Benjamin Kaplan, An
Unhurried View of Copyright 57 (1967) (“The fundamental [is] that 'use'
is not the same thing as 'infringement,' that use short of infringement is
to be encouraged ....”).
II.A.7. When Infringement is Criminal

Not every infringement is a criminal offense. Criminal copyright
penalties have always been the exception rather than the rule. Although
criminal copyright law has greatly expanded the scope of the conduct it
penalizes over the past century, criminal sanctions continue to apply only
to certain types of infringement—generally when the infringement is
particularly serious, the infringer knows the infringement is wrong, or the
type of case renders civil enforcement by individual copyright owners
especially difficult.
Copyright infringement is a crime if the defendant acted willfully and
either (1) for commercial advantage or private financial gain, (2) by
reproducing or distributing infringing copies of works with a total retail
value of over $1,000 over a 180-day period, or (3) by distributing a “work
being prepared for commercial distribution” by making it available on a
publicly-accessible computer network. 17 U.S.C. § 506(a)(1). Copyright
infringement is a felony only if the infringement involved reproduction or
distribution of at least 10 copies of copyrighted works worth more than
$2,500 in a 180-day period, or involved distribution of a “work being
prepared for commercial distribution” over a publicly-accessible computer
network. See id.; 18 U.S.C. § 2319.

II.B. Elements
There are three essential copyright crimes:
1. Willful infringement “for purposes of commercial advantage or
private financial gain,” 17 U.S.C. § 506(a)(1)(A) (formerly
§ 506(a)(1), before the Family Entertainment and Copyright Act
of 2005, Pub. L. No. 109-9 § 103, 119 Stat 218, 220-21 (Apr.
27, 2005) amendments)
2. Willful infringement not for profit, but with “the reproduction or
distribution, including by electronic means, during any 180-day
period, of 1 or more copies or phonorecords of 1 or more
copyrighted works, which have a total retail value of more than
$1,000,” 17 U.S.C. § 506(a)(1)(B) (formerly § 506(a)(2) before
the Apr. 27, 2005 amendments)
3. Pre-release piracy, i.e., willful infringement “by the distribution of
a work being prepared for commercial distribution, by making it
available on a computer network accessible to members of the
public, if such person knew or should have known that the work
was intended for commercial distribution,” 17 U.S.C.
§ 506(a)(1)(C) (newly enacted with the Apr. 27, 2005
amendments)
The common factors are that (1) there must be a copyright, (2) there
must be an infringement, and (3) the infringement must be willful. Some
courts also require that the government prove an extra element, that the
infringing items at issue were not permissible “first sales,” but other courts
hold first sale to be an affirmative defense. See Section II.C.4. of this
Chapter.
Determining the elements to prove a felony (versus a misdemeanor)
is slightly more involved. For-profit infringement, § 506(a)(1)(A), is a five-
year felony if:
• The defendant infringed by means of “the reproduction or
distribution, including by electronic means,” AND
• “during any 180-day period, of at least 10 copies or
phonorecords, of 1 or more copyrighted works, which have a total
retail value of more than $2,500.” 18 U.S.C. § 2319(b)(1).
• Otherwise—if the offense violated rights other than reproduction
or distribution or the offense did not satisfy the monetary or

numerical thresholds—it is a misdemeanor. 18 U.S.C. § 2319(b)(3).
Non-profit infringement, § 506(a)(1)(B), is a three-year felony if
• the defendant infringed by means of “the reproduction or
distribution of 10 or more copies or phonorecords of 1 or more
copyrighted works, which have a total retail value of $2,500 or
more.” 18 U.S.C. § 2319(c)(1).
• Otherwise—if the offense did not satisfy the monetary and
numerical thresholds—it is a misdemeanor. 18 U.S.C.
§ 2319(c)(3).
Pre-release infringement over a publicly-accessible computer network,
17 U.S.C. § 506(a)(1)(C), is always a felony, but the penalties increase if
it is done for commercial advantage or private financial gain. 18 U.S.C.
§ 2319(d)(1),(2).
In other words, there are four essential elements to a charge of felony
copyright infringement:
1. A copyright exists (see Section II.B.1. of this Chapter)
2. The defendant acted willfully (Section II.B.2.)
3. It was infringed by the defendant by reproduction or distribution
of the copyrighted work, or (for violations of 17 U.S.C.
§ 506(a)(1)(C)), by distribution (Section II.B.3.a.)
4. The infringement consisted of either of the following:
(a) the defendant infringed at least 10 copies of one or more
copyrighted works with a total retail value of more than $2,500
within a 180-day period (Section II.B.3.b.); OR
(b) the defendant infringed by
(i) the distribution
(ii) by making available on a computer network accessible to
members of the public
(iii) of a “work being prepared for commercial distribution”
(iv) the defendant knew or should have known the work was
being prepared for commercial distribution (Section II.B.3.c.)
Repeat felonies garner increased penalties. See 18 U.S.C.
§ 2319(b)(2), (c)(2), (d)(3)-(4).

Amendments to the criminal copyright statutes in 1997 and 2005
significantly changed the elements of felony copyright infringement. See
No Electronic Theft Act (NET) Act, Pub. L. No. 105-147, 111 Stat. 2678
(1997); Family Entertainment and Copyright Act of 2005 (FECA), Pub.
L. No. 109-9 § 103, 119 Stat. 218, 220-21 (2005). Cases predating these
statutes should not necessarily be relied upon for delineating the elements
of current copyright offenses, but they remain useful in interpreting the
current law's elements.
II.B.1. Existence of a Copyright

Under 17 U.S.C. § 506(a), the initial element of criminal copyright
infringement is that a valid copyright exists in the work or works in
question. While on its face this element may appear the simplest to prove,
a number of issues can add considerable complexity.
II.B.1.a. Copyrightability
Copyright law protects all “original works of authorship fixed in any
tangible medium of expression....” 17 U.S.C. § 102(a) (emphasis added).
II.B.1.a.i. Original Work Fixed in a Tangible Medium

The subject matter of copyright is defined by two requirements,
originality and fixation: a work must be an original, creative expression of
an idea or concept, and it must be recorded in tangible form. Thus
copyright law protects a novel or poem written on paper or typed in a
computer, a song recorded in a studio or written on sheet music, a
sculpture modeled in clay or bronze, or a computer program on a PC's
hard disk.
For copyright purposes, “original” has two requirements. First, the
work must have been independently created by the author, as opposed to
copied from another, previous work. A work can be original even if it
closely resembles another work, “so long as the similarity is fortuitous, not
the result of copying.” Feist v. Rural Telephone Co., 499 U.S. 340, 345-
46 (citing Sheldon v. Metro-Goldwyn Pictures Corp., 81 F.2d 49, 54 (2d
Cir. 1936) (noting that identical poems created by different poets
ignorant of one another would both be original and copyrightable)). In
practice, the odds against an artist or author or musician creating a new
work identical to an existing one, without knowing of the earlier work, are
remote, and in cases involving suspiciously-similar works, where the later
artist had access or opportunity to learn of the earlier work, courts have
found the subsequent work infringing rather than original. See, e.g.,
Bright Tunes v. Harrisongs Music, 420 F. Supp. 177 (S.D.N.Y. 1976).

Second, the work must also possess “at least some minimal degree of
creativity.” Feist, 499 U.S. at 345. The amount of creativity required for
originality is extremely low; “a slight amount” of “creative spark” is all
that is necessary, “no matter how crude, humble or obvious.” Id. (citing
1 Nimmer on Copyright §§ 2.01[A], [B] (1990)). What qualifies as
“original” for copyright purposes may not be considered “original” by, for
example, those assessing the item's artistic, literary, or academic merit.
Nor should “originality” be confused with “novelty,” which is the
touchstone of patent law, not copyright. See Chapter VII of this Manual.
A work must also be “fixed,” meaning it is recorded in some tangible
medium by the author. So a song that is composed onto sheet music or
recorded to tape is fixed and thus copyrightable, but a live performance
of the song that is not recorded by the performer (or someone authorized
by the performer) would not be fixed, and thus not copyrightable,
although the performance might still enjoy protection under other laws.
See the discussion of 18 U.S.C. § 2319A in Section II.F. of this Manual.
II.B.1.a.ii. Short Phrases Are Not Copyrightable

Short single words, short phrases, and familiar symbols and designs
cannot be copyrighted. 37 C.F.R. § 202.1(a) (2004). They may, however,
be trademarked and thus protected under 18 U.S.C. § 2320; see Chapter
III of this Manual.
II.B.1.a.iii. Expression of an Idea vs. Idea Itself

An important limitation of copyright is that it protects only the
creative expression of an idea—but not the idea itself. 17 U.S.C. § 102(b)
(“In no case does copyright protection ... extend to any idea, procedure,
process, system, method of operation, concept, principle, or
discovery ....”); see also Feist, 499 U.S. at 344-45 (1991); Whelan Assoc.
v. Jaslow Dental Lab., 797 F.2d 1222 (3d Cir. 1986). Novel ideas,
methods, and processes may enjoy protection under patent or trade secret
law, but are not copyrightable. See Chapters IV and VII of this Manual.
For example, consider a new technique for modifying genes in a cell,
which is described in a magazine article. Although the article might be
copyrightable—as an original expression of the author's ideas about this
new technique—the technique itself would not. The technique might,
however, be patentable.
II.B.1.b. Copyrights vs. Registrations vs. Certificates

The notion of having a valid copyright is easily confused with the
issue of whether the work is registered with the Copyright Office, or with

possession of a valid copyright certificate issued by the Copyright Office.
Throughout much of U.S. history, copyright protection was predicated on
certain formal requirements, such as the need to register published works
with the Copyright Office, deposit copies with the Library of Congress,
and mark copies of the work with a copyright notice. However, major
revisions to copyright law in the 1970s and 1980s now protect a
copyrightable work regardless of whether these formalities have been
observed. See La Resolana Architects, PA v. Clay Realtors Angel Fire, 416
F.3d 1195, 1198-1205 (10th Cir. 2005). For a work created on or after
January 1, 1978, copyright subsists from the moment an original work of
authorship is created by “fix[ing it] in any tangible medium of
expression.” 17 U.S.C. § 102(a); see also id. § 302(a). That is, a work is
copyrighted the moment it is created, regardless of whether it has been
registered or bears a copyright notice.
A copyright is the author's legal entitlement to the exclusive rights
granted under 17 U.S.C. § 106. Neither a copyright registration nor a
registration certificate is equivalent to a copyright. A registration
certificate signifies the Copyright Office's decision to register the work,
which is a limited administrative decision that the work is copyrightable
and that the application is proper. See 17 U.S.C. § 408(a). That decision
to register and the certificate of registration can, however, have legal
significance at trial. See Sections II.B.1.d.-e. of this Chapter.
II.B.1.c. New Procedure for “Preregistration”

The Family Entertainment and Copyright Act of 2005 created a new
procedure, known as “preregistration,” intended to address some problems
with works that are pirated before their lawful publication or official
release by the copyright owner. See Pub. L. No. 109-9 § 104, 119 Stat.
218, 221-22 (Apr. 27, 2005); 17 U.S.C. §§ 408(f) (setting forth basic
rules for preregistration), 411(a) (preregistration or registration necessary
to institute infringement action in most cases); 37 C.F.R. § 202.16
(Copyright Office rules for preregistration); see also Copyright Office
Preregistration web page, available at http://www.copyright.gov/prereg/.
Preregistration is available for certain types of work judged by the
Copyright Office to be especially vulnerable to piracy before their lawful
release or publication. See 37 C.F.R. § 202.16. These include movies,
musical compositions and sound recordings, computer software and video
games, literary works, and “advertising and marketing photographs.” Id.
A copyright owner can preregister these types of works if they are
unpublished, but “being prepared for commercial distribution,” meaning
that the copyright owner has a reasonable expectation that the work will
be commercially distributed to the public, and the work, if not finished,

has at least been commenced. Id. § 202.16(b)(2). Upon submission of an
application and fee, the Copyright Office will undertake a limited review
of the work, and if approved, it will preregister the work and issue a
certificate, much as in the case of copyright registration. Id. § 202.16(c).
But preregistration is not a complete substitute for registration.
Although preregistration allows an “action for infringement” to be
“instituted” under 17 U.S.C. § 411(a), preregistration, unlike registration,
involves only a cursory review by the Copyright Office and consequently
preregistration will not serve as prima facie evidence of the validity or
ownership of a copyright. 37 C.F.R. § 202.16(c)(6), (7), (13). See
Sections II.B.1.d.-e. of this Chapter.
II.B.1.d. Whether Registration or Preregistration is Required

to Prosecute
Section 411 of Title 17 provides that “no action for infringement of
the copyright of any United States work shall be instituted until
preregistration or registration of the copyright claim has been made in
accordance with this title.” Because either registration or the
“preregistration” process satisfies § 411(a), the term “registration” is used
below to refer to both registration and preregistration, except as otherwise
noted. The term “pre-registration,” including a hyphen, is used to refer to
events occurring before registration. Also, § 411 applies only to “United
States works,” meaning works first published domestically, or works
created by U.S. nationals or “habitual residents.” See 17 U.S.C. §§ 101,
411(a). Thus, registration is not required for civil or criminal cases
involving foreign works.
The Department contends that the registration/preregistration
requirement in § 411 applies only to civil lawsuits, not criminal
prosecutions. Section 411 refers only to “actions,” a term used elsewhere
in the Copyright Act to refer to civil actions, not criminal prosecutions.
See, e.g., 17 U.S.C. § 507 (using the term “civil action” in contrast to the
term “criminal proceedings”) and does not explicitly refer to criminal
prosecutions. Cf. United States v. Cleveland, 281 F. 249, 253 (S.D. Ala.
1922) (holding statutory provision governing “action” not applicable to
criminal case because “action” is not ordinarily used to describe criminal
prosecution). But see United States v. Backer, 134 F.2d 533, 535-36 (2d
Cir. 1943) (interpreting substantially identical language in the 1909
Copyright Act to require registration as a precondition to any action for
infringement, whether civil or criminal because “action” includes both
criminal and civil actions in other contexts); 4 Nimmer on Copyright
§ 15.01[A][2](citing Backer); see also Mason v. United States, 1 F.2d 279

(7th Cir. 1924) (non-copyright case); Singleton v. United States, 290 F.
130 (4th Cir. 1923) (non-copyright case).
The criminal copyright provisions are silent on the issue of
registration. Section 507 of Title 17, which sets forth the statutes of
limitation for both criminal and civil cases, is entitled “Limitations on
Actions,” although § 507(a) refers to “Criminal Proceedings,” not
“actions.”
The Department's position is supported by legislative history and
dicta from the Supreme Court. Although the Copyright Act's legislative
history is largely silent on the question, the Senate Judiciary Committee
observed in 1988 that “registration is not a statutory precondition for
criminal enforcement of copyright.” S. Rep. No. 100-352 (1988),
reprinted in 1988 U.S.C.C.A.N. 3706, 3743 (emphasis added). Although
this isolated legislative statement came long after the registration
requirement was first imposed, the legislative history appears to contain
no other statements that are directly contrary. Instead, other legislative
statements are at best inconclusive. See, e.g., 151 Cong. Rec. S450-01,
494 (daily ed. Jan. 25, 2005) (statement of Sen. Hatch) (stating that the
Family Entertainment and Copyright Act “will create a pre-registration
system that will permit criminal penalties and statutory-damage awards
[and] also provide a tool for law enforcement officials.”) Moreover, that
registration is not required for criminal prosecution seems to be the
position of at least some past members of the Supreme Court. See Sony
Corp. of America v. Universal City Studios, Inc., 464 U.S. 417, 493 n.44
(1984) (Blackmun, J., dissenting on other grounds; Powell, J., Marshall,
J., and Rehnquist, J. joining).
The Department's position is also supported by public policy.
Admittedly, requiring registration before a civil suit encourages authors to
register their works. But that incentive is attenuated in criminal cases
because prosecutions are brought by the government, which has no power
to register works on behalf of authors. See 17 U.S.C. §§ 106, 408.
Moreover, criminal copyright prosecutions protect the public interest in
preventing infringement. And infringement of an unregistered copyrighted
work is infringement nonetheless. See 17 U.S.C. § 408(a) (“[R]egistration
is not a condition of copyright protection.”); id. § 501 (“Anyone who
violates any of the exclusive rights of the copyright owner ... is an infringer
of copyright”); id. § 506(a)(1) (“Any person who willfully infringes a
copyright shall be punished ....”) (emphasis added). Making registration
a prerequisite to criminal prosecution could impede criminal prosecution
for the public benefit due to a victim's delay or neglect in completing a
ministerial task intended primarily to promote administrative efficiency.

Cf. Nadel & Sons Toy Corp. v. William Shaland Corp., 657 F. Supp. 133,
136 (S.D.N.Y. 1987) (“Registration of a copyright is essentially
ministerial in nature ....”) (citation omitted); Douglas Y'Barbo, On Section
411 of the Copyright Code and Determining the Proper Scope of a
Copyright Registration, 34 San Diego L. Rev. 343, 353 (1997) (“The
purpose of section 411(a) is essentially to facilitate judicial resolution of
the ownership issue ....”).
As a practical matter, however, the Department generally recommends
that prosecutors introduce certificates of registration at trial. Certificates
of registration are the simplest way to prove a copyright's validity and
ownership. Even assuming registration is not required, without it
prosecutors will have to prove these elements “from scratch” through
testimony and other evidence. See Section II.B.1.e. of this Chapter.
Prosecutors should therefore ensure, to the extent possible, that any
copyrights on which a prosecution is sought are registered or
“preregistered” before the prosecution is commenced. If registration is
needed for pending litigation, it can often be expedited for completion
within a week. See U.S. Copyright Office, Information Circular 10,
“Special Handling,” available at http://www.copyright.gov/circs/
circ10.html.
This is not to say, however, that copyright registrations are needed
earlier than trial. The government can obtain search warrants, grand jury
subpoenas, and even indictments before it has certificates of registration
in hand, if only because search warrants and grand jury proceedings are
based on findings of probable cause.
Although a lack of registration (which may be a mere oversight, or a
conscious choice to delay registration until a work is ready for
publication) should not bar a criminal prosecution, the circumstances
surrounding the absence of registration may militate against the choice to
prosecute. A copyright-holder's refusal to register his copyright even when
necessary for trial may indicate—or be interpreted—as the victim's intent
to allow others to copy the work. The Copyright Office's refusal to register
a work may indicate a weak claim of copyrightability or ownership.
If a court requires registration as a prerequisite to a criminal
prosecution for infringement, a number of other questions arise, which are
discussed below.

II.B.1.d.i. Liability for Infringement Committed Prior to
Registration
If a court requires registration, one question prosecutors may face is
whether criminal charges may be based on infringement committed prior
to registration. While Title 17 clearly allows for civil infringement actions
(and recovery of damages) based on pre-registration infringement, and
nothing in the statute indicates a contrary intent with respect to criminal
prosecutions, in the only reported criminal case on point a district court
held that a criminal copyright prosecution cannot be based on pre-
registration infringement. See United States v. Gallo, 599 F. Supp. 241,
245 n.1 (W.D.N.Y. 1984) (holding, however, that “[e]vidence as to
activities involving PENGO before the registration date could perhaps be
relevant to other matters, but not to show copyright infringement or
wrongful distribution of PENGO”). The Gallo court assumed that “there
can be no infringement” until the work in question has been registered—a
conclusion that was almost certainly wrong. See Montogomery v. Noa,
168 F.3d 1282, 1288 (11th Cir. 1999) (noting that “after 1977, copyright
automatically inheres in the work at the moment it is created without
regard to whether it is ever registered”); 17 U.S.C. § 302 (1988)
(providing copyright protection at the time the work is created); 17
U.S.C. §§ 411-412 (providing registration as prerequisite to initiation of
lawsuit and certain types of damages); 2 Nimmer on Copyright
§ 7.16[A][1]; 4 Nimmer on Copyright § 15.01[A][2], at 15-4 & n.24
(characterizing Gallo as “erroneously assuming that registration is a
condition precedent to obtaining copyright rather than to bringing an
infringement action”). Moreover, the Gallo court's ruling contrasts sharply
with well-settled civil precedents holding that an infringement action may
be based on conduct that predates the victim's copyright registration. See,
e.g., Chuck Blore & Don Richman Inc. v. 20/20 Advertising Inc., 674 F.
Supp. 671 (D. Minn. 1987); 2 Nimmer on Copyright § 7.16[B][1][a], at
7-153; Washingtonian Pub. Co. v. Pearson, 306 U.S. 30, 39 (1939).
Given the Gallo's court's confusing statement, the lack of other
relevant criminal case law, and the general principle of applying civil
copyright law in criminal copyright cases, the authorities cited above
support the Department's position that even if a court requires
registration as a prerequisite to prosecution, defendants can still be held
criminally liable for pre-registration acts of infringement.
II.B.1.d.ii. Unpublished or Pre-Release Works

Infringement before registration often involves infringement before
lawful publication. Cf. Salinger v. Random House, Inc., 811 F.2d 90 (2d

Cir. 1987) (biographer included plaintiff's unregistered and unpublished
letters in biography of plaintiff, after which plaintiff registered letters and
sued). A typical case for prosecutors might involve pre-release piracy,
where the defendant obtains and distributes on the Internet a copy of a
new movie before it has been released in theaters, or a new video game
before it has been legitimately distributed to the public. See, e.g., United
States v. Gonzalez (S.D.N.Y. 2004) (criminal conviction for posting
advance copy of movie “The Hulk” on the Internet) (press release
available at http://www.usdoj.gov/criminal/cybercrime/gonzalezPlea.htm).
Although an unpublished work is protected by copyright, a plaintiff
in a civil case may not recover attorneys fees or statutory damages for
“any infringement of copyright in an unpublished work commenced
before the effective date of its registration.” 17 U.S.C. § 412(1). Given
that civil penalties are limited in such cases, a criminal defendant might
argue that criminal penalties for infringement of an unpublished work
before registration should similarly be foreclosed. To date, no court
appears to have addressed such an argument.
The preregistration procedure available under the Family
Entertainment and Copyright Act was designed to address the piracy of
certain types of unpublished works, but unfortunately does not resolve
whether registration or preregistration of unpublished works is a
prerequisite to criminal prosecution for infringement of such works.
Nevertheless, the preregistration procedures provides a relatively quick
and simple way for a copyright-holder in an unpublished work to satisfy
17 U.S.C. § 411(a). Therefore, prosecutors handling a case involving
infringement of unpublished and unregistered works should consider
whether preregistration is an option.

Should a court hold that registration is a prerequisite to criminal
prosecution, the question might arise whether the registration of one
version of a work satisfied § 411 if the infringement involved a different,
unregistered edition of the work. For instance, computer software is
frequently revised and republished in new versions, some registered, some
not. If the victim registered version 1.0 but not version 1.5, can the
government still pursue a criminal case for infringement of version 1.5?
Or, if the circumstances are reversed and the victim registered version 1.5
but not 1.0, can a case be brought for infringement of version 1.0?
Although there is no reported criminal case law on the issue, civil
authority suggests that registering a different version of a work will often
satisfy § 411. This is especially true if a later version was registered, but

earlier versions had not, which is sometimes referred to as a “backward-
looking” registration. In those cases, courts generally have allowed a case
to proceed based on infringement of the earlier (though unregistered)
version. See Murray Hill Publ'ns v. ABC Commc'ns, 264 F.3d 622, 650
(6th Cir. 2001); Streetwise Maps v. VanDam, Inc., 159 F.3d 739, 747
(2d Cir. 1998).
On the other hand, if an early version had been registered, but
subsequent versions were not (“forward-looking” registration), courts have
been less consistent about whether to allow claims for infringement of the
later, unregistered versions. Compare Montgomery v. Noga, 168 F.3d
1282, 1292-93 & n.17 (11th Cir. 1999); Liu v. Price Waterhouse LLP,
182 F. Supp. 2d 666, 675 (N.D. Ill. 2001) (“No registration is necessary
for a derivative work, so long as the underlying original work is
registered”); Central Point Software, Inc. v. Nugent, 903 F. Supp. 1057,
1060 & n.5 (E.D. Tex. 1995) (allowing infringement claim where
plaintiffs registered copyrights in earlier versions of software and
defendants copied subsequent versions derived from registered works);
and Video Pipeline v. Buena Vista Home Entertainment, 275 F. Supp. 2d
543, 556 (D.N.J. 2003) (holding court had jurisdiction over infringement
counterclaim where infringement of unregistered derivative work also
infringed element of original, registered work) with Johnson v. Gordon,
409 F.3d 12, 20 (1st Cir. 2005) (holding claims based on “new elements”
present in later, unregistered, “long version” of song could not proceed);
Well-Made Toy Mfg. Corp. v. Goffa, 354 F.3d 112 (2d Cir. 2003)
(holding registration for earlier, 20“ version of doll did not grant
jurisdiction for claim of infringement of later, 48” version).
If there is a consistent rule for “forward-looking” registration cases, it
appears to be that courts will likely allow an action for infringement of a
later, unregistered work that incorporates significant portions of an earlier,
registered work if the same entity owns both copyrights and the defendant
infringed elements that were present in the old registered version as well
as the newer one. See 2 Nimmer on Copyright § 7.16[B][2]; see also
Montgomery, 168 F.2d at 1292.
II.B.1.e. Proof of Copyright at Trial

At trial, the government typically proves the existence of a valid
copyright by introducing a certificate of registration. The certificate's
probative value depends on whether the work was registered earlier or
later than five years after the work was published. A certificate of
registration “made before or within five years after first publication of the
work shall constitute prima facie evidence of the validity of the

copyright.” 17 U.S.C. § 410(c) (emphasis added); see also United States
v. Taxe, 540 F.2d 961, 966 (9th Cir. 1976); United States v. Moore, 604
F.2d 1228, 1234 (9th Cir. 1979). Once the certificate of registration is
introduced by the government and accepted as authentic by the court, the
burden shifts to the defendant to prove that the copyright is not valid or
that the registration was obtained fraudulently, see, e.g., Autoskill, Inc. v.
National Educ. Support Sys., Inc., 994 F.2d 1476, 1487 (10th Cir. 1993),
after which the prosecutor may rebut with evidence showing that the
certificate is genuine, the registration was properly obtained, or otherwise
that the copyright is valid. If the work was registered more than five years
after its first publication, the certificate's probative value is left to the
court's discretion. See 17 U.S.C. § 410(c); Religious Tech. Ctr. v. Netcom
On-Line Comm. Servs., Inc., 923 F. Supp. 1231, 1241 (N.D. Cal. 1995);
Koontz v. Jaffarian, 617 F. Supp. 1108, 1111-12 (E.D. Va. 1985), aff'd,
787 F.2d 906 (4th Cir. 1986).
Certificates of registration should be obtained from the victim. The
Copyright Office has an online database of certifications and can provide
certified copies. See http://www.copyright.gov/records/; U.S. Copyright
Office, Information Circular No. 6, “Obtaining Access to and Copies of
Copyright Office Records and Deposits,” available at
http://www.copyright.gov/circs/circ6.html. But copyright owners may be
able to respond faster, since they should have retained their registration
certificates in the ordinary course of their business.
Although producing a copyright certificate is the preferred method of
proving validity and ownership of a valid copyright, it is not the only way
to do so. The parties can stipulate to the copyrights' validity. E.g., United
States v. Sherman, 576 F.2d 292, 296 (10th Cir. 1978). Courts may also
take judicial notice of a work's copyright registration. Island Software and
Computer Service, Inc. v. Microsoft Corp., 413 F.3d 257, 261 (2d Cir.
2005). See also United States v. Hux, 940 F.2d 314, 318 (8th Cir. 1991)
(allowing introduction of copyright certificates the morning of trial, but
noting other evidence previously given to defense provided ample basis for
plaintiff to establish, and defendant to challenge, existence of copyright),
overruled on other grounds by United States v. Davis, 978 F.2d 415 (8th
Cir. 1992); La Resolana Architects, PA v. Clay Realtors Angel Fire, 416
F.3d 1195, 1208 (10th Cir. 2005); see also United States v. Backer, 134
F.2d 533, 535-36 (2d Cir. 1943) (allowing civil proceeding where
Copyright Office had provided plaintiff with certificate due to error;
technical irregularities in the registration process should not invalidate an
otherwise proper registration). For instance, the government could
introduce testimony regarding the copyright owner's creation and fixation

of the work, evidence that the work is original, and that it was not a work
for hire created for someone else.
II.B.1.f. Copyright Notice

Prosecutors should confirm that the copyright in any work did not
lapse for failure to include a copyright notice when the work was first
published. The effect of publishing a copyrighted work without a
copyright notice depends on whether the work was first published before
or after March 1, 1989. For works published on or after March 1, 1989,
their publication without a copyright notice is of no moment. See Berne
Convention Implementation Act of 1988 (“BCIA”), Pub. L. No. 100-568,
102 Stat. 2853 (enacted October 31, 1988). For works published before
March 1, 1989, however, initial publication without a copyright notice
would have extinguished their copyright and consigned them to the public
domain. See 17 U.S.C. §§ 10, 19 et seq . (1909 Act); 17 U.S.C.
§ 405(a)(2) (1976 Act). Their loss of copyright protection would persist
to the present day, and thus preclude criminal prosecution for their
infringement today. See 2 Nimmer on Copyright §§ 7.02[C][1]-[3], at 7-
16 to 7-17.
As noted in the following Section, copyright notice on an infringed
work may be useful in proving a defendant's willfulness.
II.B.2. The Defendant Acted “Willfully”

II.B.2.a. Legal Standard
To establish criminal intent, the government must prove that the
defendant infringed the copyright willfully. See 17 U.S.C. § 506(a) (“Any
person who willfully infringes a copyright shall be punished ....”)
(emphasis added). “[E]vidence of reproduction or distribution of a
copyrighted work, by itself, shall not be sufficient to establish willful
infringement.” 17 U.S.C. § 506(a)(2). This was intended to require proof
of more than general intent and to ensure that, for instance, “an educator
who in good faith believes that he or she is engaging in a fair use of
copyrighted material could not be prosecuted under the bill.” 143 Cong.
Rec. 26,420-21 (1997).
The Supreme Court has recognized that “willful ... is a word of many
meanings, its construction often being influenced by its context.” Spies v.
United States , 317 U.S. 492, 497 (1943). This was reflected in
Congressional debate over the NET Act amendments to the Copyright
Act. Senator Hatch, the Chairman of the Senate Judiciary Committee,
advocated that in copyright crimes “'willful' ought to mean the intent to

violate a known legal duty,” 143 Cong. Rec. 26,420 (1997), because a
lower mens rea could cause “the net” of criminal sanctions “[to] be cast
too widely.” Id. Senator Hatch cited several cases in which the Supreme
Court had construed “willfulness” in this fashion when the substantive
law was complex, such as Cheek v. United States, 498 U.S. 192 (1991),
in which the Court held that the general principle that “ignorance of the
law or a mistake of law is no defense to criminal prosecution,” must yield
given the complexity of federal criminal tax statutes. In other words, the
defendant's good-faith misunderstanding of the legal duties imposed on
him by the tax laws would negate a finding of willfulness. Id. at 199. This
reasoning has been applied in other contexts as well. E.g., Ratzlaf v.
United States, 510 U.S. 135 (1994) (failure to report cash transactions
in excess of $10,000).
A lower standard for “willfulness” was advanced by Representatives
Goodlatte and Coble, who introduced and sponsored the bill in the
House. They rejected the notion that defendant must be familiar with the
copyright code and what constitutes infringement. Rather than require
“knowledge” of a legal duty not to infringe, they interpreted willfulness to
require only that a defendant have “reckless disregard” for copyrights:
The Government should not be required to prove that the defendant
was familiar with the criminal copyright statute or violated it
intentionally. Particularly in cases of clear infringement, the
willfulness standard should be satisfied if there is adequate proof that
the defendant acted with reckless disregard of the rights of the
copyright holder. In such circumstances, a proclaimed ignorance of
the law should not allow the infringer to escape conviction.
143 Cong. Rec. 24,325 (1997).
Aside from clarifying that evidence of infringement, by itself, does not
prove willfulness, see supra, Congress has left the term's definition to the
courts. See 143 Cong. Rec. 26,422 (remarks of Sen. Leahy) (“This
clarification does not change the current interpretation of the word
'willful' as developed by case law and as applied by [the Department of
Justice], nor does it change the definition of 'willful' as it is used elsewhere
in the Copyright Act.”); H.R. Rep. No. 102-997, at 4-5, reprinted in 1992
U.S.C.C.A.N. 3569, 3572-73 (discussion of Copyright Felony Act, Pub.
L. No. 102-561, 106 Stat. 4233 (1992)).
Most courts that have interpreted “willfulness” in criminal copyright
cases have adopted the more stringent standard advocated by Senator
Hatch: the intentional violation of a known legal duty. See 4 Nimmer on
Copyright § 15.01[A][2], at 15-6 to 15-7; United States v. Cross, 816

F.2d 297, 300-01 (7th Cir. 1987) (approving without comment a jury
instruction that an act is willful when it is committed “voluntarily, with
knowledge that it was prohibited by law, and with the purpose of violating
the law, and not by mistake, accident or in good faith,” and affirming
conviction because the record amply demonstrated that the defendant
“knowingly and voluntarily violated the copyright laws”); United States
v. Moran, 757 F. Supp. 1046, 1049 (D. Neb. 1991) (holding that willful
infringement means a “'voluntary, intentional violation of a known legal
duty'”) (quoting Cheek v. United States, 498 U.S. 192, 200 (1991)); see
also United States v. Sherman, 576 F.2d 292, 297 (10th Cir. 1978)
(upholding jury's verdict because jury “apparently either disbelieved the
genuineness of this contract [which defendants claimed had licensed their
conduct], or believed that defendants were not innocent of knowledge
that the tapes provided were copies from the original artists' records”, and
noting that “willfulness” required proof of specific intent, but without
clarifying whether that required proof that the defendants knew their
conduct was unlawful, or merely knowledge that they were selling copies).
Cf. United States v. Heilman, 614 F.2d 1133, 1138 (7th Cir. 1980)
(holding that the government had proved willfulness because the
defendant “chose to persist in conduct which he knew had 'a high
likelihood of being held by a court of competent jurisdiction to be a
violation of a criminal statute'”) (quoting trial court).
A minority of courts in criminal copyright cases have apparently
applied “willfulness” to set a lower bar for prosecution. United States v.
Backer, 134 F.2d 533, 535 (2d Cir. 1943) is frequently cited as applying
the lower standard, that of merely having the intent to carry out the
activities of infringement without knowledge that they constituted
infringement. In that case, the defendant had arranged for a manufacturer
to duplicate a copyrighted figurine as closely as possible without, in the
defendant's words, “copyright trouble.” Id. at 535. The Second Circuit
found the evidence sufficient to support willful infringement, noting there
could not “be any fair doubt that the appellant deliberately had the copies
made and deliberately sold them for profit.” Id. Some commentators have
characterized Backer as representing a circuit split. E.g., 4 Nimmer on
Copyright § 15.01[A][2] at 15-6; Mary Jane Saunders, Criminal
Copyright Infringement and the Copyright Felony Act, 71 Denv. U. L.
Rev. 671, 688 (1994); Sylvia N. Albert et al., Intellectual Property
Crimes, 42 Am. Crim. L. Rev. 631, 656-57 (2005).
It is not clear, however, that Backer represents a circuit split. The case
can also be read as holding the defendant's mention of “copyright trouble”
to be sufficient evidence of his knowledge of a legal duty not to infringe.
Moreover, more recent civil copyright cases suggest that the Second

Circuit interprets willfulness to require either actual knowledge that the
infringement violated the law, or perhaps “constructive knowledge” shown
by reckless disregard for whether the conduct violated copyright. Twin
Peaks Prods., Inc. v. Publ'ns Int'l, Ltd., 996 F.2d 1366, 1382 (2d Cir.
1993) (holding standard for willfulness to be “whether the defendant had
knowledge that its conduct represented infringement or perhaps recklessly
disregarded the possibility”); Fitzgerald Publ'g Co. v. Baylor Publ'g Co.,
807 F.2d 1110, 1115 (2d Cir. 1986) (same); Lydia Pallas Loren,
Digitization, Commodification, Criminalization: The Evolution of
Criminal Copyright Infringement and The Importance of the Willfulness
Requirement , 77 Wash. U. L.Q. 835, 879 (1999) (arguing that the
Second Circuit is actually not in disagreement with other circuits). This
approach is consistent the Seventh Circuit's ruling in United States v.
Heilman, a criminal copyright case holding that the government proved
willfulness because the defendant “chose to persist in conduct which he
knew had a high likelihood of being held by a court of competent
jurisdiction to be a violation of a criminal statute.” 614 F.2d at 1138
(citation and internal quotation marks omitted); see also 2 Paul
Goldstein, Copyright § 11.4.1, at 11:51-11:52 (2d ed. Supp. 1999)
(stating that the government must “prove that the defendant knew that
his acts constituted copyright infringement or, at least, knew that there
was a high probability that his acts constituted copyright infringement.”).
The majority rule in criminal copyright cases for a higher standard of
willfulness is also consistent with civil copyright cases, which likewise hold
that willfulness is not just an intent to copy, but rather an intent to
infringe. 4 Nimmer on Copyright § 14.04[B][3][a]; e.g., Twin Peaks
Prods., Inc., 996 F.2d at 1382; Danjaq, L.L.C. v. Sony Corp., 263 F.3d
942, 959 (9th Cir. 2001); RSO Records, Inc. v. Peri, 596 F. Supp. 849,
859 (S.D.N.Y. 1984) (holding, in civil action, that defendant's earlier
guilty plea to two counts of criminal copyright infringement sufficed to
show he knew similar conduct was unlawful). The issue arises in civil cases
when plaintiffs attempt to recover increased statutory damages, which are
available only for willful infringement. 17 U.S.C. § 504(c). Congress's use
of the term “willfulness” in closely proximate sections 504 and 506 of the
Copyright Act suggests that the term should be interpreted similarly in
both criminal and civil cases.
Given that willfulness requires an intent to infringe, or at least
constructive knowledge of infringement plus a reckless disregard of the
victim's rights, a finding of willfulness may be precluded if the defendant
acted with a good-faith belief that he was not infringing. See Section
II.B.2.b. of this Chapter.

II.B.2.b. Proof at Trial
“Willfulness is rarely provable by direct evidence, and most often can
be proven only by inference from the evidence introduced.” United States
v. Sherman, 576 F.2d at 297. Certain types of evidence in criminal
copyright cases have been found particularly relevant to determine the
defendant's intent:
• The defendant's acknowledgment that his or her conduct was
improper. See United States v. Manzer, 69 F.3d 222, 227-28 (8th
Cir. 1995) (defendant's admission in a published interview that
selling or giving away copyrighted computer chips was illegal, and
software program and packaging bore copyright notice); United
States v. Drebin , 557 F.2d 1316, 1324 (9th Cir. 1977)
(defendant's warning customers of FBI investigation and
recommending that customers “really be careful”); United States
v. Hux , 940 F.2d 314, 319 (8th Cir. 1991) (defendant's
admission to FBI that he knew modifying copyrighted
descrambler chips was infringement), overruled on other grounds
by United States v. Davis, 978 F.2d 415 (8th Cir. 1992); United
States v. Taxe , 540 F.2d 961, 968-69 (9th Cir. 1976)
(defendant's solicitation of attorney to lie about legality of tapes).
• Actual notice to the defendant that his own conduct was illegal.
See United States v. Cross, 816 F.2d 297, 300-01 (7th Cir. 1987)
(defendant's sale of pirated videotapes after FBI agents told him
that selling and renting unauthorized tapes was illegal).
• Notice to the defendant that another person's similar conduct
constituted infringement. See United States v. Heilman, 614 F.2d
1133, 1138 (7th Cir. 1980) (defendant's awareness that
government was prosecuting individuals engaged in conduct
similar to his own and that conduct had been ruled illegal by four
federal and three state courts).
• The defendant's past manufacture and distribution of pirated
works. See United States v. Whetzel, 589 F.2d 707, 712 (D.C.
Cir. 1978), abrogated on other grounds , Dowling v. United
States, 473 U.S. 207 (1985).
• The defendant's statement to Postal Service employee that others
were selling illegal DVDs in the area. United States v. Draper,
No. 7-05 CR 0004, 2005 WL 2746665, at *2 (W.D. Va. 2005).
• The defendant's frivolous or bad-faith claim of compliance with
copyright laws, which demonstrates a knowledge of copyright

laws. Cf. United States v. Gardner, 860 F.2d 1391, 1396 (7th
Cir. 1988) (holding that when seller of “black boxes” for receiving
unauthorized cable TV gave buyers a “Notice of Warning” that
disclaimed liability for illegal uses, it was “establish[ed] that he
was well aware that his actions were unlawful”).
Conversely, other factors may be relevant to finding an absence of
“willfulness”:
• Evidence of the defendant's good-faith belief that his conduct was
lawful, coupled with rational attempts to comply with the
copyright law as supposedly understood by the defendant.
Compare United States v. Moran, 757 F. Supp. 1046, 1051-53
(D. Neb. 1991) (court in bench trial finding police officer who
operated a “mom-and-pop” video rental business not guilty,
because he made single copies of lawfully purchased videos and
rented the copies only to prevent vandalism of original tapes, and
because his activities were “conducted in such a way as not to
maximize profits, which one assumes would have been his
purpose if he had acted willfully”) with United States v. Sherman,
576 F.2d 292, 297 (10th Cir. 1978) (affirming conviction of
defendants who claimed a good-faith belief that pirated tapes
they manufactured and sold were “sound-a-likes,” and thus
noninfringing). See also Danjaq, L.L.C. v. Sony Corp., 263 F.3d
942, 959 (9th Cir. 2001) (stating that one who has been notified
that his conduct constitutes copyright infringement, but who
reasonably and in good faith believes the contrary, has not acted
willfully)(citing 4 Nimmer on Copyright § 14.04).
• Acting pursuant to legal counsel, even if the advice was erroneous,
if the defendant disclosed all relevant circumstances to his
attorney and followed the attorney's advice in good faith. See 4
Nimmer on Copyright § 14.04[B][3][a]; David M. Nissman,
Proving Federal Crimes §§ 27.07-.08 (Corpus Juris Publishing
2004).
Possible alternative charges that require lower mens rea standards are
discussed in Section II.F. of this Chapter.
II.B.3. Infringement of the Copyright

The next element is that the defendant infringed a copyright. See 17
U.S.C. § 506(a). “Infringement” refers to the violation of one or more of
the exclusive rights granted to a copyright owner at 17 U.S.C. § 106.
Infringement is implicitly defined in 17 U.S.C. § 501(a):

Anyone who violates any of the exclusive rights of the copyright
owner as provided by [17 U.S.C. §§ 106-122] or of the author as
provided by [17 U.S.C. § 106A], or who imports copies or
phonorecords into the United States in violation of [17 U.S.C.
§ 602], is an infringer of the copyright.
Consequently, infringement may include more than violation of the
rights enumerated in § 106 (and also include violations of the rights to
exclude imports under § 602, or the rights of certain authors to
attribution and integrity defined in § 106A), and at the same time, may
not extend to all violations of the rights in § 106 (because the rights
enumerated in § 106 are “subject to [the limitations of] §§ 107 through
122”). See § 106. For purposes of criminal enforcement, the relevant
types of infringement are those enumerated in § 106. (An author's rights
to attribution and integrity under § 106A(a) are not enforceable
criminally. See 18 U.S.C. § 506(f).)
Section 106 of Title 17 sets out the copyright owner's exclusive rights.
These rights consist of the rights “to do and to authorize” the following:
• to reproduce a work in copies or phonorecords, § 106(1)
• to prepare derivative works, § 106(2)
• to distribute copies or phonorecords of the work to the public,
§ 106(3)
• to perform the work publicly (for certain types of works),
§ 106(4), (6)
• to display a work publicly (for certain types of works), § 106(5)
Sections 107 through 122 limit these rights, the most notable
limitations being, for criminal enforcement purposes, the public's right to
fair use, the first sale doctrine, limitations on rental of software and
musical sound recordings, and exceptions for installing and backing up
software, all of which are discussed in detail in Section II.C. of this
Chapter.
Felony penalties apply only to infringement of the reproduction or
distribution rights. See 17 U.S.C. § 506(a). Specifically, felony penalties
apply only if the infringement involved either “reproduction and
distribution” of a minimum number and value of works, see 17 U.S.C.
§ 506(a)(1)(A) (numbered § 506(a)(1) before the Apr. 27, 2005
amendments) and 18 U.S.C. § 2319(b)(1); 17 U.S.C. § 506(a)(1)(B)
(numbered § 506(a)(2) before the Apr. 27, 2005 amendments) and 18
U.S.C. § 2319(c)(1), or if the infringement involved “distribution of a

work being prepared for commercial distribution,” by making it available
on a publicly-accessible computer network. See 17 U.S.C. § 506(a)(1)(C)
(enacted Apr. 27, 2005), 18 U.S.C. § 2319(d)(1). See Section II.B.4.c. of
this Chapter.
Misdemeanor penalties apply to infringement by reproduction or
distribution that meet a lower numeric and monetary threshold—one or
more copies of one or more copyrighted works, having a total retail value
of more than $1,000. See 17 U.S.C. § 506(a)(1)(B), 18 U.S.C.
§ 2319(c)(3). Misdemeanor penalties also cover willful infringement of
any of the exclusive rights under § 106, if committed for commercial
advantage or private financial gain. See 17 U.S.C. § 506(a)(1)(A), 18
U.S.C. § 2319(b)(3), and the discussion in Section II.B.4. of this Chapter.
Criminal prosecutions mainly focus on reproduction and distribution,
because these are generally the most serious infringements and they incur
the most significant penalties. This is not to say, however, that the
Department would not or could not investigate and prosecute copyright
misdemeanors for a profit-motivated public performance, public display,
or derivative work.
II.B.3.a. Infringement by Reproduction or Distribution

Felony penalties are provided for willful infringement committed “by
the reproduction or distribution” of ten or more copies (or phonorecords)
of one or more copyrighted works, with a total retail value of $2,500 or
more. There are actually two separate combinations of statutory
provisions that provide felony penalties for this type of conduct.
Infringement committed with or without the purpose of commercial
advantage or private financial gain can fall under 17 U.S.C.
§ 506(a)(1)(B) (numbered § 506(a)(2) before the Apr. 27, 2005
amendments), if the willful infringement was committed “by the
reproduction or distribution, including by electronic means, during any
180-day period, of 1 or more copies or phonorecords of 1 or more
copyrighted works, which have a total retail value of more than $1000.”
For these offenses, 18 U.S.C. § 2319(c)(1) provides felony penalties “if
the offense consists of the reproduction or distribution of 10 or more
copies or phonorecords of 1 or more copyrighted works, which have a
total retail value of $2,500 or more.” The statutory maximum penalty is
3 years' imprisonment, 6 for repeat offenders. See § 2319(c).
Infringement committed for commercial advantage or private financial
gain can also fall under 17 U.S.C. § 506(a)(1)(A) (numbered § 506(a)(1)
before the Apr. 27, 2005 amendments), which is a felony if the offense

“consists of the reproduction or distribution, including by electronic
means, during any 180-day period, of at least 10 copies or phonorecords,
of 1 or more copyrighted works, which have a total retail value of more
than $2,500.” 18 U.S.C. § 2319(b)(1).The statutory maximum penalty
is 5 years' imprisonment, 10 for repeat offenders.
There is a slight variation in language between the two provisions that
set forth a $2,500 felony threshold: 18 U.S.C. § 2319(c)(1) requires a
total retail value of “$2,500 or more,” whereas § 2319(b)(1) requires
“more than $2,500.” It is unclear whether this variation was intentional.
In addition to the felony penalties discussed in the prior paragraphs,
there are also felony penalties in 17 U.S.C. § 506(a)(1)(C) (enacted Apr.
27, 2005) for distribution over a computer network accessible by the
public. See Section II.B.3.b. of this Chapter.
The reproduction and distribution rights are set forth in 17 U.S.C.
§ 106(1) (exclusive right “to reproduce the copyrighted work in copies or
phonorecords”) and § 106(3) (exclusive right “to distribute copies or
phonorecords of the copyrighted work to the public by sale or other
transfer of ownership, or by rental, lease, or lending”).
• Definition of Copies and Phonorecords
The term “copies” is often used to refer generically to any material
object in which a copyrighted work has been fixed. However, the
Copyright Act reserves the term “copies” only for works other than sound
recordings. “Copies” are defined as “material objects, other than
phonorecords, in which a work is fixed by any method now known or later
developed, and from which the work can be perceived, reproduced, or
otherwise communicated, either directly or with the aid of a machine or
device.” 17 U.S.C. § 101. “Phonorecords are what we think of as copies
of sound recordings, and are defined as ”material objects in which sounds,
other than those accompanying a motion picture or other audiovisual
work, are fixed by any method now known or later developed, and from
which the sounds can be perceived, reproduced, or otherwise
communicated, either directly or with the aid of a machine or device.'” Id.
Thus, examples of a “phonorecord” would include an audio tape or CD,
or an MP3 file. Examples of “copies” would include a book, a painting, a
piece of sheet music, or a sculpture. A software program on disc or in a file
on a computer, or a movie on DVD or videotape, would also be “copies,”
even though these objects might also include an audio sound track.
Somewhat confusingly, the terms “copy” and “phonorecord” can also
refer to the original object in which the copyrighted work was fixed, such

as a handwritten manuscript, or original studio tapes for a sound
recording.
• “Stealing”
Infringement is often referred to as a form of theft. For example, 18
U.S.C. § 2319 is located in a chapter of the criminal code entitled, “Stolen
Property.” Yet infringement is distinct from common-law theft, and
requires no showing that the defendant “stole” or deprived another person
of a physical copy of a work. Making additional copies of a book, movie,
or other work may constitute infringement, even if the defendant
obtained his original source for additional copies lawfully. Likewise,
although publicly distributing copies that were stolen from the copyright
owner could constitute infringement, it is not always necessary to show
that copies were “stolen” in order to show infringing distribution.
II.B.3.a.i. Reproduction
Reproduction encompasses a wide array of conduct, ranging from a
novelist's plagiarizing substantial portions of someone else's book or a
musician's sampling several notes from a previously-recorded song, to
using a computer to rip an audio track into MP3 format or making a bit-
for-bit copy of a movie on DVD. In most criminal cases, infringing
reproduction involves the production of exact, or nearly-exact, duplicates
through digital means, as with computer programs and movies on DVD.
Copying need not be so blatant or literal to qualify as infringement, but
criminal cases rarely involve defendants who have copied only a small
portion of a copyrighted work. Disputes over whether one song sounds
too alike another, or whether a movie screenplay copies dialogue or
characters from an earlier screenplay, are generally best left to civil
lawsuits. Nevertheless, some cases of less-than-wholesale, verbatim
copying of an entire work may deserve criminal prosecution.
• Proof of Infringement by Reproduction
The best evidence of infringement by reproduction is direct evidence
that the defendant copied the victim's work, including (for example)
eyewitness testimony, or even computer logs indicating the copying of
particular discs or files. Typically, criminal copyright cases will involve
complete, verbatim copying of many copyrighted works, and defendants
are generally unlikely to challenge this issue credibly. In fact, defendants
often even advertise or otherwise mark the infringing copies as being
copies. However, when the copies alleged to be infringing are not
essentially identical to the original work, prosecutors may need to prove
infringement in greater depth.

Direct evidence of copying is best, but circumstantial evidence may
suffice. The circumstantial test is whether (1) the defendant had access to
the copyrighted work and (2) that defendant's work is “substantially” or
“probatively” similar to the copyrighted material. See Taylor Corp. v. Four
Seasons Greetings, LLC, 403 F.3d 958 (8th Cir. 2005); Dam Things from
Denmark v. Russ Berrie & Co., 290 F.3d 548, 562 (3d Cir. 2002);
Kepner-Tregoe, Inc. v. Leadership Software, Inc., 12 F.3d 527, 532 (5th
Cir. 1994).
The test of “substantial” or “probative similarity” is whether,
considering the two works as a whole, including both the copyrightable
elements and the uncopyrightable ones (such as basic ideas or public-
domain expressions that are not eligible for copyright), a reasonable
person would conclude that the defendant had actually copied the work
from the original. See Positive Black Talk Inc. v. Cash Money Records,
Inc., 394 F.3d 357, 370 n.9 (5th Cir. 2004); McCulloch v. Albert E. Price,
Inc., 823 F.2d 316, 318-19 (9th Cir. 1987), disagreed with on other
grounds, Fogerty v. Fantasy, Inc., 510 U.S. 517 (1994); Atari, Inc. v.
North American Philips Consumer Elec. Corp., 672 F.2d 607, 614 (7th
Cir. 1982). This standard focuses on the works' similarities rather than
their differences. Thus, “[i]t is enough that substantial parts [of a
copyrighted work] were lifted; no plagiarist can excuse the wrong by
showing how much of his work he did not pirate.” United States v.
O'Reilly, 794 F.2d 613, 615 (11th Cir. 1986) (affirming conviction for
infringement of copyright in video games where approximately 70% of
defendant's code was identical to copyrighted original) (quoting Sheldon
v. Metro-Goldwyn Pictures Corp., 81 F.2d 49, 56 (2d Cir. 1936) (L.
Hand, J.)).
Note that this test is designed to determine whether copying occurred,
not necessarily whether that copying constituted infringement. If the
court determines that actual copying has occurred, only then does it assess
whether the copying was substantial enough to constitute infringement.
Unfortunately, many courts also refer to this test as one of “substantial
similarity,” which can lead to confusion. See, e.g., Sid & Marty Krofft
Television Prods., Inc. v. McDonald's Corp., 562 F.2d 1157, 1164-65
(9th Cir. 1977) (referring to the test of whether copying occurred as an
“extrinsic” test of substantial similarity, while calling the test of whether
infringement occurred, i.e., whether copyrightable elements were copied,
an “intrinsic” test of substantial similarity). To avoid this confusion, many
courts prefer to use the term “probative” similarities to show “actual
copying,” and “substantial similarity” to show “actionable copying.” See
Positive Black Talk Inc. v. Cash Money Records, Inc., 394 F.3d 357, 370
(5th Cir. 2004); Dam Things from Denmark, 290 F.3d at 562 & n. 19.

If the copyrighted work and the defendant's work are “strikingly
similar,” the first element of access may be assumed without proof (at
least in civil copyright cases), especially when the copyrighted work was
widely available. See, e.g., Playboy Enters. v. Frena, 839 F. Supp. 1552,
1556 (M.D. Fla. 1993) (holding proof of access unnecessary when
defendant made “essentially exact” copies of copyrighted photos that
appeared in nationally-circulated magazine).
In practice, the government demonstrates “substantial” or “probative”
similarity, as well as infringement, by comparing the suspect copy side-by-
side against an authentic original. Although it is generally better to
compare against the original maintained on file at the Register of
Copyrights, it is not absolutely necessary—an authenticated duplicate of
the original work will suffice. See O'Reilly, 794 F.2d at 615; United States
v. Shabazz, 724 F.2d 1536, 1539 (11th Cir. 1984). Victims may assist the
government with these comparisons. See Chapter X of this Manual; cf.
United States v. Sherman , 576 F.2d 292, 295 (10th Cir. 1978)
(mentioning that suspected pirated tapes were checked by record
company before search warrant issued).
• Statutory Exceptions for Reproduction
As noted above, copyright owners' rights are limited in 17 U.S.C.
§§ 107-122. Several of these provisions particularly limit the reproduction
right, including § 107 (“fair use”), § 108 (certain copying by libraries and
archives), § 115 (compulsory license for making phonorecords of musical
works), and § 117 (certain limited copying of software). See Section II.C.
of this Chapter.
II.B.3.a.ii. Distribution
Section 106(3) of Title 17 grants copyright owners the exclusive right
“to distribute copies or phonorecords of the copyrighted work to the
public by sale or other transfer of ownership, or by rental, lease, or
lending.” 17 U.S.C. § 106(3). The distribution right is implicated by a
wide variety of conduct, including the sale of books at a bookstore, used
CDs at a garage sale, and pirated DVDs at a flea market; the lending of
books by a library; and transferring pirated software to users from “warez”
websites on the Internet. Distribution is not limited to sales, but also
includes other transfers of ownership such as gifts or barter. Ford Motor
Co. v. Summit Motor Prods., Inc., 930 F.2d 277, 299 (3d Cir. 1991)
(citing H.R. Rep. No. 94-1476, reprinted in 1976 U.S.C.C.A.N. 5659,
5675-76 and 17 U.S.C.A. § 106 (West 1997) (historical note)).

• “To the Public”
Although often referred to merely as “distribution,” the right
protected by § 106 is the right to distribute copies or phonorecords of the
work “to the public.” § 106(3) (emphasis added). Giving a single copy of
a work to a family member or close friend may not qualify as a
“distribution” for copyright purposes, although courts have found under
some circumstances that even the giving of a single copy to one person
may constitute “distribution to the public.” Ford Motor Co., 930 F.2d at
299-300.
The Copyright Act does not expressly define “distribution” or
“public,” except through definitions of other closely-related terms. The
term “publication” is defined in § 101, and is often used interchangeably
with distribution, and courts have noted that the two terms are “for all
practical purposes synonymous.” Ford Motor Co., 930 F.2d at 299; see
also Harper & Row, Publishers, Inc. v. Nation Enters., 471 U.S. 539, 552
(1985); 2 Nimmer on Copyright § 8.11[A], at 8-148 to 8-149. Section
101 also defines the term “publicly,” with respect to performances and
display of works, as referring to “place[s] open to the public or any place
where a substantial number of persons outside of a normal circle of a
family and its social acquaintances is gathered.” “Distribution” is not
limited to sales, but also includes other transfer of ownership such as gifts
or barter. Ford Motor Co., 930 F.2d at 299 citing H. Rep. 94-1476, 94th
Cong., 2d Sess. 62, reprinted in 1976 U.S. Code Cong. & Admin. News
5659, 5675-76).
For cases discussing whether distribution “to the public” in several
contexts, such as computer networks and subscription based services, see
Section II.B.3.c.ii. of this Chapter.
• Importation
Infringing articles are often manufactured overseas and then shipped
into the United States for distribution. Under 17 U.S.C. § 602,
importation of infringing copies into the United States without
permission of the copyright owner generally constitutes infringement of
the distribution right. Although § 602 specifies that unauthorized
importation is “actionable under § 501,” it does not mention criminal
actions under § 506. In cases involving importation, prosecutors may also
consider charging the defendant with bringing goods into the United
States by false statements, 18 U.S.C. § 542, or with smuggling goods, 18
U.S.C. § 545.

• Making Works Available Without Transferring Them
It is unclear whether a defendant who merely makes copyrighted
material available to others has infringed the distribution right without
any evidence of an actual transfer of infringing works. This question might
arise if a defendant on a peer-to-peer file-sharing network made
copyrighted movies, music, or software available to the public by placing
them in a shared area of his networked desktop computer, but his
computer contained no records of whether or how many times these files
were downloaded by others. If there is no evidence that the copyrighted
works the defendant “made available” were actually transferred to another
computer (or indeed, if there is evidence that no such transfers actually
occurred, despite the defendant's having made the files available), has the
defendant nevertheless infringed the distribution right in the works?
Several civil cases addressing online infringement state, or at least
suggest, that the distribution right is infringed at the point when the
defendant makes a file publicly available. See A&M Records v. Napster,
239 F.3d 1004, 1014 (9th Cir. 2001) (noting that “Napster users who
upload file names to the search index for others to copy violate plaintiffs'
distribution rights. Napster users who download files containing
copyrighted music violate plaintiffs' reproduction rights.”); Playboy
Enters. v. Chuckleberry Publ'g, Inc., 939 F. Supp. 1032, 1039 (S.D.N.Y.
1996) (uploading content on Internet and inviting users to download it
violates exclusive publication right); Playboy Enters. v. Russ Hardenburgh,
Inc. , 982 F. Supp. 503, 513 (N.D. Ohio 1997) (“Defendants
disseminated unlawful copies of PEI photographs to the public by
adopting a policy in which RNE employees moved those copies to the
generally available files instead of discarding them.”); Getaped.Com, Inc.
v. Cangemi, 188 F. Supp. 2d 398, 402 (S.D.N.Y. 2002) (holding that
material on website was published when it was placed on website and
available for viewing or downloading).
A case frequently cited for the proposition that “making available”
violates the distribution right is Hotaling v. Church of Jesus Christ of
Latter-Day Saints, 118 F.3d 199, 203 (4th Cir. 1997). At issue in
Hotaling was whether a church library open to the public had distributed
the plaintiff's work by having it in its collection and listing it in its card
catalog, even though no evidence indicated that the work had actually
been borrowed or viewed by library patrons. The defendant argued that
holding the work in its collection constituted a mere offer to distribute,
at most, not an actual distribution. The court sided with the plaintiffs:
When a public library adds a work to its collection, lists the work in
its index or catalog system, and makes the work available to the

borrowing or browsing public, it has completed all the steps necessary
for distribution to the public. At that point, members of the public
can visit the library and use the work. Were this not to be considered
distribution within the meaning of § 106(3), a copyright holder would
be prejudiced by a library that does not keep records of public use,
and the library would unjustly profit by its own omission.
Id. at 203. At least one court considering Hotaling focused on the
opinion's concern with potential prejudice from a library that kept no
records, and suggested that the same logic might apply in online cases
where no records are kept. In Arista Records, Inc. v. MP3Board, Inc., No.
00CIV.4660(SHS), 2002 WL 1997918, at *4 (S.D.N.Y. Aug. 29, 2002)
(citing Hotaling, 118 F.3d at 204), the court considered that “a copyright
holder may not be required to prove particular instances of use by the
public when the proof is impossible to produce because the infringer has
not kept records of public use,” but declined to find that an actual
distribution had occurred based on the facts before it (in which
investigators for the record industry had determined that hyperlinks on
the defendant's website pointed to infringing audio files). Id.
Only one criminal decision has addressed this question, albeit in the
context of deciding whether state court charges were preempted by federal
copyright law: “Posting software on a bulletin board where others can
access and download it is distribution ..... which is governed by the
[federal] copyright laws.” State v. Perry, 697 N.E.2d 624, 628 (Ohio
1998).
The Copyright Office states that U.S. copyright law includes a
“making available” right that covers making files available on the Internet.
See U.S. Copyright Office, DMCA Section 104 Report , at 93-95 (August
2001). This, however, does little to resolve the issue for criminal cases,
because the Copyright Office characterizes this “making available right”
as resulting from a combination of the distribution, reproduction, public
display, and public performance rights. Id. at 94. Because the felony
copyright provisions apply only to infringement of the distribution and
reproduction rights, it is unclear whether “making available” (as the
Copyright Office interprets it) can support a felony charge.
Moreover, a number of federal courts have held that no distribution
occurs unless and until an infringing copy is actually disseminated. See
Obolensky v. G.P. Putnam's Sons, 628 F. Supp. 1552, 1555 (S.D.N.Y.)
(directing verdict for defendants after jury trial because the right to
distribute is not violated “where the defendant offers to sell copyrighted
materials but does not consummate a sale” or “where there is copying, but
no sale of the material copied”), aff'd, 795 F.2d 1005 (2d Cir. 1986);

accord Paramount Pictures Corp. v. Labus, No. 89-C-797-C, 1990 WL
120642, at *4 (W.D. Wis. Mar. 23, 1990); National Car Rental Sys., Inc.
v. Computer Assocs. Int'l, Inc., 991 F.2d 426, 430 (8th Cir. 1993)
(holding that distribution requires the transfer of an actual copy, as
§ 106(3) grants the copyright owner the “exclusive right publicly to sell,
give away, rent or lend any material embodiment of his work”) (quoting
2 Nimmer on Copyright § 8.11[A], at 8-123 (emphasis added by National
Car Rental)) cf. In re: Aimster Copyright Litig., 252 F. Supp. 2d 634, 643
(N.D. Ill. 2002) (noting, without analysis, that a peer-to-peer user “with
copyrighted music files on his hard drive available for download can [once
another user searches for and locates a file on the first user's computer]
thereafter become an unauthorized distributor of that copyrighted music
as soon as another Aimster user initiates a transfer of that file.”) aff'd, 334
F.3d 693 (7th Cir. 2003) (_____ discussing point). The leading copyright
treatise also supports this view. See 2 Nimmer on Copyright § 8.11[A] at
8-149 (“Infringement of [the right to distribute] requires an actual
dissemination of either copies or phonorecords.”).
To date, the only case to squarely address “making available” in the
context of peer-to-peer networks and the new “making available” offense
in 17 U.S.C. § 506(a)(1)(C) is In re Napster, Inc. Copyright Litig., 377
F. Supp. 2d 796 (N.D. Cal. 2005). In that opinion, the court considered
the plaintiffs' motion for summary judgment on their claims that Napster
had directly infringed the plaintiffs' copyrights by creating and
maintaining an indexing system that allowed users to upload and
download infringing music files. Id. at 802. The key question was
“whether the Copyright Act requires proof of the actual dissemination of
a copy or phonorecord in order to establish the unlawful distribution of
a copyrighted work in violation of 17 U.S.C. § 160(3).” Id. The court
concluded that distribution did not include the mere offer to distribute a
copyrighted work, given the plain meaning and legislative history of the
terms “distribution” and “publication.” See id. at 803-04. The court
concluded that “to the extent Hotaling suggests that a mere offer to
distribute a copyrighted work gives rise to liability under section 106(3),
that view is contrary to the weight of [the] above-cited authorities.” Id. at
803 (citations omitted). Finally, the court rejected the argument that the
“making available” language in the new offense at 17 U.S.C.
§ 506(a)(1)(C), discussed in Section II.B.3.c.ii. of this Chapter, evinced
Congress's intent that “making available” was a type of distribution,
concluding that § 506(a)(1)(C) made willful copyright infringement and
“making available” two separate elements. Napster, 377 F. Supp. 2d at
805.

Given this backdrop, courts deciding criminal cases would likely
require proof of actual dissemination of copies, as opposed to evidence
that the defendant merely “made [infringing works] available,” if only to
satisfy the rule of lenity. See United States v. Wiltberger, 18 U.S. 76, 95
(1820); Dowling v. United States, 473 U.S. 207, 213, 228-29 (1985)
(applying rule of lenity to construe stolen property laws narrowly in light
of copyright law). Moreover, courts might consider Congress's choice not
to punish attempts in § 506 as further evidence that distribution, in
criminal cases, requires an actual transfer of an infringing copy to the
public.
Some of the civil cases in which proof of actual dissemination has not
been required suggest an alternative rule—that where, due to the
defendant's actions, no records exist of actual transfers, the court may
infer or presume that actual dissemination took place. See Hotaling, 118
F.3d 199; Arista Records, 2002 WL 1997918. That rule, however, might
not be adopted in criminal cases, in which infringing distribution must be
proven beyond a reasonable doubt.
As a practical matter, evidence of actual infringing transfers
strengthens other aspects of the case. Even if a theory of distribution
without dissemination were accepted by the court, a jury might
nevertheless reject it—either in sympathy toward a defendant who
ostensibly copied nothing, or by concluding that the defendant could not
have understood that his conduct constituted infringement sufficiently to
establish willful behavior. See the discussion of willfulness in Section
II.B.2. of this Chapter.
When proving that the defendant actually distributed infringing
copies, distributions to law enforcement officers or to agents working for
the victim should suffice, as a matter of law. See Gamma Audio & Video
v. Ean-Chea, No. 91-11615-2, 1992 WL 168186 at *3 n.5 (D. Mass. July
3, 1992), rev'd in part on other grounds, 11 F.3d 1106 (1st Cir. 1993);
Paramount v. Labus, 1990 WL 120642 at *5.
The government need not prove an actual dissemination if the charge
is conspiracy to violate the criminal copyright laws by means of
distribution. Conspiracy is an inchoate crime, so the government need not
prove that the underlying crime of distribution was completed.
• First Sale
Under 17 U.S.C. § 109, it is not an infringement for the owner of a
particular, lawfully-acquired copy or phonorecord of a work to sell or
otherwise dispose of that copy. This exception is often referred to as the
“first sale” doctrine. So, for example, a person who purchases a book at a

bookstore may later resell the book at a yard sale or donate it to a library,
without the copyright-holder's permission. Although first sale is treated as
a defense in civil cases, some criminal copyright cases have held that the
government must plead and prove the absence of a first sale as an element
of the offense. See Section II.C.4.c. of this Chapter.

Copyrighted Works With a Total Retail Value Exceeding
$2,500 Within a 180-Day Period
II.B.3.b.i. Generally
The final element for felony offenses under 17 U.S.C. § 506(a)(1)(A)
and (B) (numbered § 506(a)(1),(2) before the Apr. 27, 2005
amendments) is that the infringement consisted of the “reproduction or
distribution, including by electronic means, during any 180-day period,
of at least 10 copies or phonorecords, of 1 or more copyrighted works,
which have a total retail value of more than $2,500.” 18
U.S.C. § 2319(b)(1); see also 18 U.S.C. § 2319(c)(1) (alternative felony
provision, applying when value is “$2,500 or more”). For definition of
“copies” and “phonorecords,” see Section II.B.3.a. of this Chapter
(discussing 17 U.S.C. § 101).
Congress reserved felony penalties for those who copy or distribute a
minimum of 10 copies to exclude from felony prosecution low-level
infringement such as “children making copies for friends as well as other
incidental copying of copyrighted works having a relatively low retail
value,” and also to avoid having the criminal provisions used as a “tool of
harassment” in business disputes involving issues such as reverse
engineering or the scope of licenses. H.R. Rep. No. 102-997, at 6 (1992),
reprinted in 1992 U.S.C.C.A.N. 3569, 3574.
Congress used the phrase “of one or more copyrighted works” as a
way “to permit aggregation of different works of authorship to meet the
required number of copies and retail value.” Id. Congress gave as an
example a defendant who reproduces 5 copies of a copyrighted word-
processing computer program with a retail value of $1,300 and 5 copies
of a copyrighted spreadsheet computer program also with a retail value of
$1,300. Aggregating these reproductions “would satisfy the requirement
of reproducing 10 copies having a retail value of at least $2,500, if done
within a 180-day period.” Id.

II.B.3.b.ii. Definition of “Retail Value” in this Context
Congress left the term “retail value” “deliberately undefined, since in
most cases it will represent the price at which the work is sold through
normal retail channels.” Id.
Under both the plain meaning of the statutory text and the legislative
history of the 1992 Copyright Felony Act, “retail value” in this provision
was intended to refer to the retail value of the infringed item, i.e., the
authentic item that was infringed, in the market in which it is sold. By
contrast, the sentencing guidelines use either the value of the “infringed
item” or the “infringing item” to compute the sentencing offense level,
depending on the circumstances of the crime. See the discussion of
U.S.S.G. § 2B5.3 cmt. n.2(C) in Section VIII.C.1.c.iii. of this Manual.
Determining the retail value of a pre-release work can be challenging
because pre-release works have no legitimate retail value. Congress
acknowledged the problem and offered several solutions:
At the same time, the Committee recognizes that copyrighted works
are frequently infringed before a retail value has been established, and
that in some cases, copyrighted works are not marketed through
normal retail channels. Examples include motion pictures [sic] prints
distributed only for theatrical release, and beta-test versions of
computer programs. In such cases, the courts may look to the
suggested retail price, the wholesale price, the replacement cost of the
item, or financial injury caused to the copyright owner.
H.R. Rep. No. 102-997, at 7 (1992) (emphasis added), reprinted in 1992
U.S.C.C.A.N. 3569, 3575. If the infringed item has no retail value, the
important consideration is the harm to the copyright owner, rather than
the (presumably smaller value of) profits to the infringer. See id., 1992
U.S.C.C.A.N. at 3574-75 (statement of Sen. Hatch); 138 Cong. Rec.
34,371 (1992). Although the Family Entertainment and Copyright Act
(“FECA”) created a new felony offense to address piracy of “work[s] being
prepared for commercial distribution” when committed online, the Act
does not specify how the “retail value” of such works should be
determined (and although the new offense at 17 U.S.C. § 506(a)(1)(C)
does not require proof of a minimum value, pre-release piracy may still be
charged under the other felony copyright provisions in § 506(a)(1)(A),(B),
which, in conjunction with 18 U.S.C. § 2319, do).
By way of comparison, the sentencing guidelines now specify that pre-
release works—“work[s] being prepared for commercial distribution,” in
the guideline's parlance—should be valued for sentencing purposes at the
anticipated retail value of legitimate works upon legitimate commercial

release. See U.S.S.G. § 2B5.3 cmt. n.2(A)(vi) (amended Oct. 24, 2005).
However, in pre-release cases the guidelines also provide for a 2-level
enhancement. See id. § 2B5.3(b)(2) (amended Oct. 24, 2005). See
Section VIII.C.1.c.iii. of this Manual.
Calculating a work's retail value can be more complicated when the
work has been published in multiple versions—which often occurs with
software—especially if the court determines that registration or
preregistration is a precondition to criminal prosecution. See Section
II.B.1.d. of this Chapter. As noted there, civil actions for infringement are
permitted only for registered works. Courts addressing the infringement
of an unregistered version of a software program of which earlier versions
had been registered, have allowed damages only to the extent that the
infringed material consists of material from earlier, registered versions.
The theory behind this limitation is that an unauthorized copy of the
unregistered version is, in reality, not an infringement of the unregistered
version itself, but rather an infringement of the earlier registered version
through the copying of the unregistered version. See, e.g., Montgomery
v. Noga, 168 F.3d 1282, 1292 (11th Cir. 1999); Well-Made Toy Mfg.
Corp. v. Goffa Intern. Corp., 210 F. Supp. 2d 147, 158 (E.D.N.Y. 2002);
2 Nimmer on Copyright § 7.16[B][2].
On the other hand, the Eleventh Circuit in Montgomery v. Noga
upheld a jury instruction that permitted the jury to calculate the plaintiff's
actual damages by considering the market value of the unregistered
version:
Having held that the defendants infringed Montgomery's registered
copyright in VPIC 2.9a by placing VPIC 4.3 on FLD discs, ... it
follows that the jury properly could consider evidence of the injury
that the defendants' infringement caused to the value of subsequent
unregistered VPIC versions derived from version 2.9a—such as VPIC
4.3—in order to determine the extent of the injury to the value of
Montgomery's registered copyright at the time of infringement.
***
Obviously, Montgomery's damages could not adequately be measured
solely by reference to the market value of VPIC 2.9a as a stand-alone
computer program; this value presumably was quite low at the time
of the infringement given that revised versions of the program were
then available.
168 F.3d at 1294-95. Although the court reviewed the instruction under
the highly deferential “plain error” standard because the defendants had
not objected to it at trial, see id., the holding should nevertheless support

the analogous proposition that if the infringed work is an unregistered
version of software that had been derived from an earlier registered
version, the appropriate measure for purposes of 18 U.S.C. § 2319 should
be the value of the unregistered version.
To charge a criminal copyright violation as a felony, the government
must also prove that the total retail value of the infringing copies exceeded
$2,500. This threshold has one minor complication: the felony threshold
is “more than $2,500” when the defendant acted with a profit motive, 18
U.S.C. § 2319(b)(1), but only “$2,500 or more” when the defendant
acted without a profit motive, 18 U.S.C. § 2319(c)(1). To be safe, each
felony indictment should simply charge a value greater than $2,500.
These technical requirements are sometimes difficult to prove. For
example, if a defendant operated a video store that rented only pirated
videos, but kept no records that describe who did what and at what time,
it might be difficult to prove that the defendant himself reproduced or
distributed the videos, or that he did so within a particular 180-day
period. If faced with such a case, the government may wish to consider
alternative charges—such as conspiracy to commit felony criminal
copyright infringement; misdemeanor copyright infringement (which
reduces the number of copies to 1 and the retail value threshold to
$1,000; see Section II.B.5. of this Chapter); 18 U.S.C. § 2318 (counterfeit
or illicit labels, documentation, or packaging for copyrighted works); or 18
U.S.C. § 2320 (trafficking in goods, services, labels, documentation, or
packaging with counterfeit marks)—that have no numerical or monetary
thresholds. Section 2320 also has the advantage of punishing attempts,
which can be proved when the government lacks records of the completed
crime
II.B.3.c. Distribution of a Work Being Prepared for

Commercial Distribution, by Making It Available on a
Publicly-Accessible Computer Network, if the Defendant Knew
or Should Have Known the Work Was Intended for
Commercial Distribution
Effective April 27, 2005, Congress added an additional felony offense
to address the online infringement of pre-release works. See Family
Entertainment and Copyright Act of 2005 (FECA), Pub. L. No. 109-9
§ 103, 119 Stat 218, 220-21 (Apr. 27, 2005) (codified at 17 U.S.C.
§ 506(a)(1)(C)). (This provision is part of Title I of FECA, also known as
the “Artists Rights and Theft Prevention Act of 2005” or the “ART Act.”)
Congress enacted this provision to target two phenomena that it deemed
particularly harmful to copyright-holders, especially in combination—

“pre-release” piracy and Internet piracy (especially peer-to-peer file-
sharing). See, e.g., Remarks on Introduction of Bill in Senate, 151 Cong.
Rec. S494 (daily ed. Jan. 25, 2005); Judiciary Committee Report, H.R.
Rep. No. 109-33(I), at 4, reprinted in 2005 U.S.C.C.A.N. 220. Section
506(a)(1)(C) makes it a felony to willfully infringe “[i] by the distribution
of [ii] a work being prepared for commercial distribution, [iii] by making
it available on a computer network accessible to members of the public,
[iv] if such person knew or should have known the work was intended for
commercial distribution.” 17 U.S.C. § 506(a)(1)(C) (small Roman
numerals added for purposes of illustration).
The new offense eliminates the government's need to prove monetary
and numeric thresholds for the copies involved if the defendant
distributed pre-release works on a computer network.
II.B.3.c.i. Distribution
The offense defined under 17 U.S.C. § 506(a)(1)(C) applies only to
infringement by distribution (as opposed to the copyright felonies in 17
U.S.C. § 506(a)(1)(A),(B) that apply to infringement by distribution or
reproduction). For discussion of proving distribution, see Section
II.B.3.a.ii. of this Chapter.
Section § 506(a)(1)(C)'s use of the term “making available” does not
resolve the issue of whether “distribution” requires an actual
dissemination of infringing copies. As of this writing, the only reported
case that has discussed this issue, a civil copyright case, stated that
“distribution” and “making available on a publicly-accessible computer
network” are two separate elements of the § 506(a)(1)(C) offense. See In
re Napster, Inc. Copyright Litig., 377 F. Supp. 2d 796, 805 (N.D. Cal.
2005). The inclusion of “making available” did not, according to this
court, redefine distribution to include making available. See Section
II.B.E.A.ii and the following Section of this Chapter.
II.B.3.c.ii. Making the Work Available on a Computer Network

Accessible to Members of the Public
The next element is “making [the work] available on a computer
network accessible to members of the public.” See 17 U.S.C.
§ 506(a)(1)(C).
Although the statute does not define “computer network” or
“accessible to members of the public,” the bill was clearly intended to
address piracy over the Internet. See H.R. Rep. No. 109-33(I), reprinted
in 2005 U.S.C.C.A.N. 220; 151 Cong. Rec. S499-500 (daily ed. Jan. 25,

2005) (statement of Sen. Cornyn). Clear examples of “making the work
available on a computer network accessible to members of the public”
would include posting the work on a website or placing it in a desktop
computer's shared file directory so that peer-to-peer users around the
world could access and download it.
“[A] computer network accessible to the public” should be read to
include large networks available to substantial numbers of people, even if
the network is not immediately accessible to all members of the public,
such as a university's campus-wide network, a large but proprietary service
like AOL, or a password-protected site on the Internet. This would be
consistent with the right at issue (“distribution to the public”), and the
statutory definition of “publicly” in the context of displays and
performances, which refers to “any place where a substantial number of
persons outside of a normal circle of a family and its social acquaintances
is gathered.” See 17 U.S.C. § 101; Playboy Enters., Inc. v. Frena, 839 F.
Supp. 1552, 1557 (M.D. Fla. 1993) (holding that displaying infringing
photographs over a computer bulletin board to audience limited to paying
subscribers constituted display “to the public”); accord Video Pipeline,
Inc. v. Buena Vista Home Entm't, Inc., 192 F. Supp. 2d 321, 332 (D.N.J.
2002), aff'd on other grounds, 342 F.3d 191 (3d Cir. 2003); Video
Pipeline, Inc. v. Buena Vista Home Entm't, Inc., 275 F. Supp. 2d 543,
554 (D.N.J. 2003). See also Section II.B.3.a.ii. of this Chapter (discussing
“to the public”). But cf. Andersen Consulting LLP v. UOP, 991 F. Supp.
1041, 1042-43 (N.D. Ill. 1998) (discussing meaning of electronic
communications service “to the public” under the Electronic
Communications Privacy Act); Konop v. Hawaiian Airlines, Inc., 302 F.3d
868, 875 (9th Cir. 2002) (same).
II.B.3.c.iii. Work Being Prepared for Commercial Distribution

The next element of an offense under § 506(a)(1)(C) is that the
infringed work must be a “work being prepared for commercial
distribution,” which is defined as:
(A) a computer program, a musical work, a motion picture or other
audiovisual work, or a sound recording, if, at the time of unauthorized
distribution—
(i) the copyright owner has a reasonable expectation of
commercial distribution; and
(ii) the copies or phonorecords of the work have not been
commercially distributed; or

(B) a motion picture, if, at the time of unauthorized distribution, the
motion picture—
(i) has been made available for viewing in a motion picture
exhibition facility; and
(ii) has not been made available in copies for sale to the general
public in the United States in a format intended to permit
viewing outside a motion picture exhibition facility.
17 U.S.C. § 506(a)(3). Thus, the definition includes only four types of
works: software, musical works, audiovisual works such as movies, and
sound recordings. Although these categories make up most of the works
pirated online, other types that could also be infringed online—such as
books, photographs and other works of visual art—are not included.
When Congress created these provisions, it also created the
“preregistration” process discussed in Section II.B.1.c. of this Chapter.
The preregistration process sets forth a basic framework and directs the
Copyright Office to establish specific rules for preregistration of “works
being prepared for commercial distribution.” See Family Entertainment
and Copyright Act, Pub. L. No. 109-9 § 104(a) (amending 17 U.S.C.
§ 408(f)). However, prosecutors should be aware that the scope of the
term “works being prepared for commercial distribution” is narrower for
purposes of the criminal offense under § 506(a)(1)(C) than the scope that
term was given by the Copyright Office in its preregistration regulations.
First, as of this writing, the Copyright Office's interim rules for
preregistration cover not only movies, music, and software, but also
literary works and advertising or marketing photographs. See 37 C.F.R.
§ 202.16 (2005). This is broader than the four classes specified by 17
U.S.C. § 506(a)(3). Second, the Copyright Office allows for the
preregistration of a work if the work has only been started: for example,
for motions pictures, filming must have commenced, and for a computer
program, at least some of the computer code must have been fixed. See 37
C.F.R. § 202.16(b)(2) (2005). Although these standards may suffice for
preregistration, prosecutors should generally exercise caution in situations
that concern works that are substantially incomplete. Cases involving a
mere fragment of a work or a substantially incomplete work are more
likely to face difficulties in proving copyrightability and infringement, as
well as proving “retail value” and perhaps willfulness as well.
Although the pre-release offense and the preregistration process were
enacted at the same time, the plain language of 17 U.S.C. § 506(a)(1)(C)
does not require that the “work being prepared for commercial
distribution” be preregistered before an infringer can be prosecuted. Nor

does the legislative history indicate that Congress intended
§ 506(a)(1)(C) to apply only to “preregistered” works. Therefore, the
FECA amendments do not appear to have foreclosed the government's
power to prosecute infringement that occurs before preregistration or
registration of a work.
II.B.3.c..iv. The Defendant Knew or Should Have Known that

the Work Was Intended for Commercial Distribution
A 17 U.S.C. § 506(a)(1)(C) offense requires proof of a lower degree
of mens rea as to the defendant's awareness that the work was “being
prepared for commercial distribution” than the other elements of the
offense, which require proof of “willfulness.” Under § 506(a)(1)(C), the
government need not demonstrate that a defendant had actual knowledge
that the infringed work was a pre-release work, but rather, need only show
that the defendant “knew or should have known” that the work was
“intended for commercial distribution,” which is essentially a negligence
standard.

Commercial Advantage or Private Financial Gain
Proving that the defendant acted “for purposes of commercial
advantage or private financial gain” is often either a primary element of
the crime or a secondary element that can enhance the defendant's
maximum sentence. These issues are covered in Sections II.B. (setting out
elements) and VIII.C.1.f. (sentencing factors) of this Manual.
II.B.4.a. History
Before 1997, the government had to prove the defendant's intent to
seek commercial advantage or private financial gain in every criminal
copyright prosecution. In United States v. LaMacchia, 871 F. Supp. 535,
539-40 (D. Mass. 1994), the court noted that the government could not
have charged the defendant with criminal copyright infringement because
he had operated his Internet site for trading pirated works without a
profit motive.
But Congress found this unacceptable. When LaMacchia was decided,
times had already changed. Now, as then, the Internet allows people to
engage in large-scale electronic piracy with little expense, time or
complexity. The ease of Internet piracy reduces (and perhaps eliminates)
infringers' need for a financial return even as it significantly affects the
market for legitimate goods. See Committee Report on No Electronic
Theft Act, H.R. Rep. No. 105-339, at 4 (1997). Willful infringers can act

out of a variety of motives unrelated to profit—including a rejection of the
copyright laws, anti-corporate sentiments, or bragging rights in the piracy
community—yet cause substantial financial harm regardless of their
motive. Id.
To close what was called the Lamacchia “loophole,” Congress passed
the No Electronic Theft Act, Pub. L. No. 105-147, 111 Stat. 2678
(1997), which, among other things, eliminated the government's
requirement to prove “commercial advantage or private financial gain” for
a felony conviction. See 143 Cong. Rec. 24,324 (1997) (remarks of Rep.
Coble); H.R. Rep. No. 105-339, at 4-5 (1997). By enacting what was then
17 U.S.C. § 506(a)(2) (renumbered § 506(a)(1)(B) by the Apr. 27, 2005
amendments), Congress created a felony that only requires proof of willful
infringement above certain monetary and numerical thresholds.
Even though a profit motive is no longer required in all cases, it
should nonetheless be charged when possible because it increases the
defendant's maximum statutory sentence (by turning a 17 U.S.C.
§ 506(a)(1)(B) offense into a § 506(a)(1)(A) offense with its higher
penalties, or by increasing the sentence for a § 506(a)(1)(C) offense),
increases his guideline sentencing range, increases jury appeal, and can
help defeat baseless claims of fair use. See Sections II.C.5., II.E.1, and
VIII.C.1.f. of this Manual.
II.B.4.b. Legal Standard

Essentially, a defendant acts for commercial advantage and private
financial gain if he sought a profit. Cf. 4 Nimmer on Copyright
§ 15.01[A][2] (discussing legislative history to copyright statute).
“Financial gain” is broadly defined to include not only a monetary
transaction, but also the “receipt, or expectation of receipt, of anything of
value, including the receipt of other copyrighted works.” 17 U.S.C. § 101.
Bartering schemes are included, where people trade infringing copies of a
work for other items, including computer time or copies of other works.
Congress added this definition of financial gain in the NET Act
specifically to address bartering. See No Electronic Theft Act (NET) Act,
Pub. L. No. 105-147, 111 Stat. 2678 (1997); 143 Cong. Rec. 24,421
(1997) (statement of Sen. Hatch); 143 Cong. Rec. 24,326 (1997)
(statement of Rep. Goodlatte). For example, federal prosecutors have
successfully charged “commercial advantage or private financial gain” in
cases where defendants ran a closed peer-to-peer file-trading network that
required new users to contribute pirated material in order to join. See,
e.g., Department of Justice Press Release, Final Guilty Plea in Operation
Digital Gridlock, First Federal Peer-to-Peer Copyright and Piracy

Crackdown (May 31, 2005), available at http://www.usdoj.gov/criminal/
cybercrime/tannerPlea.htm.
Although courts have had few occasions to consider the scope of
“commercial advantage,” the plain meaning of the term and case-law in
other areas suggest that “commercial advantage” includes not only
obtaining payment for infringing products, but also using infringing
products in a business internally to obtain an advantage over a
competitor. This is true even if the defendant charged nothing for the
infringing copies. See Herbert v. Shanley Co., 242 U.S. 591, 593-94
(1917) (Holmes, J.) (holding that the performance of a copyrighted
musical composition in a restaurant or hotel without charge for admission
to hear it infringes the exclusive right of the owner of the copyright to
perform the work publicly for profit); A&M Records v. Napster, 239 F.3d
1004, 1023 (9th Cir. 2001) (holding that “[f]inancial benefit exists where
the availability of infringing material acts as a draw for customers,” even
when the infringing material is offered for free) (internal quotation marks
and citation omitted), aff'g in pertinent part 114 F. Supp. 2d 896, 921
(N.D. Cal. 2000) (noting that Napster anticipated deriving revenues from
users by offering copyrighted music for free); Twentieth Century Music
Corp. v. Aiken, 356 F. Supp. 271, 275 (W.D. Pa. 1973) (holding that a
business that merely plays background music to relax its employees so
that they will be efficient is infringing for profit), rev'd on other grounds,
500 F.2d 127 (3d Cir. 1974), aff'd 422 U.S. 151, 157 (1975) (assuming
that restaurant owner acted for profit); Associated Music Publishers v.
Debs Mem'l Radio Fund, 141 F.2d 852 (2d Cir. 1944) (holding that a
radio station that without permission broadcasts a copyrighted work for
free in order to get, maintain, and increase advertising revenue has done
so for profit). Examples of infringement for commercial advantage include
an engineering firm's using pirated drafting software to keep overhead low,
a website that offers free pirated software to generate advertising revenue
when down loaders visit the site, and a business that gives away
counterfeit goods to draw in customers to whom it then sells legitimate
services. In these cases, although the infringer may not expect to receive
money or other items of value in exchange for the infringing copies, the
infringement saves the business the money it would have spent on
authorized copies or licenses. The savings allow the infringer to gain a
commercial advantage over competitors who use only licensed copies of
copyrighted works.
Whether a defendant actually makes a profit is beside the point: what
matters is that he intended to profit. See 17 U.S.C. § 101 (defining
“financial gain” to include “expectation of receipt” of anything of value);
id. § 506(a)(1)(A) (“for purposes of commercial advantage or private

financial gain”) (emphasis added); 18 U.S.C. § 2319(d)(2) (same); United
States v. Taxe, 380 F. Supp. 1010, 1018 (C.D. Cal. 1974) (“'Profit'
includes the sale or exchange of the infringing work for something of value
in the hope of some pecuniary gain. It is irrelevant whether the hope of
gain was realized or not.”), aff'd in part and vacated in part on other
grounds, 540 F.2d 961 (9th Cir. 1976); United States v. Shabazz, 724
F.2d 1536, 1540 (11th Cir. 1984) (same); United States v. Moore, 604
F.2d 1228, 1235 (9th Cir. 1979) (holding that acting “for profit,” as
required by earlier version of Copyright Act, includes giving infringing
work to a prospective buyer to evaluate for free before purchasing);
United States v. Cross, 816 F.2d 297, 301 (7th Cir.1987); Herbert v.
Shanley, 242 U.S. at 595 (Holmes, J.) (holding that under the copyright
statute the performance of a copyrighted work at a hotel or restaurant was
for profit, even if customers did not pay specifically for the performance,
because “[w]hether it pays or not, the purpose of employing it is profit
and that is enough”).
Prosecutors should generally refrain from alleging that a defendant
obtained financial gain by getting free or discounted infringing works
solely as a result of copying or downloading works for himself. This
benefit is common to all infringement, and to hold that mere infringement
equals private financial gain would convert every infringement case into
one for private financial gain and thus erase important distinctions in the
civil and criminal copyright statutes. Although there are apparently no
reported opinions on this question in criminal copyright cases, a number
of courts have followed this reasoning in interpreting a related statute
with criminal and civil penalties for using and trafficking in unauthorized
satellite and cable television decoders “for purposes of commercial
advantage or private financial gain.” 47 U.S.C. § 553(b)(2). These courts
held that the mere purchase and use of such a device for the defendant's
own benefit and that of his family and friends does not constitute “gain”
within the meaning of that statute. See, e.g., Comcast Cable Commc'n v.
Adubato, 367 F. Supp. 2d 684, 693 (D.N.J. 2005) (holding that to
qualify as commercial advantage or private financial gain, the defendant
must have used the device “to further some commercial venture or
profited in some way from the device beyond simply sitting by himself or
with his family and friends around a television set using the illegal device
to watch programs for which payment should have been made”);
American Cablevision of Queens v. McGinn, 817 F. Supp. 317, 320
(E.D.N.Y. 1993) (holding that “private financial gain” should not be read
to encompass defendant's “gain” from receiving broadcasts himself: such
an interpretation would render “gain” enhancement superfluous because
all violations would result in gain). But see Charter Commc'ns Entm't I,

LLC v. Burdulis, 367 F. Supp. 2d 16 (D. Mass. 2005) (holding that
defendant who violated § 553 to receive unauthorized cable broadcasts
did so for purposes of “financial gain” within the statute); Cablevision
Sys. New York City Corp. v. Lokshin, 980 F. Supp. 107, 113 (E.D.N.Y.
1997) (same).
A profit motive can be proved by circumstantial evidence. See United
States v. Cross, 816 F.2d 297, 301 (7th Cir. 1987) (“[T]he presence of
these seventeen second-generation videocassettes on [the defendant's]
business premises may rationally give rise to the inference that they were
maintained for commercial advantage or private financial gain.”).
II.B.5. Misdemeanor Copyright Infringement

To obtain a misdemeanor conviction under 17 U.S.C. § 506(a) and
18 U.S.C. § 2319, the government must demonstrate that:
1. A copyright exists;
2. It was infringed by the defendant;
3. The defendant acted willfully; and
4. The infringement was done EITHER
(a) for purposes of commercial advantage or private financial gain,
17 U.S.C. § 506(a)(1)(A) (numbered § 506(a)(1) before the Apr.
27, 2005 amendments); 18 U.S.C. § 2319(b)(3); OR
(b) by reproduction or distribution of one or more copyrighted
works with a total retail value of more than $1,000 within a 180-
day period, 17 U.S.C. § 506(a)(1)(B) (numbered § 506(a)(2)
before the Apr. 27, 2005 amendments); 18 U.S.C. § 2319(c)(3).
Although the misdemeanor and felony crimes share some
elements—all require proving willful infringement—the need to prove
scope or scale is lessened for misdemeanors. In cases without commercial
advantage or private financial gain that involve the reproduction or
distribution of infringing copies, the threshold number of copies and
monetary value for a misdemeanor are lower than those required for a
felony under 18 U.S.C. §§ 2319(b)(1) or (c)(1): all that is required is one
or more copies, with a total retail value of $1,000 or more. And in cases
of for-profit infringement, the misdemeanor has no numerical or monetary
prosecutorial thresholds. 18 U.S.C. § 2319(b)(3). Thus, misdemeanor
copyright infringement can be charged when a defendant clearly profited
or intended to profit, but where the government cannot prove the exact

volume or value of the infringement due to a lack of business records or
computer logs.
A misdemeanor charge can also apply to willful, for-profit,
infringement of rights other than reproduction or distribution, such as the
performance right or digital audio transmissions. Although the felony
penalties are reserved for infringing reproduction and distribution, the
misdemeanor provisions apply “in any other case,” see 18 U.S.C.
§ 2319(b)(3), such as the infringement of the other rights.
II.C. Defenses
II.C.1. Statute of Limitations: 5 years
The criminal copyright statute has a five-year statute of limitations.
17 U.S.C. § 507(a). The five-year limitations period was first established
by the NET Act, Pub. L. No. 105-147 § 2(c), 111 Stat. 2678 (1997),
before which the limitations period had been three years, the same as for
civil copyright claims. See Copyright Act of 1976, Pub. L. No. 94-553, 90
Stat. 2541 (1976).
II.C.2. Jurisdiction
U.S. copyright law generally has no extraterritorial effect. Although
many foreign countries protect United States copyrights against
infringement in foreign lands, and domestic law similarly protects foreign
copyrighted works against infringement within the United States, 17
U.S.C. § 411(a), U.S. law generally “cannot be invoked to secure relief for
acts of [copyright] infringement occurring outside the United States.”
Palmer v. Braun , 376 F.3d 1254, 1258 (11th Cir. 2004); see also
Subafilms, Ltd. v. MGM-Pathe Communc'ns, 24 F.3d 1088, 1091 (9th
Cir. 1994) (en banc); Update Art, Inc. v. Modiin Pub'g, Ltd., 843 F.2d 67,
73 (2d Cir. 1988) (“It is well established that copyright laws generally do
not have extraterritorial application.”).
This means that some copyright cases cannot be brought in the
United States, even when the victims are U.S. companies or nationals and
the infringed works are copyrighted in the United States. For example,
U.S. law does not grant U.S. courts jurisdiction over a manufacturing
plant in southeast Asia that produces pirated DVDs for sale in Europe, if
the infringing conduct occurs solely abroad. See Palmer, 376 F.3d at
1258.

In addition, in civil copyright cases, most courts hold that a defendant
in the United States who authorizes acts of reproduction or distribution
that occur outside the country, standing alone, does not violate United
States copyright law sufficient to grant United States courts subject-
matter jurisdiction. See Subafilms, 24 F.3d at 1091; Armstrong v. Virgin
Records, Ltd., 91 F. Supp. 2d 628, 634 (S.D.N.Y. 2000) (reviewing cases
and concluding that the Subafilms position is more accepted). But see
Curb v. MCA Records, Inc., 898 F. Supp. 586, 593 (M.D. Tenn. 1995);
Expediters Int'l of Washington, Inc. v. Direct Line Cargo Mgmt. Servs.,
Inc., 995 F. Supp. 468, 476 (D.N.J. 1998).
However, these rules do not bar a United States copyright case if an
infringing act does occur in the United States in whole or in part. Palmer,
376 F.3d at 1258; Sheldon v. Metro-Goldwyn Pictures Corp., 106 F.2d
45, 52 (2d Cir. 1939) (holding that court had power over profits made
from showing a copied film outside the country, because negatives from
which the film was printed were made in the United States); P & D Int'l
v. Halsey Pub'g Co., 672 F. Supp. 1429, 1432-33 (S.D. Fla.1987) (finding
subject-matter jurisdiction over copyright action because complaint
alleged that defendant copied U.S.-copyrighted film in Florida and then
showed the film in international waters aboard cruise ship) (citing 3
Nimmer on Copyright § 17.02, at 17-5).
Although no reported criminal cases address this issue, the cases cited
above provide a sound legal basis for prosecuting criminal infringement
domestically when at least a part of the defendant's infringing conduct
occurred within the U.S. Charging conspiracy also gives domestic
jurisdiction over criminal copyright co-conspirators located outside the
United States if their co-conspirators act inside the country. See, e.g.,
Ford v. United States , 273 U.S. 593, 624 (1927) (holding that a
conspiracy charge need not rely on extraterritorial principles if its object
crime is in the U.S. and a co-conspirator commits an act in the U.S. to
further the conspiracy); United States v. Winter, 509 F.2d 975, 982 (5th
Cir. 1975).
For more on the lack of extraterritorial application of U.S. copyright
law, see United States Copyright Office, Project Looking Forward
Sketching the Future of Copyright in a Networked World, Final Report,
1998 WL 34336436, at *132 (1998).
II.C.3. Venue
Crimes “begun in one district and completed in another, or
committed in more than one district, may be inquired of and prosecuted
in any district in which such offense was begun, continued, or completed.”

18 U.S.C. § 3237(a). Few reported cases have directly addressed this issue
in criminal copyright prosecutions. See United States v. Tucker, 495 F.
Supp. 607, 618 (E.D.N.Y. 1980) (holding that although defendant
resided outside district, venue was proper for grand jury investigation into
defendant's sales of counterfeit sound recordings because “middleman” in
defendant's scheme resided, and purchaser was headquartered, in district).
Cases addressing venue in analogous cases suggest that venue would be
proper in any district where reproduction or distribution occurred, or
through which pirated works were shipped. Cf. United States v. DeFreitas,
92 F. Supp. 2d 272, 276-77 (S.D.N.Y. 2000) (holding in criminal
trademark case involving importation and distribution of counterfeit
“Beanie Babies” that offense was a continuing offense and thus venue was
proper in any district where the offense was begun, continued, or
completed, i.e., where products entered the U.S., were shipped, or sold);
United States v. Rosa, 17 F.3d 1531, 1541 (2d Cir.1994) (holding that
in conspiracy to transport stolen goods, venue was proper where the
agreement was entered into, or where any overt act in furtherance of the
conspiracy was committed).
II.C.4. The First Sale Doctrine—17 U.S.C. § 109

II.C.4.a. Operation of the Doctrine
A common defense to a claim of infringement of the distribution right
is the “first sale” doctrine, codified in 17 U.S.C. § 109, which provides
that “[n]otwithstanding the provisions of section 106(3), the owner of a
particular copy or phonorecord lawfully made under this title, or any
person authorized by such owner, is entitled, without the authority of the
copyright owner, to sell or otherwise dispose of the possession of that
copy or phonorecord.” In other words, once a copyright-holder sells or
gives a specific copy to another person, the copyright-holder generally
cannot control how that particular copy is subsequently sold or
transferred. See United States v. Moore, 604 F.2d 1228, 1232 (9th Cir.
1979); see also 2 Nimmer on Copyright § 8.12[B] (discussing first sale);
4 Nimmer on Copyright § 15.01[A][2] (discussing application of “first
sale” in criminal cases). Putting it in terms of the purchaser's rights, the
first purchaser and any subsequent purchaser of that specific copy may
further distribute or dispose of that particular copy without the copyright-
holder's permission.
The first sale doctrine does not grant the purchaser or anyone else the
right to make additional copies of the work he has. Making unauthorized
copies of a lawfully-obtained work still violates the law. 4 Nimmer on
Copyright § 15.01[A][2], at 15-10. Consequently, the first sale doctrine

is a defense only against an allegation of infringement by means of
distribution.
Moreover, the first sale doctrine may be invoked by a defendant only
for the distribution of lawfully-made copies. If copies were pirated, the
first sale doctrine does not apply. See United States v. Drum, 733 F.2d
1503, 1507 (11th Cir. 1984) (citing Moore, 604 F.2d at 1232); United
States v. Powell, 701 F.2d 70, 72 (8th Cir. 1983). Additionally, a person
may not sell or give away his lawful copy while retaining a backup copy,
even a backup copy of software that is authorized by 17 U.S.C. § 117. See
17 U.S.C. § 117(a)(2) (requiring destruction of archival copies if
continued possession of original copy ceases to be rightful); see also 17
U.S.C. § 117(b) (allowing transfer of exact archival copies only with a
complete transfer of rights in the original copy). An unlawfully retained
backup copy can be an infringing reproduction. See Section II.C.6. of this
Chapter for a discussion of the “archival” exception codified at 17
U.S.C. § 117(a)(2).
The first sale doctrine protects a defendant only if he owned his copy,
not if he merely borrowed or rented it. In fact, the first sale doctrine does
not “extend to [protect] any person who has acquired possession of the
copy or phonorecord from the copyright owner, by rental, lease, loan, or
otherwise, without acquiring ownership of it .” 17 U.S.C. § 109(d)
(emphasis added). This is an important distinction for works such as
motion picture film reels, which are typically distributed to movie theaters
under a lease or similar arrangement, and business software, which is
often distributed subject to a licensing agreement.
It is not always clear, however, whether a commercial transaction of
copyrighted works is legally a sale or a licensing agreement, which can
make or break a first sale defense. How the parties characterize the
transaction to themselves or others may not be controlling as a matter of
law. When a computer user “purchases” a copy of software through a
retail channel or other means, the licensing agreement may actually assert
that the arrangement is not an outright purchase of a copy but merely a
license to use the work. Were these licensing agreements the last word on
the subject, § 109 would not allow the licensee to resell his software. Yet
many courts have recharacterized a software publisher's shrinkwrap
licensing agreement as a sale when the publisher distributes its software
through retail channels. See Softman Prods. Co. v. Adobe Sys., Inc., 171
F. Supp. 2d 1075 (C.D. Cal. 2001); Novell, Inc. v. Network Trade Ctr.,
Inc., 25 F. Supp. 2d 1218, 1230 (D. Utah 1997), vacated in part on other
grounds, 187 F.R.D. 657 (D. Utah 1999); ProCD, Inc. v. Zeidenberg, 908
F. Supp. 640 (W.D. Wis. 1996), rev'd on other grounds, 86 F.3d 1447

(7th Cir. 1996); see also Krause v. Titleserv, Inc., 402 F.3d 119 (2d Cir.
2005); Mark Lemley, Intellectual Property and Shrinkwrap Licenses, 68
S. Cal. L. Rev. 1239, 1244 n.23 (1995) (discussing cases). Other courts
have taken the opposite position, however, holding that a copy of
software obtained subject to license is not subject to the first sale doctrine
or other benefits of “ownership.” See Adobe Sys., Inc. v. Stargate Software
Inc., 216 F. Supp. 2d 1051, 1058 (N.D. Cal. 2002); Adobe Sys. Inc. v.
One Stop Micro, Inc., 84 F. Supp. 2d 1086, 1089 (N.D. Cal. 2000);
Microsoft Corp. v. Software Wholesale Club, Inc., 129 F. Supp. 2d 995,
1002 (S.D. Tex. 2000) (citing Microsoft Corp. v. Harmony Computers &
Elec., Inc., 846 F. Supp. 208 (E.D.N.Y. 1994)); see also Lemley, 68 S.
Cal. L. Rev. at 1244 n.23.
Although no reported criminal cases to date appear to have addressed
this issue, the question may yet arise in cases involving “repackaged”
software, in which some elements of the software package are genuine,
while others are copied or altered. See, e.g., Adobe Systems, Inc. v.
Stargate Software Inc., 216 F. Supp. 2d at 1058 (rejecting argument that
first sale doctrine should apply to academic versions of software
repackaged and sold as retail versions). In such cases, prosecutors may
wish to consider other charges, such as 18 U.S.C. § 2318 (counterfeit or
illicit labels, documentation, or packaging for copyrighted works).

Case-in-Chief?
Courts disagree as to whether the government must prove absence of
“first sale” as part of its case-in-chief in a criminal case. See 4 Nimmer on
Copyright § 15.01[A][2], at 15-8 to 15-9. In civil cases, “first sale” is an
affirmative defense. See 2 Nimmer on Copyright § 8.12[A]; H.R. Rep. No.
94-1476, at 81 (1976) (“It is the intent of the Committee, therefore, that
in an action to determine whether a defendant is entitled to the privilege
established by section 109(a) and (b), the burden of proving whether a
particular copy was made or acquired should rest on the defendant.”),
reprinted in 1976 U.S.C.C.A.N. 5659, 5695.
The better rule is to apply the civil rule in criminal cases. See, e.g.,
United States v. Larracuente, 952 F.2d 672, 673-74 (2d Cir. 1992);
United States v. Goss, 803 F.2d 638, 643-44 (11th Cir. 1986); United
States v. Drum, 733 F.2d 1503, 1507 (11th Cir.), cert. denied sub nom.,
McCullock v. United States, 469 U.S. 1061 (1984). There is no good
reason for shifting an affirmative defense in civil cases to an element of
the offense in criminal cases, given that the government must already
prove that the defendant engaged in infringement willfully. Yet several

cases state the opposite, that in criminal cases the government must
negate first sale as an element of the offense. See, e.g., United States v.
Cohen, 946 F.3d 430, 434 (6th Cir. 1991); United States v. Sachs, 801
F.2d 839, 842 (6th Cir. 1986); United States v. Powell, 701 F.2d 70, 72
(8th Cir. 1983); United States v. Moore, 604 F.2d 1288, 1232 (9th Cir.
1979); United States v. Wise, 550 F.2d 1180, 1191-92 (9th Cir. 1977);
United States v. Atherton, 561 F.2d 747, 749 (9th Cir. 1977); United
States v. Drebin, 557 F.2d 1316, 1326 (9th Cir. 1977); United States v.
Wells, 176 F. Supp. 630, 633 (S.D. Tex.1959).
II.C.4.c. Disproving First Sale at Trial

The easiest way to negate the first sale doctrine is to introduce
evidence of reproduction of unauthorized copies. Two types of
circumstantial proof typically suffice. First, the government can introduce
evidence that the defendant obtained his copies illegitimately. See United
States v. Moore, 604 F.2d 1228, 1232 (9th Cir. 1979) (holding that
government may establish absence of first sale by circumstantial evidence,
as well as by tracing distribution); United States v. Whetzel, 589 F.2d
707, 711-12 (D.C. Cir. 1978) (holding that tapes' illicit origin was shown
by labels on tapes listing a manufacturer with a non-existent address,
tapes' low price, and the circumstances of their sale), abrogated on other
grounds , Dowling v. United States , 473 U.S. 207 (1985). Factors
indicating that copies were obtained illicitly include the sale of copies at
a price far below the legitimate market value, the distribution of copies of
inferior quality, the existence of copies with identical serial numbers, and
the presence of false information on the copies, such as a false address for
the manufacturer, fictitious labels, or sales under suspicious
circumstances. See, e.g., United States v. Drum, 733 F.2d 1503, 1507
(11th Cir. 1984) (rebuttal of first sale defense included direct and
circumstantial evidence concerning fictitious labels, low prices, and
clandestine sale); Whetzel, 589 F.2d at 712 (sale of copies of tapes from
the back of a van in a parking lot).
Second, the government can introduce evidence that the copyright
holder never sold copies of the work at all, which shows that the
defendant could not have obtained ownership of legitimate copies. See
United States v. Sachs, 801 F.2d 839 (6th Cir. 1986) (holding that
government negated the first sale doctrine with respect to movie
videotapes with evidence that the original movies had never been sold
legitimately in same format); United States v. Drebin, 557 F.2d 1316 (9th
Cir. 1977) (holding that government proved the absence of first sale
through evidence that copyrighted movies had never been sold or
transferred and that licenses transferring limited rights for distribution

and exhibition of the films for a limited time were not “sales” for purposes
of the first sale doctrine). But see United States v. Atherton, 561 F.2d
747 (9th Cir. 1977) (holding that government failed to prove the absence
of first sale because, although the copyright owner never “sold” film
copies, it permitted a major television network to permanently retain
copies and sold scrap film to salvage company for consideration, all of
which fell within the definition of first sale and could have been the
defendant's source).
The government need not account for the distribution of every copy
of a work. See, e.g., Moore, 604 F.2d at 1232 (“[T]he Government can
prove the absence of a first sale by showing that the [copy] in question
was unauthorized, and it can establish this proof . . . by circumstantial
evidence from which a jury could conclude beyond a reasonable doubt
that the recording was never authorized and therefore never the subject
of a first sale.”); see also Sachs , 801 F.2d at 843 (holding that the
government need not trace every single copy to its origins, because “[t]he
other recognized method of satisfying [the first sale] doctrine is for the
government to. . .show that the copies in question have illegitimate
origins”); Drum, 733 F.2d at 1507 (“The government may prove the
absence of a first sale by direct evidence of the source of the pirated
recordings or by circumstantial evidence that the recording was never
authorized.”) (citations omitted); Whetzel, 589 F.2d at 711 (“It was not
required to disprove every conceivable scenario in which appellant would
be innocent of infringement.”).
II.C.4.d. Special Rules for Rental, Lease, and Lending

Although the first sale doctrine extends to almost all types of
copyrighted works, it has some limitations with respect to some types of
sound recordings and computer programs, which generally may be resold
or given away but cannot be rented, leased, or loaned without the
copyright-owner's permission. See 17 U.S.C. § 109(a), (b)(1)-(2)
(describing exception and the types of computer programs that do not
qualify for the exception); but see § 109(b)(2)(A) (providing that this
does not apply to the rental, lease, or loan of a phonorecord for nonprofit
purposes by a nonprofit library or educational institution). Regardless, the
unauthorized (and thus infringing) rental or lending of sound recordings
and computer programs is not subject to criminal penalties. See
§ 109(b)(4).
Although unauthorized rental or leasing of certain types of works is
not directly subject to criminal sanctions, businesses that advertise or
engage in this type of conduct might still be subject to criminal copyright

infringement penalties. For example, assume that a business rents CDs
containing music and tells its customers to “burn it and return it,” i.e., to
make a copy before bringing it back. Would the above rules exempt this
business from criminal prosecution? On the one hand, the answer appears
to be “yes,” since 17 U.S.C. § 109(b)(4) states that the unauthorized
rental of sound recordings “shall not be a criminal offense.” On the other
hand, this conduct may extend beyond mere “unauthorized rental” to
active solicitation, aiding-and-abetting, or conspiracy to commit criminal
copyright infringement. No published cases have yet addressed this issue.
II.C.5. Fair Use

The fair use doctrine allows people in certain circumstances to use
copyrighted material in ways the copyright owner has not authorized and
might even forbid if asked. Fair uses are generally limited uses for useful
or beneficial purposes with minimal impact on the market for the work.
Codified at 17 U.S.C. § 107, the fair use doctrine allows people to
reproduce or otherwise use copyrighted works “for purposes such as
criticism, comment, news reporting, teaching ..., scholarship, or research”
and other, unspecified, purposes and uses.
Fair use is designed to ensure that the rights of authors are balanced
with the interest of the public in the free flow of information. See, e.g.,
Pierre Leval, Toward a Fair Use Standard, 103 Harv. L. Rev. 1103, 1110
(1990). Congress has noted that fair use is the most important limitation
on the exclusive rights granted copyright owners, H.R. Rep. No. 94-1476,
at 66 (1976), reprinted in 1976 U.S.C.C.A.N. 5659, 5680, and the
Supreme Court has characterized fair use as one of copyright law's built-in
accommodations to the First Amendment. See Eldred v. Ashcroft, 537
U.S. 186, 219-20 (2003).
By design, the fair use doctrine is fluid and applies not according to
definite rules, but rather according to a multi-factor balancing test. See
H.R. Rep. 94-1476, at 66 (1976), reprinted in 1976 U.S.C.C.A.N. 5659,
5680. The statute cites four non-exclusive factors:
(1) the purpose and character of the use, including whether such
use is of a commercial nature or is for nonprofit educational
purposes;
(2) the nature of the copyrighted work;
(3) the amount and substantiality of the portion used in relation
to the copyrighted work as a whole; and

(4) the effect of the use upon the potential market for or value of
the copyrighted work.
17 U.S.C. § 107. Other unspecified factors may be appropriate. It would
be difficult to articulate a more determinate set of fair use rules, given the
variety of copyrighted works, their uses, and the situations in which they
can be used. Consequently, both through case law and statutory
codification, fair use has historically been decided on a case-by-case basis
looking at the totality of the facts at hand. See H.R. Rep. No. 94-1476,
at 65-66 (1976), reprinted in 1976 U.S.C.C.A.N. 5659, 5679. Although
the fair use doctrine has developed primarily in civil cases, those cases
have precedential weight in criminal cases too.
The first listed factor to consider is the purpose and character of the
use. 17 U.S.C. § 107(1). A commercial use is presumptively unfair,
whereas for a noncommercial, nonprofit activity, “[t]he contrary
presumption is appropriate.” Sony Corp. v. Universal Studios, 464 U.S.
417, 449 (1984). Nevertheless, “the mere fact that a use is educational
and not for profit does not insulate it from a finding of infringement, any
more than the commercial character of a use bars a finding of fairness.”
Campbell v. Acuff-Rose Music, Inc., 510 U.S. 569, 584 (1994). Another
consideration is whether the use is “transformative, ”or adds something
new or different beyond a mere repackaging or restatement of the original:
“Although such transformative use is not absolutely necessary for a
finding of fair use, the goal of copyright, to promote science and the arts,
is generally furthered by the creation of transformative works.” Acuff-
Rose, 510 U.S. at 579 (citation omitted); see also Leval, 103 Harv. L.
Rev. at 1111 (“The use must be productive and must employ the quoted
matter in a different manner or for a different purpose from the original.
A quotation of copyrighted material that merely repackages or republishes
the original is unlikely to pass the test.”). If a work is transformative,
other factors that normally weigh against finding of fair use, such as the
commercial nature of the use, bear less weight. See Acuff-Rose, 510 U.S.
at 579.
The second listed factor is the nature of the copyrighted work. See 17
U.S.C. § 107(2). “This factor calls for recognition that some works are
closer to the core of intended copyright protection than others.” Acuff-
Rose, 510 U.S. at 586. Fair use is more difficult to establish in the use of
fictional or purely creative or fanciful works, as opposed to more factual
or historical (yet still copyrightable) works, such as recollections of public
figures, or depictions of newsworthy events. See id. at 586. “The law
generally recognizes a greater need to disseminate factual works than

works of fiction or fantasy.” Harper & Row, Publishers, Inc. v. Nation
Enters., 471 U.S. 539, 563 (1985).
The third factor is the amount and substantiality of the use in relation
to the copyrighted work as a whole. See 17 U.S.C. § 107(3). A defense of
fair use is less likely to succeed if the portion of the copyrighted material
used is substantial in quantity or importance. See Harper & Row, 471
U.S. at 564-66 (holding news magazine's 300-word excerpt of book not
to be fair use because quoted sections were key passages). However, a use
can be fair even if it copies the entire work. See Online Policy Group v.
Diebold, Inc., 337 F. Supp. 2d 1195 (N.D. Cal. 2004) (granting summary
judgment to group that had published voting machine manufacturer's
entire e-mail archive to publicly expose machines' flaws); Kelly v. Arriba
Soft Corp., 336 F.3d 811 (9th Cir. 2003) (holding defendant's copying of
entire images to create online searchable database of “thumbnails” was
fair use).
The fourth factor is how substantially the use affects the potential
market for the copyrighted work or the work's actual value. See 17
U.S.C. § 107(4). “[T]o negate fair use one need only show that if the
challenged use 'should become widespread, it would adversely affect the
potential market for the copyrighted work.' This inquiry must take
account not only of harm to the original but also of harm to the market
for derivative works.” Harper & Row, 471 U.S. at 568 (citations omitted).
The Supreme Court has emphasized the importance of this factor in cases
of noncommercial use. Sony , 464 U.S. at 451 (“A challenge to a
noncommercial use of a copyrighted work requires proof either that the
particular use is harmful, or that if it should become widespread, it would
adversely affect the potential market for the copyrighted work.”). See
Harper & Row, 471 U.S. at 540-41 (finding that harm to potential
market was indicated by fact that magazine cancelled its contract to
reprint segment of book after defendant published article quoting
extensively from book).
Again, these are non-exclusive factors that may be supplemented as
technology and circumstances require. See 17 U.S.C. § 107.
II.C.5.a. Unpublished Works

A defendant's use of an unpublished copyrighted work may qualify as
a fair use. Earlier decisions focused on the fact that a work was
unpublished (or not yet published) in finding against fair use. The
Supreme Court then held that the unpublished nature of work is a “'key,
though not necessarily determinative, factor' tending to negate a defense
of fair use.” Harper & Row, 471 U.S. at 552-54 (quoting S. Rep. No. 94-

473 at 54 (1976)). In 1992, however, Congress amended 17 U.S.C. § 107
to make explicit that “[t]he fact that work is unpublished shall not itself
bar a finding of fair use if such finding is made upon consideration of all
the above factors [in § 107(1)-(4)].” Act of Oct. 24, 1992, Pub. L. No.
102-492, 106 Stat. 3145 (1992). In fact, this act's sole purpose was to
amend 17 U.S.C. § 107 with this provision. The act's legislative history
repeatedly underscores that Congress intended there to be no per se rule
barring the fair use of unpublished works. H.R. Rep. No. 102-836, at 1
(1992), reprinted in 1992 U.S.C.C.A.N. 2553, 2553. This was primarily,
but not exclusively, out of concern for the needs of biographers,
historians, and publishers concerned with court decisions that suggested
that they could not use unpublished material of historical interest—such
as the unpublished letters and diaries of major authors or public
figures—in books or other serious treatments of historical figures and
events. See H.R. Rep. No. 102-836 (citing Salinger v. Random House,
Inc., 650 F. Supp. 413 (S.D.N.Y. 1986), rev'd, 811 F.2d 90 (2d Cir.), cert.
denied, 484 U.S. 890 (1987); New Era Publ'ns Int'l, ApS v. Henry Holt
& Co., 684 F. Supp. 808 (S.D.N.Y. 1988); New Era Publ'ns Int'l, ApS v.
Henry Holt & Co., 695 F. Supp. 1493 (S.D.N.Y. 1988), aff'd on other
grounds, 873 F.2d 576 (2d Cir. 1990)). Congress heeded this testimony
and thereafter amended the fair use statute to include the fair use of
unpublished works, not limiting it to works of historic value.
II.C.5.b. Fair Use in Criminal Cases

Although the fair use doctrine has been developed mainly through
civil cases, it is a defense to a charge of infringement, and thus a
legitimate defense in criminal cases too. However, fair use has rarely been
developed in criminal cases, most likely because prosecutors are reluctant
to prosecute where fair use is a serious issue. A fair use is not an infringing
use, and without an infringement there are no grounds for copyright
prosecution. See 17 U.S.C. § 107 (“[T]he fair use of a copyrighted work ...
is not an infringement of copyright.”); 17 U.S.C. § 506(a) (specifying
grounds for prosecuting “[a]ny person who infringes a copyright”)
(emphasis added). Moreover, a defendant who believed in good faith that
he was engaging in fair use has a complete defense to the mens rea
element, which requires the government to prove that the defendant
infringed willfully. See Section II.B.2.a. of this Chapter. (As indicated in
Section II.B.2.b., a bad-faith claim of fair use, on the other hand, might
help establish willfulness.) Prosecutors are—and generally should
be—reluctant to seek charges where the defendant acted “for purposes
such as criticism, comment, news reporting, teaching ..., scholarship, or

research” or any other use with a beneficial public purpose. See 17 U.S.C.
§ 107.
When the defendant is charged with violating 17 U.S.C.
§ 506(a)(1)(A)—infringement for purposes of commercial advantage or
private financial gain—fair use will ordinarily not be a defense because
commercial uses are presumptively unfair. Sony, 464 U.S. at 449. On the
other hand, some commercial uses, such as commercial parodies of other
works, have been found to be fair. See Acuff-Rose, supra.
Because of the fair use doctrine's concern with noncommercial uses,
fair use is more likely to pose a significant defense in criminal cases that
do not allege a profit motive, such as large-scale infringement under
§ 506(a)(1)(B) and certain § 506(a)(1)(C) offenses. However, at least one
court has rejected fair use arguments in a civil case against peer-to-peer
file-traders who had no direct commercial motive. See BMG Music v.
Gonzalez, 430 F.3d 888, 890 (7th Cir. 2005) (finding that a peer-to-peer
user who downloaded at least 30 and as many as 1300 songs, and kept
them, did “not engage[] in a nonprofit use” for purposes of fair use
analysis).
That said, there is a wide gulf between the typical criminal copyright
case and the typical case in which fair use is a legitimate defense. In most
criminal cases, the defendant does not even arguably act “for purposes
such as criticism, comment, news reporting, teaching ..., scholarship, or
research.” See 17 U.S.C. § 107. Furthermore, many criminal prosecutions
involve the wholesale piracy of commercially popular works, in which a
fair use defense would be undercut by the fair use factors concerning “the
amount and substantiality of the portion used in relation to the
copyrighted work as a whole,” and “the effect of the use upon the
potential market for or value of the copyrighted work.” § 107(3),(4). The
works are generally copied in their entirety, and the wide availability of
the free, pirated copies (which suffer no degradation in quality in digital
form) can have a drastic effect on the potential market for legitimate
works. A strong showing on these factors will help overcome the
presumption that noncommercial use is fair.
II.C.6. “Archival Exception” for Computer Software—

17 U.S.C. § 117
Section 117 of Title 17 provides a limited exception to the blanket
rule against copying, by allowing one who owns a copy of a computer
program to copy the program as necessary to use the program or do
machine maintenance or repair, and as an archival backup, subject to
certain limitations. Specifically, § 117(a) provides that “it is not an

infringement of copyright for the owner of a copy of a computer program
to make or authorize the making or adaptation of that computer program”
under two circumstances. The first is if the making of the copy or
adaptation is “an essential step in the utilization of the computer program
in conjunction with a machine, and that [the copy] is used in no other
manner.” 17 U.S.C. § 117(a)(1). Essentially, this allows the lawful owner
of a piece of software to install it on his machine, even if doing so requires
copying the program from a CD-ROM to the hard drive or loading it from
the hard drive into RAM, both of which are considered reproduction
under copyright law. See Micro-Sparc, Inc., v. Amtype Corp., 592 F.
Supp. 33 (D. Mass. 1984) (holding that purchasers of programs sold in
printed form do not infringe copyright by typing code into computer in
order to use the programs); Summit Tech., Inc. v. High-Line Med.
Instruments Co., 922 F. Supp. 299 (C.D. Cal. 1996) (holding that owners
of opthamological laser system did not infringe copyright by turning on
system to use it, causing copy of manufacturer's data table to be loaded
into system RAM). Cf. MAI Sys. Corp. v. Peak Computer, Inc., 991 F.2d
511 (9th Cir. 1993) (holding that loading of copyrighted software into
RAM by service company constitutes reproduction).
The second circumstance in which § 117 allows copying is if the copy
is “for archival purposes only and that all archival copies are destroyed in
the event that continued possession of the computer program should
cease to be rightful.” 17 U.S.C. § 117(a)(2). This provision allows one
who owns a piece of software to make a backup copy for safekeeping, but
requires him to destroy his backup copies if he sells or otherwise transfers
his original copy or if his ownership otherwise ceases to be rightful.
A third subsection of Section 117 provides it is not an infringement
for a machine's owner or lessee to make or authorize the making of a copy
of a computer program if the copy is made solely as a result of the
activation of a machine containing a lawful copy of the software, and the
copy is used solely to repair or maintain the machine, and is destroyed
immediately thereafter. 17 U.S.C. § 117(c); see also Storage Tech. Corp.
v. Custom Hardware Eng'g & Consulting, Inc., 431 F.3d 1374, 1375 (Fed.
Cir. 2005).
Section 117's exceptions benefit the “owner of a copy of a computer
program” or, in the case of machine repair and maintenance, “the owner
or lessee of a machine.” 17 U.S.C. § 117(a),(c). However, because most
computer software is distributed subject to a license, rather than a
conventional outright sale, the question arises (in much the same way as
it does in the context of “first sale” under § 109) whether § 117 allows
copying by a person who has legally obtained a copy of a computer

program, but licenses rather than “owns” the software. See the discussion
of first sale in Section II.C.4. of this Chapter. As with the analogous first
sale question, courts are split on the issue. Compare Krause v. Titleserv,
Inc., 402 F.3d 119 (2d Cir. 2005) (holding client to be an “owner,” for
§ 117(a) purposes, of copies of computer programs written for it by
consultant despite lack of formal title in copies, because it had paid
consultant to develop programs for its sole benefit, copies were stored on
client's server, and client had right to use or discard copies as it saw fit)
with CMAX/Cleveland, Inc. v. UCR, Inc., 804 F. Supp. 337 (M.D. Ga.
1992) (holding that licensee of copyrighted computer software system and
its employees were not entitled to computer program owner's defense to
copyright-holder's copyright infringement action, because the licensee and
employees never “owned” copy of the program, and there was evidence
that the licensee was going to market its program); cf. ISC-Bunker Ramo
Corp. v. Altech, Inc., 765 F. Supp. 1310 (N.D. Ill. 1990) (holding
defendant not entitled to § 117 exception because it acquired copy from
competitor and possession was unauthorized).
Some sellers of pirated software display a disclaimer or other notice
claiming that their distribution of unauthorized copies is somehow
permitted under 17 U.S.C. § 117. Such claims are baseless. Although
there are no reported criminal cases addressing this defense, courts have
interpreted § 117 narrowly. See, e.g., Micro-Sparc, Inc., 592 F. Supp. at
35 (while § 117 allowed owners of written copy of source code to type it
in to their own computers, it did not permit third-party business to type
in source code and sell it on diskette). Moreover, the fact that a defendant
was sufficiently aware of copyright issues to make a frivolous or bad-faith
claim of compliance with § 117 may help establish willfulness. Cf. United
States v. Gardner, 860 F.2d 1391, 1396 (7th Cir. 1988) (holding “Notice
of Warning” by seller of “black boxes” for receiving unauthorized cable
television, disclaiming liability for any illegal uses, “establish[es] that he
was well aware that his actions were unlawful”); United States v. Knox,
32 F.3d 733, 753 (3d Cir. 1994) (rejecting argument that disclaimers in
brochure stating that child pornography videos were legal disproved the
mens rea element and because “[i]f anything, the need to profess legality
should have alerted [defendant] to the films' dubious legality”); Rice v.
Palladin Enters., Inc., 128 F.3d 233, 254 (4th Cir. 1997) (holding that
jury could find the “For academic study only!” disclaimer in promotional
sales catalog for “Hit Man” book “to be transparent sarcasm designed to
intrigue and entice”).

II.D. Special Issues
Most of the special issues in criminal copyright law concerning
registration, Internet piracy, and pre-release piracy have been addressed
throughout the substantive sections of this chapter. Prosecutors who
encounter special issues that are not otherwise addressed in this chapter
should contact CCIPS at (202) 514-1026 to suggest them for an update
to be published in the electronic edition of this Manual.
II.E. Penalties
II.E.1. Statutory Penalties
Whereas the substantive crime of copyright infringement is set forth
at 17 U.S.C. § 506(a), the penalties for that conduct are set forth at 18
U.S.C. § 2319. See 17 U.S.C. § 506(a) (“Any person who infringes a
copyright willfully ... shall be punished as provided under section 2319 of
title 18, United States Code.”).
A misdemeanor carries a sentence of up to one year of imprisonment
and a $100,000 fine or twice the monetary gain or loss. See 18
U.S.C. §§ 2319(b)(3),(c)(3), 3571(b)(5). For the crimes that qualify as
misdemeanors, see Section II.B.5. of this Chapter.
A first-time felony conviction under 17 U.S.C. § 506(a)(1)(A)
(numbered § 506(a)(1) before the April 27, 2005 amendments) carries a
five-year maximum sentence of imprisonment and a fine up to $250,000
or twice the monetary gain or loss; repeat offenders face the same fine and
ten years of imprisonment. 18 U.S.C. §§ 2319(b)(1),(2), 3571(b)(3),(d)
(specifying fines for Title 18 offenses where the fine is otherwise
unspecified).
A first-time felony conviction under 17 U.S.C. § 506(a)(1)(B)
(numbered § 506(a)(2) before the April 27, 2005 amendments) carries a
three-year maximum sentence of imprisonment and a fine up to $250,000
or twice the monetary gain or loss; repeat offenders face the same fine and
six years' imprisonment. 18 U.S.C. §§ 2319(c)(1),(2), 3571(b)(3),(d).
A first-time felony conviction under 17 U.S.C. § 506(a)(1)(C) (newly
enacted on April 27, 2005) carries a three-year maximum sentence—five
years if the offense was committed for purposes of commercial advantage
or private financial gain—and a fine of $250,000 or twice the monetary
gain or loss; repeat offenders face the same fine and twice the jail time (six

or ten years, depending on whether the offense was committed for
purposes of profit. 18 U.S.C. §§ 2319(d), 3571(b)(3), (d).
II.E.2. Sentencing Guidelines

All sentencing guideline issues concerning the criminal copyright
statute are covered in Chapter VIII of this Manual.
II.F. Other Charges to Consider

Prosecutors may wish to consider the following crimes in addition to
or in lieu of criminal copyright charges.
• Aiding-and-abetting, inducement, and conspiracy
Prosecutors may, for the usual strategic reasons, wish to bring
accessory charges, such as aiding-and-abetting or inducement, 18 U.S.C.
§ 2, or conspiracy, 18 U.S.C. § 371. See, e.g., United States v. Sachs, 801
F.2d 839 (6th Cir. 1986) (affirming conviction for aiding-and-abetting,
and conspiring to infringe, in motion picture copyright infringement case);
United States v. Allan, No. 95-CR-578-01, 2001 WL 1152925 (E.D. Pa.
Sept. 18, 2001) (denying motion to vacate sentence on defendant's
convictions for, among other things, copyright infringement, aiding-and-
abetting, and conspiracy).
Aiding-and-abetting or inducement of criminal copyright infringement
under 18 U.S.C. § 2 are similar to the “inducement” theory of secondary
liability the Supreme Court recently endorsed in MGM v. Grokster, 545
US __, 125 S. Ct. 2764 (2005). Although Grokster is a civil case, further
decisions in the case on remand, as well as subsequent civil litigation on
the same topic, will likely provide further guidance on how an inducement
theory may be applied in criminal copyright cases.
• Trafficking in recordings of live musical performances,
18 U.S.C. § 2319A
As discussed in Section II.B.1.a. of this Chapter, a work must be fixed
in a tangible medium in order to enjoy copyright protection. Thus, live
musical performances are not protected by copyright unless they are
“fixed” by an audio recording authorized by the performer. However, the
law provides copyright-like protections for live musical performances by
prohibited unauthorized recordings of such performances, and trafficking
in such recordings. See 17 U.S.C. § 1101 (providing civil remedies); 18
U.S.C. § 2319A (criminal sanctions). These protections were enacted in

1994 in part to comply with obligations under international copyright
treaties that require protection for musical performances. See Uruguay
Round Agreements Act, Pub. L. No. 103-465, 108 Stat. 4809 (1994).
Specifically, 18 U.S.C. § 2319A(a) subjects to criminal sanctions
[w]hoever, without the consent of the performer or performers
involved, knowingly and for purposes of commercial advantage or
private financial gain - (1) fixes the sounds or sounds and images of
a live musical performance in a copy or phonorecord, or reproduces
copies or phonorecords of such a performance from an unauthorized
fixation; (2) transmits or otherwise communicates to the public the
sounds or sounds and images of a live musical performance; or (3)
distributes or offers to distribute, sells or offers to sell, rents or offers
to rent, or traffics in any copy or phonorecord fixed as described in
paragraph (1), regardless of whether the fixations occurred in the
United States.
Although some unauthorized recordings or trade in unauthorized
recordings might be prosecuted as infringement of the underlying musical
composition performed in the recording, § 2319A specifically targets the
making and distribution of these so-called “bootlegged” musical
recordings.
Each of § 2319A's three subsections protects a different right of the
performing artist. Paragraph (a)(1) prohibits fixing the sounds or images
of a live musical performance in a tangible medium. See 17 U.S.C. § 101
(defining fixation). But see United States v. Moghadam, 175 F.3d 1269,
1274 (11th Cir. 1999) (declining to decide whether a live performance is
fixed at the time of performance). Paragraph (a)(2) prohibits transmitting
the sounds or images of a live musical performance to the public. This
subsection was intended to apply to the unauthorized transmission of
bootleg performances through radio or television, and not to the
unauthorized reproduction of previously recorded but unreleased
performances, i.e., studio out-takes. The latter should be considered for
prosecution as criminal copyright infringement or, if labeled, trafficking
in counterfeit labels, documentation, or packaging. See Chapter VI of this
Manual. Paragraph (a)(3) prohibits distributing to the public or
trafficking in any fixed recording of a live musical performance.
Under each subsection, the government must also prove that the
defendant acted: (1) without authorization from the performer involved;
(2) knowingly; and (3) for purposes of commercial advantage or private
financial gain. See Section II.B.4. of this Chapter for a detailed discussion
of the commercial motivation element.

Section 2319A is a five-year felony (ten years for repeat offenders)
with a fine of $250,000 or twice the monetary gain or loss, see 18 U.S.C.
§§ 2319A(a), 3571(b)(3),(d), and is sentenced under the same guideline
as are copyright crimes, U.S.S.G. § 2B5.3. The statute provides for
mandatory forfeiture and destruction of all infringing items upon a
defendant's conviction. See 18 U.S.C. § 2319A(b),(c). Further, a violation
of § 2319A is listed in 18 U.S.C. § 1961(1)(B) as a RICO predicate. It
was inserted into RICO by the Anticounterfeiting Consumer Protection
Act, Pub. L. No. 104-153 § 3, 110 Stat. 1386 (1996).
The constitutionality of 18 U.S.C. § 2319A (and the related civil
statute, 17 U.S.C. § 1101) has been challenged on the basis that, in the
area of copyright, Congress may regulate only “writings” and only for
“limited times,” see U.S. Const., art. I, § 8, cl. 8, and that § 2319A (which
has no time limit and applies to live performances) exceeds those limits.
See Moghadam, 175 F.3d at 1274-77; United States v. Martignon, 346
F. Supp. 2d 413, 430 (S.D.N.Y. 2004); KISS Catalog, Ltd. v. Passport
Int'l Prods., Inc., 405 F. Supp. 2d 1169 (C.D. Cal. 2005). The cases have
reached different results. In Moghadam, the court rejected the defendant's
claim that § 2319A was invalid because it regulated performances that
were not “writings,”and upheld the constitutionality of § 2319A as a valid
exercise of Congress's Commerce Clause power. See 175 F.3d at 1282.
However, the court also acknowledged without deciding (because the
question was not preserved on appeal) that the statute may face “another
constitutional problem under the Copyright Clause,” which allows
Congress to protect works only for “limited times.” Id. at 1274 n.9, 1281.
The Martignon court held the statute unconstitutional, concluding that
Congress may not exercise its Commerce Clause power to enact a
“copyright-like” statute not subject to the constitutional restrictions on
copyright laws. Martignon, 346 F. Supp. 2d at 422. In Kiss Catalog, the
district court initially found 17 U.S.C. § 1101 unconstitutional, citing
Martignon, but on rehearing vacated its decision and upheld the statute,
relying on Moghadam. See KISS Catalog v. Passport Int'l Prods., 350 F.
Supp. 2d 823, 837 (C.D. Cal. 2004); Kiss Catalog, 405 F. Supp. 2d at
1172-73.
Various states also criminalize trafficking in bootleg recordings.
• Unauthorized recording of motion pictures in a motion picture
exhibition facility (“Camcording”), 18 U.S.C. § 2319B
The Family Entertainment and Copyright Act, Pub. L. No. 109-9, 119
Stat. 218 (enacted April 27, 2005), created a new criminal offense that
targets “camcording,” the use of camcorders and similar devices to record
movies playing in public movie theaters. “Camcorded” copies of movies

are a significant source of pirated movies, and sales of camcorded copies
of movies can be especially harmful to copyright owners, because they
typically are created and distributed when the movie is available only in
theaters and not on DVD or other formats. H.R. Rep. No. 109-33(I),
reprinted in 2005 U.S.C.C.A.N. 220.
The elements of an offense under 18 U.S.C. § 2319B are that the
defendant (1) knowingly, and (2) without the authorization of the
copyright owner, (3) used or attempted to use an audiovisual recording
device, (4) to transmit or make a copy of a motion picture or other
audiovisual work protected under Title 17, (5) from a performance of
such work in a motion picture exhibition facility. 18 U.S.C. § 2319B(a).
The maximum punishment for the offense is three years (six years for
repeat offenders). Id.
Section 2319B's mens rea requirement is lower than the “willfulness”
requirement for criminal copyright offenses: a § 2319B defendant need
only act “knowingly.” Additionally, it is not necessary to show
infringement of a copyright. Rather, the government need only show that
the defendant was transmitting or copying (or attempting to transmit or
copy) a copyrighted motion picture without the copyright owner's
permission. Although the defenses to infringement set forth in Title 17
would not apply to a prosecution under 18 U.S.C. § 2319B, the statute's
legislative history indicates that Congress intended prosecutors to avoid
prosecuting cases that would be deemed “fair use” under copyright law.
See H.R. Rep. No. 109-33(I), at 4, reprinted in 2005 U.S.C.C.A.N. 220,
223.
An “audiovisual recording device” is defined as a “digital or analog
photographic or video camera, or any other technology or device capable
of enabling the recording or transmission of a copyrighted motion picture
or other audiovisual work, or any part thereof, regardless of whether
audiovisual recording is the sole or primary purposes of the device.” 18
U.S.C. § 2319B(g)(2). This would appear to apply to camera-phones,
PDA phones, and digital cameras (especially those capable of recording
video). Congress, however, intended that the offense should not cover
incidental uses of these devices in a theater, even though such uses could
violate other statutes (such as the copyright laws). See H.R. Rep. No. 109-
33(I), at 2-3, reprinted in 2005 U.S.C.C.A.N. 221-22.
The offense applies only to camcording in a “motion picture
exhibition facility,” which is defined by reference to that same term in 17
U.S.C. § 101: “a movie theater, screening room, or other venue that is
being used primarily for the exhibition of a copyrighted motion picture,
if such exhibition is open to the public or is made to an assembled group

of viewers outside of a normal circle of family and its social
acquaintances.” The term includes commercial movie theaters and may
also apply to generally non-public or quasi-public spaces such as a
university auditorium, but only when such a venue is being used as a
“public” exhibition facility at the time of the offense. See H.R. Rep. No.
109-33(I), at 3, reprinted in 2005 U.S.C.C.A.N. 222 (stating that “open
to the public” is intended to refer to the particular exhibition rather than
the venue generally).
• Trafficking in counterfeit and illicit labels, and counterfeit
documentation and packaging, 18 U.S.C. § 2318
This is covered in Chapter VI of this Manual.
• Trafficking in goods and services with counterfeit trademarks,
service marks, and certification marks, 18 U.S.C. § 2320
See Chapter III of this Manual.
• Digital Millennium Copyright Act (DMCA),
17 U.S.C. §§ 1201-1204
The DCMA provides criminal penalties for dismantling the electronic
locks that are intended to prevent people from accessing or copying
copyrighted works without permission, for trafficking in “electronic
lockpicks,” and for falsifying or removing copyright management
information. See Chapter V of this Manual.
• Unauthorized reception of cable and satellite service,
47 U.S.C. §§ 553, 605 and 18 U.S.C. § 2511
• Economic Espionage Act, 18 U.S.C. §§ 1831-1839
For stealing trade secrets, whether copyrighted or not. See Chapter IV
of this Manual.
• Mail and wire fraud, 18 U.S.C. §§ 1341, 1343, 1346
Although fraud schemes can involve copyrighted works, prosecutors
should be wary of charging mail or wire fraud as a substitute for a criminal
copyright charge in the absence of evidence of any misrepresentation or
scheme to defraud. In one copyright case, in which a wire fraud charge
was brought because the facts were insufficient to support a criminal
copyright charge, no misrepresentation was alleged, and the district court
dismissed the charge. See United States v. LaMacchia, 871 F. Supp. 535
(D. Mass. 1994). The judge in LaMacchia reasoned that the bundle of
rights conferred by copyright is unique and carefully defined, precluding
prosecution under the general wire fraud statute, at least when there is no

fraudulent conduct on the part of the defendant. Id. at 544-45. The court
in LaMacchia relied heavily on the Supreme Court's decision in Dowling
v. United States, 473 U.S. 207 (1985). In Dowling, the Court overturned
the defendant's conviction for interstate transportation of stolen property
under 18 U.S.C. § 2314 because it found Congress' actions to be
preemptive. See Dowling , 473 U.S. at 207; see also 4 Nimmer on
Copyright § 15.05[A] at 15-34 (1999) (“Dowling's lesson is that Congress
has finely calibrated the reach of criminal copyright liability, and
therefore, absent clear indication of Congressional intent, the criminal
laws of the United States do not reach copyright-related conduct.”).
While LaMacchia suggests that courts are unlikely to be receptive to
a wire or mail fraud charge brought as a substitute for a criminal copyright
charge in a case where some element of the criminal copyright charges is
missing, wire or mail fraud charges may still be viable and appropriate in
infringement cases that involve actual misrepresentations or schemes to
defraud. Cf. United States v. Manzer, 69 F.3d 222, 226 (8th Cir. 1995)
(holding that sale to a third party of illegal cable television descrambling
devices violated federal fraud statutes); United States v. Coyle, 943 F.2d
424, 427 (4th Cir. 1991) (holding sale of cable television descramblers to
be a scheme to defraud “because it wronged the cable companies in their
'property rights by dishonest methods or schemes'”) (quoting United
States v. McNally, 483 U.S. 350, 358 (1987)). Nevertheless, in the
absence of strong evidence of misrepresentation, prosecutors should avoid
a wire or mail fraud charge if an infringement crime can be proved.
For a more detailed discussion of 18 U.S.C. §§ 1341 and 1343, refer
to USAM Chapter 9-43.000. The Criminal Division's Fraud Section at
(202) 514-7023 can provide further information and guidance.
• Interstate transportation and receipt of stolen property or
goods, 18 U.S.C. §§ 2314-2315
The Interstate Transportation of Stolen Property Act (“ITSP”)
punishes “[w]hoever transports, transmits, or transfers in interstate or
foreign commerce any goods, wares, merchandise, securities or money, of
the value of $5,000 or more, knowing the same to have been stolen,
converted or taken by fraud,” 18 U.S.C. § 2314, and “[w]hoever receives,
possesses, conceals, stores, barters, sells, or disposes” stolen property that
has crossed a state or federal boundary, 18 U.S.C. § 2315.
Although ITSP can be used under certain circumstances to prosecute
theft of proprietary information or other types of intellectual property, the
Supreme Court has rejected the use of the ITSP statute to prosecute
copyright infringement cases, at least when the infringement does not

involve the actual theft of a tangible good. Dowling v. United States, 473
U.S. 207 (1985). In Dowling, the Court reversed a conviction for the
interstate transportation of infringing copies of Elvis Presley records,
holding that Congress did not intend § 2314 to criminalize copyright
infringement. The Court reasoned that a copyright infringer neither
assumed physical control over the copyright nor wholly deprived the
owner of its use. The statute “seems clearly to contemplate a physical
identity between the items unlawfully obtained and those eventually
transported, and hence [requires] some prior physical taking of the subject
goods.” Dowling, 473 U.S. at 216.
Despite Dowling, an ITSP charge may be appropriate for acts of
infringement that involve the actual transportation of tangible objects
across state lines. For more on these issues, see Section IV.F. of this
Manual.
• Racketeer Influenced and Corrupt Organizations Act (RICO),
18 U.S.C. §§ 1961-1968
The criminal copyright and bootleg recordings of live music
performances offenses are RICO predicates. See 18 U.S.C. § 1961(1)(B).
RICO charges must be approved by the Department's Organized Crime
and Racketeering Section, which can be reached at (202) 514-3594.
• Money laundering, 18 U.S.C. § 1956
Criminal copyright infringement is a specified unlawful activity for
purposes of the money laundering statute. See 18 U.S.C. § 1956(c)(7)(D).

III.
Trafficking In
Counterfeit Trademarks,
Service Marks, and
Certification Marks—
18 U.S.C. § 2320
III.A. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
III.A.1. Overview of the Chapter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
III.A.2. Why Criminal Law Protects Trademarks, Service Marks, and
Certification Marks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
III.B. Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
III.B.1. The Trademark Counterfeiting Crime in General . . . . 87
III.B.2. Relevance of Civil Trademark Law in Criminal
Cases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
III.B.3. Intentionally Trafficked or Attempted to Traffic in Goods or
Services [after March 16, 2006: or Labels, Documentation,
or Packaging for Goods or Services]
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
III.B.3.a. Intentionally . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
III.B.3.b. Trafficked or Attempted to Traffic . . . . . . . . . . . 90
III.B.3.b.i. General Definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
Private Financial Gain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
III.B.3.b.iii. Making and Obtaining Counterfeits vs.
Possession with Intent to Traffic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
III.B.3.b.iv. Importing and Exporting Related to Transporting
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
III.B.3.c. Goods and Services [after March 16, 2006: and Labels,
Patches, Stickers, Wrappers, Badges, Emblems, Medallions,
81
Charms, Boxes, Containers, Cans, Cases, Hangtags,
Documentation, or Packaging of Any Type or Nature] 94
III.B.4. The Defendant Used a "Counterfeit Mark" On or In
Connection With Those Goods or Services [after March 16,
2006: or a Counterfeit Mark Was Applied to Labels,
Documentation, or Packaging for Those Goods or Services]
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
III.B.4.a. Definition of Counterfeit Mark Generally: Not Genuine
or Authentic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
Indistinguishable from a Genuine Mark Owned by Another
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
III.B.4.c. The Genuine Mark Must Be Federally Registered on the
U.S. Patent and Trademark Office's Principal Register
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
Mark-Holder or Its Licensee . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
III.B.4.e. Use of the Counterfeit Mark "On or In Connection
With" Goods or Services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
Same Type of Goods or Services for Which the Genuine
Mark Was Registered . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
III.B.5. The Defendant Used the Counterfeit Mark "Knowingly"
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
III.B.6. Venue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
III.C. Defenses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
III.C.1. Authorized-Use Defense: Overrun Goods . . . . . . . . . 114
III.C.2. Authorized-Use Defense—Gray Market Goods . . . . . 117
III.C.3. Repackaging Genuine Goods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
III.C.4. Lanham Act Defenses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
III.C.5. Statute of Limitations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
III.D. Special Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123

III.D.1. High-Quality and Low-Quality Counterfeits . . . . . . . 123
III.D.2. Counterfeit Goods with Genuine Trademarks . . . . . . 124
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
III.D.4. Selling Another's Trademarked Goods As One's Own (Reverse
Passing-Off) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
III.D.5. Mark-Holder's Failure to Use ® Symbol . . . . . . . . . . 125
III.D.6. Storage Costs and Destruction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
III.D.7. Units of Prosecution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
III.D.8. Olympic Symbols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
III.E. Penalties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
III.E.1. Fines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
III.E.2. Imprisonment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
III.E.3. Restitution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
III.E.4. Forfeiture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
III.E.5. Sentencing Guidelines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
III.F. Other Charges to Consider . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
III.A. Introduction
III.A.1. Overview
Trademarks and service marks are part of the fabric of American
society. They are on our clothes, our cars, and nearly everything else we
buy, and are advertised on the street, in magazines, on television and
websites, and especially in stores. They are protected not only by civil law,
but also by the criminal counterfeit marks statute, 18 U.S.C. § 2320.
A trademark is “any word, name, symbol, or device, or any
combination thereof ... used by a person ... to identify and distinguish his
or her goods ... from those manufactured or sold by others and to indicate
the source of the goods.” 15 U.S.C. § 1127. A service mark, by contrast,
identifies the source of services rendered or offered, such as athletic
events, television shows, restaurant services, telecommunications services,
or retail business services, rather than goods. Id. Examples of well-known
III. Counterfeit Marks 83

trademarks include Kodak®, Apple®, Microsoft®, Coca-Cola®, GE®,
Life-Savers®, USA Today®, KLEENEX®, the color pink for
Owens-Corning fiberglass, and the NBC chime. Well-known service marks
include Merry Maids®, Greyhound®, Wal-Mart®, Taco Bell®, Burger
King®, and McDonald's®.
Two other types of marks are protected by 18 U.S.C. § 2320:
certification and collective marks. A certification mark is used to certify
regional or other origin, material, mode of manufacture, quality, accuracy,
or other characteristics of goods or services, or that the work or labor on
the goods or services was performed by members of a union or other
organization. 15 U.S.C. §1127. Examples of certification marks include
Underwriters Laboratories' UL® mark, which certifies the safety standards
of electrical cable equipment, and the Woolmark® symbol, which certifies
that certain laundry products can wash and dry wool and wool-blend
products without damage. These marks indicate that authorized persons
will manufacture the products in accordance with the mark-holder's
processes. A collective mark is a trademark or service mark used by an
association, union, or other group either to identify the group's products
or services, or to signify membership in the group. Id. PGA®, Realtor®,
and AFL-CIO® are examples of collective marks.
As is discussed in more detail below, the law protects marks from
infringement because they are important to businesses and for consumer
protection. Americans rely on the brands these marks represent when
deciding which goods and services to purchase and use. This gives
companies a strong incentive to control the quality of their goods and
services and invest heavily in their brands. One who infringes a mark
often misleads consumers, steals businesses' sales, and misrepresents to
the public the quality of the marked products and services. Criminal
prosecution is appropriate for the most egregious infringers.
This Chapter first discusses the functions protected by trademarks,
service marks, and certification marks, and then discusses the criminal
counterfeiting statute and the elements of the crime, common defenses,
issues unique to this crime, and related statutory penalties. Forms
providing sample indictments and jury instructions are provided in
Appendix C.
The criminal counterfeit marks statute, 18 U.S.C. § 2320, was
amended effective March 16, 2006, pursuant to the Stop Counterfeiting
in Manufactured Goods Act, Pub. L. No. 109-181, § 1, 120 Stat. 285,
285-88 (2006), and the Protecting American Goods and Services Act of
2005, Pub. L. No. 109-181, § 2, 120 Stat. 285, 288 (2006). Discussion
of these amendments is integrated throughout this Chapter,

sometimes—but not always—by means of bracketed text. Prosecutors
should consult the text carefully to ensure that they are applying the law
in effect at the time of the offense.
In addition to this Chapter, prosecutors may refer to the leading
treatise on trademark law, J. Thomas McCarthy, McCarthy on
Trademarks and Unfair Competition (2005), as well as other helpful law
review articles such as Sylvia N. Albert et al., Intellectual Property Crimes,
42 Am. Crim. L. Rev. 631 (2005); Louis Altman, Callmann on Unfair
Competition, Trademarks and Monopolies, 4 Callmann on Unfair Comp.,
T. & Mono. § 22:53 (2003); Debra D. Peterson, Criminal Counterfeiting
and Component Parts: Closing the Perceived “Label Loophole,” 30 AIPLA
Q.J. 457 (2002); Michael Coblenz, Intellectual Property Crimes, 9 Alb.
L.J. Sci. & Tech. 235 (1999); and David J. Goldstone & Peter J. Toren,
The Criminalization of Trademark Counterfeiting, 31 Conn. L. Rev. 1
(1998).
Although § 2320 criminalizes the infringement of trademarks, service
marks, and certification marks, for ease of discussion this Manual often
refers primarily to trademarks and sales of goods. The legal analysis
should, however, apply equally to services, service marks, and certification
marks as well.
III.A.2. Why Criminal Law Protects Trademarks, Service

Marks, and Certification Marks
Trademarks and service marks serve at least four functions:
1. They identify a particular seller's goods or services and
distinguish them from those sold by others
2. They signify that all goods or services bearing the mark come
from or are controlled by a single source
3. They signify that all goods or services bearing the same mark
are of an equal level of quality
4. They serve as a primary method to advertise and sell goods and
services
See 1 J. Thomas McCarthy, McCarthy on Trademarks and Unfair
Competition § 3.2 (2005). A trademark or service mark also serves as an
important “objective symbol of the good will that a business has built up.
Without the identification function performed by trademarks, buyers
would have no way of returning to buy products that they have used and
liked.” Id. Certification marks are intended to “certify regional or other

origin, material, mode of manufacture, quality, accuracy or other
characteristics of such person's goods or services.” 15 U.S.C. § 1127.
Because “penalties under [the civil Lanham] Act have been too small,
and too infrequently imposed, to deter counterfeiting significantly,” much
of the conduct that formerly had been subject only to civil penalties was
criminalized through the enactment of the Trademark Counterfeiting Act
of 1984, Pub. L. No. 98-473, 98 Stat. 2178 (1984), (codified at 18
U.S.C. § 2320). See S. Rep. No. 98-526, at 5 (1984), reprinted in 1984
U.S.C.C.A.N. 3627, 3631.
The criminalization of trademark counterfeiting serves at least four
important purposes:
1. Protecting a mark-holder's intellectual property from theft or
dilution
Stealing a company's name or brand name is a type of corporate
identity theft. See H. Rep. 109-68, at 8 n.2 (“Congress was concerned ...
that counterfeiters can earn enormous profits by capitalizing on the
reputations, development costs, and advertising efforts of honest
manufacturers at little expense to themselves.”) (alterations in original
and internal quotation marks omitted) (legislative history to Stop
Counterfeiting in Manufactured Goods Act, Pub. L. No. 109-181, § 1,
120 Stat. 285 (2006)) (citing United States v. Hon, 904 F.2d 803, 806
(2d Cir. 1990) and S. Rep. 98-526, at 4-5 (1984), reprinted in 1984
U.S.C.C.A.N. at 3630-31). A counterfeiter should no more be able to steal
a company's good name (and the profits associated with its name) than
the company's money or other assets. Diane Kiesel, Battling the Boom in
Bogus Goods, 71-MAR A.B.A.J. 60 (1985). Also, by selling inferior
products, the counterfeiter may devalue a mark-holder's good name even
while profiting from it. Id.
2. Protecting consumers from fraud
When consumers decide what goods to buy, they should be able to
rely on individual goods' trademarks and the quality those marks purport
to represent. See H. Rep. 109-68, at 8 n.2 (“Congress was concerned not
only that trademark counterfeiting defrauds purchasers, who pay for
brand-name quality and take home only a fake...”) (alterations in original
and internal quotation marks omitted) (citing United States v. Hon, 904
F.2d 803, 806 (2d Cir. 1990) and S. Rep. 98-526, at 4-5, reprinted in
1984 U.S.C.C.A.N. at 3630-31); Note, Badwill, 116 Harv. L. Rev. 1845
(2003). Counterfeit marks can mislead consumers. They give the ring of
authenticity to goods of lower quality. They can even mask serious health
or safety risks to consumers, as in the cases of counterfeit food products,

batteries, prescription drugs, or automotive parts. S. Rep. No. 98-526, at
4-5 (1984), reprinted in 1984 U.S.C.C.A.N. 3627, 3630-31. Trademark
counterfeiting can also be difficult to regulate civilly. With a large number
of victims across a potentially large geographic region—especially in the
case of goods offered online—and small losses per victim, a large-scale
counterfeiter can often evade civil sanctions.
3. Protecting the safety of non-purchasing users
Sales of counterfeit products can hurt not only the trademark holder
and the initial purchaser, but also third parties who use the goods or
services after the initial purchase. For example, airline passengers are
victims of counterfeit airplane parts, coronary patients are victims of
counterfeit heart pumps, and children are victims of counterfeit infant
formula, even though in each case the counterfeit goods were purchased
for those consumers' benefit by another person. These are the types of
situations that Congress sought to eradicate by criminalizing trademark
infringement. See H.R. Rep. No. 104-556, at 3 (1996), reprinted in 1996
U.S.C.C.A.N. 1074, 1076; S. Rep. No. 98-526, at 4 (1984), reprinted in
1984 U.S.C.C.A.N. 3627, 3630-31.
4. Enforcing market rules
Just as counterfeiting money and forging financial instruments
undermine fundamental rules of the marketplace, counterfeiting
trademarks weakens modern commercial systems. David J. Goldstone &
Peter J. Toren, The Criminalization of Trademark Counterfeiting, 31
Conn. L. Rev. 1, 17-19 (1998).
III.B. Elements
III.B.1. The Trademark Counterfeiting Crime in General
The Trademark Counterfeiting Act, 18 U.S.C. § 2320(a), states:
Whoever intentionally traffics or attempts to traffic in goods or
services and knowingly uses a counterfeit mark on or in connection
with such goods or services[, or intentionally traffics or attempts to
traffic in labels, patches, stickers, wrappers, badges, emblems,
medallions, charms, boxes, containers, cans, cases, hangtags,
documentation, or packaging of any type or nature, knowing that a
counterfeit mark has been applied thereto, the use of which is likely
to cause confusion, to cause mistake, or to deceive,] shall, if an
individual, be fined not more than $2,000,000 or imprisoned not

more than 10 years, or both, and, if a person other than an individual,
be fined not more than $5,000,000.
The bracketed language was inserted by the Stop Counterfeiting in
Manufactured Goods Act, Pub. L. No. 109-181, § 1(b)(1), 120 Stat. 285,
285 (Mar. 16, 2006), and thus applies only to offenses arising after its
enactment.
Selling just one counterfeit item can be a felony. United States v.
Foote, 413 F.3d 1240, 1246 (10th Cir. 2005). There is no misdemeanor
provision.
To establish a criminal offense under 18 U.S.C. § 2320, the
government must prove the following elements (presented here with sub-
elements for clarity):
1. The defendant intentionally trafficked or attempted to traffic in
goods or services [after March 16, 2006: or labels, documentation
or packaging for goods or services]
2. The defendant used a counterfeit mark on or in connection with
those goods or services [after March 16, 2006: or a counterfeit
mark was applied to labels, documentation, or packaging for those
goods or services]
a. The counterfeit mark was not genuine or authentic
b. The counterfeit mark was identical to or indistinguishable
from a genuine mark owned by another
c. The genuine mark was registered on the principal register in
the United States Patent and Trademark Office
d. The genuine mark had been in use by the mark-holder or its
licensee
e. The counterfeit mark was used “on or in connection with” the
defendant's goods or services [after March 16, 2006: the
counterfeit mark was “applied to or used in connection with”
the goods or services or was “applied to or consist[ed] of”
labels, documentation, or packaging “of any type or nature”]
f. The counterfeit mark was used “in connection with” the type
of goods and services for which the protected mark was
registered [after March 16, 2006: or the counterfeit labels,
documentation, or packaging were “designed, marketed, or
otherwise intended to be used on or in connection with the
goods or services for which the mark [was] registered”]

g. The counterfeit mark was used in a manner “likely to cause
confusion, to cause mistake, or to deceive”
3. The defendant knowingly used the mark and knew that the mark
was counterfeit
The bracketed language was inserted or amended by the Stop
120 Stat. 285, 285-87 (Mar. 16, 2006). The government must also
choose an appropriate venue. These elements are discussed in detail
below.
III.B.2. Relevance of Civil Trademark Law in Criminal Cases

Before discussing the elements, it is important to note that when
Congress drafted § 2320, it relied on the “concepts and definitions of the
Lanham Act,” the civil trademark statute codified at 15 U.S.C. §§ 1051-
1127. See H.R. Rep. No. 98-997, at 4-5 (1984). The Lanham Act's
defenses and limitations on remedies are specifically incorporated into
§ 2320. See 18 U.S.C. § 2320(c), (e)(3), and the discussion in Section
III.C.4. of this Chapter. Moreover, Congress repeatedly indicated that the
Lanham Act was the background against which § 2320 should be
interpreted. See, e.g., Joint Statement on Trademark Counterfeiting
Legislation , 130 Cong. Rec. 31,675-77 (1984) (hereinafter “ Joint
Statement”) (“No conduct will be criminalized by this act that does not
constitute trademark infringement under the Lanham Act.”).
Given this legislative history, courts deciding criminal cases under
§ 2320 have often turned to civil opinions decided under the Lanham Act.
For example, the Ninth Circuit affirmed one defendant's § 2320
conviction by relying not only on the criminal statute's legislative history,
but also on two civil Lanham Act cases, noting that the “definition of the
term 'counterfeit mark' in the Lanham Act is nearly identical to the
definition [of counterfeit mark] under Section 2320, suggesting that
Congress intended to criminalize all of the conduct for which an
individual may be civilly liable.” United States v. Petrosian, 126 F.3d
1232, 1234 (9th Cir. 1997); see also 15 U.S.C. §§ 1116(d) (defining
“counterfeit mark” in civil actions), 1127 (defining “counterfeit”).
Similarly, the Eleventh Circuit held that the “likely to cause confusion,
mistake or deceive” test within the definition of counterfeit mark at 18
U.S.C. § 2320(e)(1)(A)(iii) extends beyond direct purchasers to
encompass the purchasing public and potential purchasers, based on the
“identical language” in the Lanham Act and the legislative history. United
States v. Torkington , 812 F.2d 1347, 1351-52 (11th Cir. 1987)
(“Congress ... manifested its intent that [§ 2320] be given the same

interpretation as is given the identical language in [§ 1114(1)] of the
Lanham Act”).
Despite the civil and criminal laws' many similarities, some courts
have held that their differences sometimes merit distinction. See United
States v. Hanafy, 302 F.3d 485, 488 (5th Cir. 2002) (holding that
Lanham Act cases “should not be used as authoritative in interpreting a
criminal statute”); United States v. Giles, 213 F.3d 1247, 1249-50 (10th
Cir. 2000) (declining to follow a civil case in part because § 2320, as a
criminal statute, must be construed more narrowly); Torkington, 812 F.2d
at 1350 (noting that § 2320 is “narrower in scope” than the Lanham Act).
III.B.3. Intentionally Trafficked or Attempted to Traffic in Goods

or Services [after March 16, 2006: or Labels,
Documentation, or Packaging for Goods or Services]
Section 2320(a) requires the government to prove that the defendant
“intentionally” trafficked in goods or services [after March 16, 2006: or
in “labels, patches, stickers, wrappers, badges, emblems, medallions,
charms, boxes, containers, cans, cases, hangtags, documentation, or
packaging of any type or nature”] or attempted to do so. 18 U.S.C.
§ 2320(a); see Stop Counterfeiting in Manufactured Goods Act, Pub. L.
No. 109-181, § 1, 120 Stat. 285, 285-87 (Mar. 16, 2006).
III.B.3.a. Intentionally
The term “intentionally” modifies “traffics or attempts to traffic in
goods or services.” Id.; see United States v. Baker, 807 F.2d 427, 429 (5th
Cir. 1986) (quoting legislative history's breakdown of § 2320's two mens
rea elements). It means “that the defendant trafficked in the goods or
services in question deliberately, or 'on purpose.'” See Joint Statement,
130 Cong. Rec. 31,674 (1984).
The government need not prove that the defendant specifically
intended to violate 18 U.S.C. § 2320 or even that he knew his conduct
was illegal. Baker, 807 F.2d at 427-30; United States v. Gantos, 817 F.2d
41, 42-43 (8th Cir. 1987) (affirming district court's refusal to instruct jury
that § 2320 required proof that defendant knew that his act violated the
law).
III.B.3.b. Trafficked or Attempted to Traffic

III.B.3.b.i. General Definition
Before March 16, 2006, “traffic” was defined in 18 U.S.C.
§ 2320(e)(2) to mean “transport, transfer, or otherwise dispose of, to

another, as consideration for anything of value, or make or obtain control
of with intent so to transport, transfer, or dispose of.”
That definition was broad, covering all aspects of commercial activity
from initial manufacture to distribution and sale, but was not intended to
cover purchases for personal use. See Joint Statement, 130 Cong. Rec.
31,675 (1984); S. Rep. 98-526 (1984), reprinted in 1984 U.S.C.C.A.N.
3627; David J. Goldstone et al., The Criminalization of Trademark
Counterfeiting, 31 Conn. L. Rev. 1 (1998). A defendant who did not
personally “transport[], transfer[], or otherwise dispose[]” of the goods
but who aided and abetted a co-conspirator who did traffic could be
convicted as an aider-and-abettor. See United States v. Guerra, 293 F.3d
1279, 1287 (11th Cir. 2002) (affirming § 2320 conspiracy and aiding-
and-abetting convictions for defendants who made labels that a co-
conspirator attached to fake Cuban cigars he sold).
Yet this broad definition arguably regulated too narrow a swath of
commercially-motivated conduct, and it generally did not explain how to
deal with cases in which the defendant was caught possessing counterfeits
with the intent to traffic in them. See Sections III.B.3.b.ii.-iii. of this
Chapter.
These problems were fixed by the Protecting American Goods and
Services Act of 2005, enacted March 16, 2006. It defines “traffic” as
follows:
(e)(2) the term “traffic” means to transport, transfer, or otherwise
dispose of, to another, as consideration for anything of value [for
purposes of commercial advantage or private financial gain], or [to]
make[, import, export,] or obtain control of[, or possess,] with intent
to so transport, transfer, or otherwise dispose of;
for which
(e)(3) [the term 'financial gain' includes the receipt, or expected
receipt, of anything of value].
Pub. L. No. 109-181, § 2, 120 Stat. 285, 288 (2006) (amending 18
U.S.C. § 2320(e)(2), (3) (adding brackets and strikethrough to show
amendment from prior law). These issues are discussed below.

Private Financial Gain
Under the prior definition of “traffic,” the thing “of value” that a
defendant had to receive as consideration did not need to be a financial
payment, but rather could be anything that had value. See United States

v. Koehler, 24 F.3d 867, 870-71 (6th Cir. 1994) (affirming § 2320
conviction based on acceptance of air conditioner compressors in lieu of
financial payment). That rule survived the 2006 amendments, in which
“consideration” was replaced with “for purposes of commercial advantage
or private financial gain,” § 2320(e)(2) (as amended), with “financial
gain” defined as including “the receipt, or expected receipt, of anything of
value,” § 2320(e)(3) (as amended) (emphasis added).
The “consideration” requirement may have been too narrow to
capture some types of commercially-motivated counterfeiting conduct: at
least one court held that the term must be interpreted in the contractual
sense as the product of a bargained-for exchange between parties. See
United States v. Habegger, 370 F.3d 441, 444-45 (4th Cir. 2004). In
Habegger, the Fourth Circuit held that a free sample of counterfeit goods
sent to a potential customer did not constitute “trafficking” under
§ 2320(e)(2), even if the samples had been sent to maintain the
customer's good will, because there had been no agreement to purchase
goods. Id. at 445. The court might have decided differently, however, had
there been “more than a mere hope on the part of the sender that the
recipient [would] purchase goods in the future,” such as if the recipient
had “promised to pay for the socks, to buy additional socks if he found
the samples acceptable, or even to examine the socks and consider
purchasing more.” Id.
To avoid problems like this, Congress replaced “consideration” with
“for purposes of commercial advantage or financial gain,” a phrase which
has a long-standing meaning within the copyright and criminal codes. It
covers a wider variety of profit-related infringement, regardless of whether
the defendant infringed for a direct quid pro quo or actually made a
profit. For a detailed discussion of how to apply the commercial advantage
or financial gain element, see Section II.B.4. of this Manual. The cases
discussed there should be persuasive in counterfeit mark cases arising after
the 2006 amendments.
One type of conduct that the term “traffic” does not include, however,
is consumers' knowing acquisition of counterfeit items solely for personal
use. This was true under the prior version of “traffic.” See Joint
Statement, 130 Cong. Rec. 31,675 (1984). It is also true after the 2006
amendments, given that “commercial advantage and private financial
gain” does not include acquiring infringing items for personal use. See
Section II.B.4. of this Manual.

III.B.3.b.iii. Making and Obtaining Counterfeits vs. Possession
with Intent to Traffic
At first glance, possession of contraband with intent to traffic—which
the old definition did not explicitly cover—appears coextensive with
making or obtaining control of contraband with intent to traffic—both of
which the old and new definitions explicitly included. See 18 U.S.C.
§ 2320(e)(2) (“[T]he term 'traffic' means to transport, transfer, or
otherwise dispose of, to another, [for purposes of commercial advantage
or private financial gain], or [to] make[, import, export,] obtain control
of[, or possess,] with intent to so transport, transfer, or otherwise dispose
of [-]”) (showing 2006 amendments); United States v. DeFreitas, 92 F.
Supp. 2d 272, 277 (S.D.N.Y. 2000) (holding that purchasing counterfeit
items in China for transportation to and sale in the United States
constituted an illegal act of “obtaining control” for purposes of § 2320).
Yet there is a subtle—but important—distinction between “obtaining
control” with intent to traffic and “possession” with intent to traffic.
Consider a warehouse full of counterfeits, with no records indicating when
the counterfeits were made, obtained, or transported. Under the old
definition of trafficking, the defendant might argue that although the
government could show that he possessed counterfeits in commercial
quantities, it could not prove when he made them or obtained control of
them—the old definition's operative verbs. In the same vein, the
defendant might argue that without records to prove when the defendant
made or obtained control of the counterfeits, a fortiori the government
could not prove that these events occurred within the statute of
limitations. If, however, the government need only prove that the
defendant possessed the contraband with the intent to traffic in it, then
the government can establish that that action occurred on the date it
found the warehouse full of counterfeits; it need not prove when the
defendant acquired or produced the contraband. Thus, Congress amended
the definition of trafficking explicitly to include possession with intent to
traffic.
III.B.3.b.iv. Importing and Exporting Related to Transporting

Congress added importing and exporting to the new definition of
trafficking in 2006 to make clear that both acts violate § 2320. The prior
definition of “traffic” covered both importing and exporting counterfeits:
importing and exporting are forms of transporting goods, and the old
definition explicitly covered transportation. See 18 U.S.C. § 2320(e)(2)
(“[T]he term 'traffic' means to transport, transfer, or otherwise dispose of,
to another ...”) (emphasis added) (pre-2006 amendments); United States

v. DeFreitas, 92 F. Supp. 2d 272, 276-77 (S.D.N.Y. 2000) (holding that
importing counterfeit items from China into the United States for sale
constituted trafficking under § 2320). The 2006 amendments make it
even more clear that the acts of importing and exporting counterfeits
violate § 2320.
III.B.3.c. Goods and Services [after March 16, 2006: and

Labels, Patches, Stickers, Wrappers, Badges, Emblems,
Medallions, Charms, Boxes, Containers, Cans, Cases,
Hangtags, Documentation, or Packaging of Any Type or
Nature]
What may the defendant not traffic in? Before the March 16, 2006
amendments in the Stop Counterfeiting in Manufactured Goods Act, Pub.
L. No. 109-181, § 1, 120 Stat. 285, 285-88 (2006), the list included only
goods or services.
“Goods and services” are defined by neither § 2320 nor the Lanham
Act. Section 2320's legislative history, however, provides some guidance
regarding the meaning of “goods,” given Congress's focus there on the
damage done by various types of counterfeit goods such as drugs,
automobile parts, cosmetics, fertilizers, computer parts, and medical
devices. H.R. Rep. No. 98-997, at 5 (1984). With regard to “services,”
however, the legislative histories for § 2320 and the Lanham Act are
silent. See In re Advertising & Marketing Dev., Inc., 821 F.2d 614, 618
(Fed. Cir. 1987) (discussing Lanham Act's legislative history). Although
courts have not defined “services” under § 2320, in Lanham Act cases the
courts have defined the term broadly to include “the performance of labor
for the benefit of another.” In re Canadian Pac. Ltd., 754 F.2d 992, 995
(Fed. Cir. 1985); Morningside Group Ltd. v. Morningside Capital Group,
L.L.C., 182 F.3d 133, 137-38 (2d Cir. 1999).
The difficulty with punishing defendants for using counterfeit marks
only in connection with goods and services for which the genuine mark
was registered was that it created a potential loophole for trafficking in
labels, documentation, and packaging with counterfeit marks. Labels,
documentation, and packaging that bore counterfeit trademarks but
which were unattached to other goods or services, ran the possibility of
not being considered “goods” under § 2320 if the mark-holder had not
registered the marks for use on labels, documentation, and packaging.
This was the holding of the Tenth Circuit in United States v. Giles,
213 F.3d 1247, 1253 (10th Cir. 2000) (“Section 2320 does not clearly
penalize trafficking in counterfeit labels which are unattached to any
goods.”). In Giles, the defendant sold patches bearing counterfeit Dooney

& Burke trademarks. The patches could be attached to generic handbags
and luggage to make them counterfeit, but Dooney & Burke had
registered the marks for use on handbags and luggage, not on patches, and
the defendant did not sell the fake handbags and luggage to which the
patches were to be attached. The Tenth Circuit concluded that the
patches were labels, not goods, and that the defendant could not be
convicted under § 2320 for trafficking in unattached labels. The court
indicated, however, that the case might have been decided differently had
the marks been registered for use on patches, or if the defendant had been
charged with aiding-and-abetting trafficking in counterfeit goods. Id. at
1251 n.6, 1252 & n.7. If the defendant used a counterfeit mark but did
not provide the good or service himself, then he generally had to be
charged under § 2320 in conjunction with conspiracy or aiding-and-
abetting. Id. at 1251 n.6; United States v. Guerra, 293 F.3d 1279, 1286-
87 & n.4 (11th Cir. 2002) (affirming conviction on these grounds). See
Section III.B.4.f. of this Chapter.
Dissatisfied with the Giles decision, Congress amended § 2320 to
criminalize trafficking in counterfeit labels, documentation, and packaging
directly:
Whoever intentionally traffics or attempts to traffic in goods or
services and knowingly uses a counterfeit mark on or in connection
with such goods or services[, or intentionally traffics or attempts to
traffic in labels, patches, stickers, wrappers, badges, emblems,
documentation, or packaging of any type or nature, knowing that a
counterfeit mark has been applied thereto, the use of which is likely
to cause confusion, to cause mistake, or to deceive,] shall, if an
individual, be fined not more than $2,000,000 or imprisoned not
more than 10 years, or both, and, if a person other than an individual,
be fined not more than $5,000,000.
18 U.S.C. § 2320(a) (bracketed language inserted by the Stop
Counterfeiting in Manufactured Goods Act, Pub. L. No. 109-181,
§ 1(b)(1), 120 Stat. 285, 285 (Mar. 16, 2006)); see H. Rep. No. 109-68,
at 7 (“This modification is intended to overrule the holding in the case
United States v. Giles ....”). Thus, after March 16, 2006, defendants can
be charged with trafficking in labels, documentation, and packaging with
counterfeit marks under § 2320 without resort to aiding-and-abetting or
conspiracy charges.
Despite the focus on labels, documentation, or packaging that bear
inauthentic marks, repackaging authentic goods with inauthentic labels

is criminal only in a limited set of circumstances. See Sections III.C.E. and
III.D.2.-3. of this Chapter.
A defendant can be convicted for trafficking in a single good, service,
label, piece of documentation or packaging. See United States v. Foote,
413 F.3d 1240, 1246-47 (10th Cir. 2005) (holding that § 2320's use of
“goods” in the plural does not preclude prosecution of a person who
traffics in a single counterfeit good).
Whether the things that the defendant trafficked in consist of “goods”
or “services”—or as labels, documentation, or packaging intended to be
used with goods or services—is governed by the victim's certificate of
registration with the United States Patent and Trademark Office. That
certificate will indicate whether the mark in question had been registered
for goods or for services, and also for what type of good or service. See
Section III.B.4.c. of this Chapter.
III.B.4. The Defendant Used a “Counterfeit Mark” On or In

Connection With Those Goods or Services [after March
16, 2006: or a Counterfeit Mark Was Applied to Labels,
Documentation, or Packaging for Those Goods or Services]
The government must prove that the defendant knowingly used a
counterfeit mark on or in connection with goods or services, or, after the
2006 amendments, that a counterfeit mark was applied to the labels,
documentation, or packaging. 18 U.S.C. § 2320(a).
III.B.4.a. Definition of Counterfeit Mark Generally: Not

Genuine or Authentic
“Counterfeit mark” is a term of art that is defined as follows:
(A) a spurious mark—
(i) that is used in connection with trafficking in [any] goods[,]
services[, labels, patches, stickers, wrappers, badges, emblems,
documentation, or packaging of any type or nature];
(ii) that is identical with, or substantially indistinguishable from,
a mark registered on the principal register in the United States
Patent and Trademark Office and in use, whether or not the
defendant knew such mark was so registered;
[(iii) that is applied to or used in connection with the goods or
services for which the mark is registered with the United States
Patent and Trademark Office, or is applied to or consists of a

label, patch, sticker, wrapper, badge, emblem, medallion, charm,
box, container, can, case, hangtag, documentation, or packaging
of any type or nature that is designed, marketed, or otherwise
intended to be used on or in connection with the goods or
services for which the mark is registered in the United States
Patent and Trademark office; and]
(iv) the use of which is likely to cause confusion, to cause
mistake, or to deceive.
18 U.S.C. § 2320(e)(1)(A), (as amended by the Stop Counterfeiting in
Manufactured Goods Act, Pub. L. No. 109-181, § 1(b)(3), 120 Stat. 285,
286-87 (Mar. 16, 2006)) (brackets and strikethrough added to show
amendments).
A “spurious” mark is one that is “not genuine or authentic.” Joint
Statement, 130 Cong. Rec. 31,675 (1984).
Although this definition indicates that what must be counterfeit is the
mark itself, not the goods or services [or, after March 16, 2006, the labels,
documentation, or packaging], a genuine or authentic mark becomes
counterfeit when it is used in connection with something else that is
counterfeit. See 4 J. Thomas McCarthy, McCarthy on Trademarks and
Unfair Competition § 25:15 (4th ed. 2006). In United States v. Petrosian,
126 F.3d 1232 (9th Cir. 1997), the defendant, who filled genuine
Coca-Cola bottles with a substitute carbonated beverage and sold it as
Coca-Cola, contended that his Coca-Cola marks were not counterfeit
because his genuine bottles bore genuine marks. The Ninth Circuit
disagreed, holding that “[w]hen a genuine trademark is affixed to a
counterfeit product, it becomes a spurious mark.... The Coca-Cola mark
became spurious when [defendant] affixed it to the counterfeit cola
because the mark falsely indicated that Coca-Cola was the source of the
beverage in the bottles and falsely identified the beverage in the bottles
as Coca-Cola.” Id. at 1234 (citations omitted). See also Section III.C.3.
of this Chapter concerning the repackaging of authentic goods. This rule
should apply equally to services, labels, documentation, and packaging.
The definition of “counterfeit mark” in § 2320(e)(1)(B) also includes
designations protected by the Olympic Charter Act. See Section III.D.8.
of this Chapter.
Separate laws punish the counterfeit use of emblems, insignias, and
names of:
• military medals and designations.
• veterans' organizations.

• cremation urns for military use.
• the seals of the United States President, Vice President, Senate,
House of Representatives, and Congress.
• federal agencies.
• the Department of Interior's golden eagle insignia.
• police badges.
• the Red Cross.
• the 4-H club.
• the Swiss Confederation.
• Smokey the Bear.
• Woodsy the Owl.
See 18 U.S.C. §§ 700-716.

Indistinguishable from a Genuine Mark Owned by Another
Under 18 U.S.C. § 2320(e)(1)(A), a counterfeit mark is a spurious
mark that is “identical with, or substantially indistinguishable from,” a
federally registered mark. This standard is based on the same standard set
forth in the Lanham Act, 15 U.S.C. § 1127. The legislative history
suggests that the civil and criminal standards should be interpreted the
same. See Joint Statement, 130 Cong. Rec. 31,675-76 (1984) (noting that
the civil and criminal standards “differ slightly in their terms, but [] are
identical in substance,” and citing civil cases to explain both standards'
operation). If the criminal and civil standards diverge at all—and the
legislative history suggests otherwise, notwithstanding a statement to the
contrary in United States v. Guerra, 293 F.3d 1279, 1288 (11th Cir.
2002)—the criminal standard should be interpreted more narrowly only
in cases at the outer margins, Id. (citing Joint Statement, 130 Cong. Rec.
31,675 (1984) (stating that § 2320 is not intended to criminalize what
would have been “arguable” cases of civil trademark infringement before
the criminal act's passage)). Note, however, that the criminal and civil
standards are the same or virtually identical with respect to what
constitutes a “counterfeit.” Civil law also prohibits the unauthorized use
of a “colorable imitation of a registered mark,” see 15 U.S.C.
§ 1114(1)(b), which by its terms falls short of being counterfeit.
The phrase “substantially indistinguishable from” is intended to
prevent a counterfeiter from escaping liability by modifying a protected

trademark in trivial ways; however, it is not intended to cover cases in
which the infringement is arguable, less than clear, or merely “reminiscent
of” protected trademarks. Joint Statement, 130 Cong. Rec. 31, 676
(1984).
[A] mark need not be absolutely identical to a genuine mark in order
to be considered counterfeit. Such an interpretation would allow
counterfeiters to escape liability by modifying the registered
trademarks of their honest competitors in trivial ways. However, the
sponsors do not intend to treat as counterfeiting what would formerly
have been arguable, but not clear-cut, cases of trademark
infringement.
Guerra, 293 F.3d at 1288 (quoting Joint Statement, 130 Cong. Rec.
31,676 (1984)). Thus, the use of the mark “Prastimol” for a medication
that is the functional equivalent of the product sold under the trademark
“Mostimol” would not be a crime. Id. Nor would a 'P' superimposed over
a 'V' on a fleur-de-lis pattern be substantially indistinguishable from an 'L'
superimposed over a 'V' over the same pattern, or using “Amazonas”
rather than “Amazon,” or “Bolivia” rather than “Bulova.” See Montres
Rolex, S.A. v. Snyder, 718 F.2d 524, 531-32 (2d Cir. 1983) (noting that
these examples might create a likelihood of confusion without being
substantially indistinguishable, in case interpreting Customs's power to
seize counterfeits), cited with approval in Joint Statement, 130 Cong. Rec.
at 31,675-76. However, a counterfeiter who sells a look-alike with an
altered brand name can still be convicted if his look-alike reproduces other
registered trademarks. See United States v. Yi, __F.3d__, 2006 WL
2294854, at *1 n.1, *3 n.4 (5th Cir. Aug. 10, 2006) (holding that even
though defendant’s batteries were named “Dinacell” rather than
“Duracell,” the batteries were still counterfeit because they used
Duracell’s copper-top and black-body trademark).
In the end, what constitutes a “substantially indistinguishable”
difference “will need to be elaborated on a case-by-case basis by the
courts.” Joint Statement, 130 Cong. Rec. 31,675 (1984).
Prosecutors should pay special attention to word marks. A trademark
can consist of a symbol, a picture, or a stylized depiction of a word (such
as the distinctive Coca-Cola® cursive mark). A trademark can also consist
of a simple word. A word mark registered in a neutral font and all capital
letters “covers all design features and is not limited to any special form or
lettering.” Sally Beauty Co. v. Beautyco, Inc., 304 F.3d 964, 970 (10th
Cir. 2002) (emphasis added) (citations omitted); J. Thomas McCarthy,
McCarthy on Trademarks and Unfair Competition § 19:58 (4th ed. &
June 2002 database update) (“'Registrations with typed drawings are not

limited to any particular rendition of the mark and, in particular, are not
limited to the mark as it is used in commerce.'”) (quoting Cunningham v.
Laser Golf Corp. , 222 F.3d 943, 950 (Fed. Cir. 2000)); see also
Cunningham, 222 F.3d at 949-50; 37 C.F.R. § 2.52 (May 13, 2004). In
other words, there is a strong argument that a mark registered in this
manner is counterfeited by any infringing use of the mark, whether in the
font used by the mark-holder or not, because the infringing word mark is
substantially indistinguishable from the word mark itself.
When trying to determine which trademarks the defendant infringed,
prosecutors and agents should consult with the victim. Although the
government itself can search for trademarks on the United States Patent
and Trademark Office's website, these searches can be cumbersome. Given
the range of perceptible elements that can be registered as marks—witness
the color pink for Owens-Corning fiberglass, the NBC chime, the Burberry
plaid, and the shape of the Coca-Cola bottle (respectively U.S. Trademark
Reg. Nos. 1439132 and 2380742, 0916522, 2022789, and
1057884)—the victim is best suited to identify which elements were
registered as marks and which may have been counterfeited.
Section 2320 does not specify the procedure for establishing at trial
that the counterfeit m a rk is i d e n t i c a l w i t h o r s ubstantially
indistinguishable from a genuine registered mark. See Guerra, 293 F.3d
at 1288. In Guerra, the Eleventh Circuit rejected the defendant's
contention at trial that the government must 1) introduce genuine
trademarks affixed to genuine goods, 2) introduce the testimony of a
representative from the mark-holder, and 3) rely on investigative agents
who are experts in the counterfeited product or service. Id. Instead, the
court ruled that introducing registered trademark designs and labels
produced by authorized licensees was sufficient. Id. Other courts have
approved the government's use of expert testimony and a comparison
between counterfeit and genuine goods. See United States v. Yamin, 868
F.2d 130, 135 (5th Cir. 1989); United States v. McEvoy, 820 F.2d 1170,
1172 (11th Cir. 1987) (same). In civil cases, courts have also allowed
evidence of actual confusion, such as customers who were fooled, and
trademark surveys. 3 J. Thomas McCarthy, McCarthy on Trademarks and
Unfair Competition §§ 23:2.1; :13, :63. Market surveys are often used in
civil cases, but can raise evidentiary issues. See, e.g., 5 McCarthy on
Trademarks and Unfair Competition §§ 32:158, :170; Citizens Fin. Group
v. Citizens Nat'l Bank of Evans City, 383 F.3d 110 (3d Cir. 2004). As of
the writing of this Manual, no reported cases address the admissibility of
market surveys in criminal trademark prosecutions.

The procedures and analysis for comparing counterfeit and legitimate
marks are also addressed in Section III.B.4.g. of this Chapter, which
discusses how to prove likelihood of confusion.
Proving that two marks are likely to be confused is not always
sufficient to prove that they are identical or substantially
indistinguishable. Likelihood of confusion is a lower hurdle. See Montres
Rolex, S.A., 718 F.2d at 531-32 (noting examples of marks that were
likely to cause confusion, but which were not substa n t ially
indistinguishable from the real thing: a 'P' superimposed over a 'V' on a
fleur-de-lis pattern vs. an 'L' superimposed over a 'V' over the same
pattern; “Amazonas” vs. “Amazon”; and “Bolivia” vs. “Bulova”). For
actual comparisons of marks that were alleged to be confusingly similar,
see 3 McCarthy on Trademarks and Unfair Competition §§ 23.21 - .40,
keeping in mind the potential differences between civil and criminal cases
(see Section III.B.2. of this Chapter), and the difference between
likelihood of confusion and being substantially indistinguishable.
III.B.4.c. The Genuine Mark Must Be Federally Registered on

the U.S. Patent and Trademark Office's Principal Register
The victim's mark must have been registered on the principal register
in the United States Patent and Trademark Office (“USPTO”), 18 U.S.C.
§ 2320(e)(1)(A)(ii), unless the case involves the Olympic symbols; see
Section III.D.8. of this Chapter.
Federal registration is a jurisdictional element. Thus, § 2320 cannot
be charged if the victim's mark was only registered on the USPTO's
supplemental register, recorded with Customs, registered with state
agencies, or protected at common law. However, if a § 2320 charge is
unavailable because the mark was not registered on USPTO's principal
register, alternate charges such as mail fraud, wire fraud, or state or local
trademark charges may still be available. See Section III.F. of this
Chapter.
Proving the mark's registration is usually straightforward. Generally,
the government will simply offer a certified copy of the certificate of
registration. The court may take judicial notice of registration certificates.
See Fed. R. Evid. 201(b); Omega S.A. v. Omega Eng'g, 228 F. Supp. 2d
112, 120 & n.26 (D. Conn. 2002); Duluth News-Tribune v. Mesabi
Publ'g Co., 84 F.3d 1093, 1096 n.2 (8th Cir. 1996); cf. Island Software
and Computer Serv. v. Microsoft Corp., 413 F.3d 257, 261 (2d Cir.
2005) (approving judicial notice of copyright registration certificates).
Unofficial registration information can be searched on the USPTO's
website: http://www.uspto.gov/main/trademarks.htm. Formal, certified

copies of the registration certificates can be obtained directly from
USPTO. The Department of Justice has no special method for expediting
delivery of certificates from USPTO, beyond perhaps a grand jury or trial
subpoena, which should be discouraged. The usual method is to obtain
certified copies of certificates from the victims themselves.
Registration may also be proved through other means, such as
testimony of the mark-holder and other circumstantial evidence. For
example, in United States v. DeFreitas, 92 F. Supp. 2d 272, 278
(S.D.N.Y. 2000), the court allowed the jury to conclude that a mark was
registered based on testimony of the mark-holder for Beanie Babies along
with samples of genuine Beanie Babies with tags bearing registered tags,
the mark-holder's catalogue containing a statement that the trademark
was registered, and testimony of the mark-holder's CEO. In United States
v. Park, 165 Fed. Appx 584,85-86 (9th Cir. 2006), the Ninth Circuit
found that the government had proved registration by introducing a civil
complaint against the defendant in a prior suit that she had settled, in
which the complaint stated that the trademarks were registered; by
introducing testimony of the defendant's civil attorney in that case, who
testified that the victims were trademark owners at the time of the prior
civil action; and by introducing testimony of an FBI agent who testified
that the items seized at the defendant's business were identical to items
registered as trademarks in the United States Patent Office.
Registration is prima facie evidence that the registrant owns the mark
and that the registration is valid. 15 U.S.C. § 1057(b). In criminal
prosecutions, the genuine mark is usually treated as “incontestable” if it
has been registered on the principal register for more than five consecutive
years. See 15 U.S.C. § 1065 (setting out conditions for
“incontestability”). A federal trademark registration may, however, be
canceled in whole or part in a civil judicial or administrative proceeding.
See 15 U.S.C. § 1064.
The government need not prove that the defendant was aware that
the mark was registered. 18 U.S.C. § 2320(e)(1)(A)(ii) (stating that a
counterfeit mark is one that is “identical with, or substantially
indistinguishable from” a registered mark “whether or not the defendant
knew such mark was so registered”) (pre- and post-2006 amendments).
See also United States v. Sung , 51 F.3d 92, 93-94 (7th Cir. 1995)
(holding that § 2320(e)(1)(A)(ii) imposes on defendants “the duty to
inquire about the [registration] status of the mark”) (citations omitted).

Mark-Holder or Its Licensee
The genuine mark must also be “in use,” presumably by the mark
holder or his licensee, 18 U.S.C. § 2320(e)(1)(A)(ii) (both pre- and post-
2006 amendments), except in cases involving protected Olympic symbols,
as discussed in Section III.D.8. of this Chapter.
What “in use” means cannot be found in the statute, its legislative
history, or case law. The Lanham Act, however, defines a trademark's “use
in commerce” as “the bona fide use of a mark in the ordinary course of
trade, and not made merely to reserve a right in a mark.” 15 U.S.C.
§ 1127. See also ConAgra, Inc. v. George A. Hormel, & Co., 990 F.2d
368, 371-72 (8th Cir. 1993) (affirming district court's finding that the
trademark application was based on actual sales and not a “sham use”).
Civil cases have held that “in use” means use in the United States, not in
other nations. See Marshak v. Treadwell, 240 F.3d 184 (3d Cir. 2001);
Rivard v. Linville, 133 F.3d 1446, 1448-49 (Fed. Cir. 1998).
To prove that the genuine mark was in use during the offense, the
government may not rely solely on a certification of registration that
shows that the victim registered the trademark before the date of the
offense. Registration merely requires a mark-holder to have a bona fide
intent to use the mark, which does not translate into actual use. United
States v. Foote, 238 F. Supp. 2d 1271, 1278 (D. Kan. 2002), aff'd, 413
F.3d 1240, 1248 (10th Cir. 2005); United States v. Guerra, 293 F.3d
1279, 1290 (11th Cir. 2002). Nor may the government establish use by
relying on the jurors' probable experience with the trademark at issue,
since the jurors' experience is not legal evidence. Foote, 238 F. Supp. 2d
at 1279 n.11.
What will suffice, however, is proof of registration in conjunction with
evidence of the first use by the mark-holder and testimony by a
representative of the mark-holder that the mark appears on every good
produced. Foote, 413 F.3d at 1248, aff'g 238 F. Supp. 2d at 1279; a
magazine showing the genuine trademarked goods for sale at the time of
offense, Guerra, 293 F.3d at 1291; or a civil complaint from a civil action
alleging that the victim used the mark before the criminal offense in
conjunction with testimony that the trademark owners had protected
their marks during the criminal offense, United States v. Park, 164 Fed.
Appx. 584, 585-86 (9th Cir. 2006).
Although § 2320(e)(1)(A)(ii) does not specify when the registered
mark must have been “in use,” courts have held that it must have been in
use during the defendant's alleged offense. See Park, 164 Fed. Appx. at

585 (stating that “registration and use at the time of [a trademark]
conspiracy can be indirectly established if the government provides
evidence that trademarks for the relevant items were registered and used
prior to and after the conspiracy was formed, as long as the evidence of
preceding and subsequent registration and use is reasonably close to the
time of the actual conspiracy”); Foote, 238 F. Supp. 2d at 1278 n.8
(holding that without a temporal limit “the statute would allow a
prosecution for trafficking in products with trademarks that the
trademark owner did not begin to use until trial”), aff'd, 413 F.3d at
1248; Guerra, 293 F.3d at 1290-91. The government should prove that
the victim used his genuine mark as early as when the defendant first used
his counterfeit mark, if not earlier, and that the victim continued using
the genuine mark throughout the offense. Foote, 238 F. Supp. 2d at 1274
n.4, 1277-79. Proving that the mark was in use at the time of trial may
not suffice to prove that it was in use during the offense. Id. at 1278.
III.B.4.e. Use of the Counterfeit Mark “On or In Connection

With” Goods or Services
Before the March 16, 2006 amendments, the government had to
prove that the defendant used the counterfeit mark “on or in connection
with” goods or services. 18 U.S.C. § 2320(a). After March 16, 2006, the
government must similarly prove that the defendant used the counterfeit
mark “on or in connection with” goods or services (just as before), or, in
the case of labels, documentation, packaging, and the like, that the
counterfeit mark was “applied thereto.” 18 U.S.C. § 2320(a) (as amended
by the Stop Counterfeiting in Manufactured Goods Act, Pub L. No. 109-
181, § 1, 120 Stat. 285 (Mar. 16, 2006)). In addition, the government
must prove that the counterfeit mark “is applied to or used in connection
with the goods or services” or “is applied to or consists of” a label,
documentation, packaging, or the like—in which case the label,
documentation, or packaging must be “designed, marketed, or otherwise
intended to be used on or in connection with the goods or services for
which the mark is registered.” § 2320(e)(1)(A)(iii) (as amended Mar. 16,
2006) (emphasis added). The changes will largely be insignificant, except
in cases involving labels, documentation, or packaging.
The new term from the 2006 amendments, “applied to,” is
presumably synonymous with “on,” but was included because § 2320 was
expanded to cover things like labels, documentation, and packaging,
which can either be applied to goods and services or have a counterfeit
mark applied to them.

The 2006 amendments also recognize that the counterfeit mark might
not just be applied to or used in connection with labels, documentation,
and packaging, but might even “consist[] of” a label, documentation, or
packaging component, as was discussed in United States. v. Giles, 213
F.3d 1247, 1252 n.7 (10th Cir. 2000). See Section III.B.3.c. of this
Chapter.
Presumably, “in connection with” has a broader meaning than “on.”
For example, a defendant who uses a counterfeit mark to advertise a
name-brand good or service and then provides an unmarked, off-brand or
no-brand good or service can be said to have used a counterfeit mark “in
connection with” the good or service, even if he did not use it “on” the
good or service. This conduct should therefore be covered by § 2320.
Even before the 2006 amendments, a person who trafficked in labels,
documentation, or packaging—unattached to the underlying goods—may
have been prosecuted, albeit only under a theory of conspiracy or aiding-
and-abetting. See Section III.B.3.c. of this Chapter. The 2006
amendments, however, allow such a defendant to be charged under
§ 2320 directly, without resort to theories of secondary liability and in
cases where the defendant acted alone. Now, the government need only
show that the labels, documentation, or packaging were “designed,
marketed, or otherwise intended to be used on or in connection with the
goods or services.” § 2320(e)(1)(A)(iii) (as amended Mar. 16, 2006).
Same Type of Goods or Services for Which the Genuine Mark
Was Registered
Before the March 16, 2006 amendments, § 2320's definition of a
“counterfeit mark” allowed prosecution only if the defendant's mark was
“used in connection with trafficking in goods or services [and was]
identical with, or substantially indistinguishable from, a mark registered
for those goods and services on the principal register in the United States
Patent and Trademark Office.” 18 U.S.C. § 2320(e)(1)(A)(i)-(ii)
(emphasis added) (but see Section III.D.8. of this Chapter concerning
cases involving Olympic symbols). Congress intended this requirement as
an important and explicit distinction between criminal and civil
trademark infringement cases. “[A] plaintiff with a Federal registration
for ... [a mark] on typewriters might have a [civil] Lanham Act remedy
against a defendant who used that mark to identify typing paper, even
though the plaintiff had not registered that mark for use in connection
with typing paper. Under [§ 2320], however, the use of the mark ... on
typing paper would not count as the use of a 'counterfeit mark.'” Joint

Statement, 130 Cong. Rec. 31,676 (1984). Prosecutors therefore should
be careful to ensure that the goods and services the defendant trafficked
in match the goods and services for which the victim's mark was
registered.
But what about when the defendant uses the mark on labels,
documentation, or packaging that are for—but unattached to—the goods
or services indicated on the registration certificate, and not directly on the
underlying goods or services themselves? Before the 2006 amendments,
this scenario exposed a loophole in the law. In United States. v. Giles, 213
F.3d 1247, 1251 (10th Cir. 2000), the Tenth Circuit reversed a § 2320
conviction because, among other reasons, the victim had registered its
trademark for use on purses and handbags, but not for use on
patches—which the defendant sold with counterfeit marks for customers
to attach to purses and handbags. See the discussion in Section III.B.3.c.
of this Chapter, and also compare Playboy Enters., Inc. v. Universal Tel-
A-Talk, Inc., No. CIV. A. 96-CV-6961, 1998 WL 288423 (E.D. Pa. June
3, 1998) (holding that Playboy failed to state an actionable civil claim
because its marks had not been registered for use on Internet Web sites).
Such conduct could have been prosecuted under § 2320 in certain
circumstances—perhaps on the theory that the marks were used “in
connection with” the goods and services for which the mark was
registered, or under conspiracy or aiding-and-abetting charges (see Section
III.B.4.e. of this Chapter)—but a potential loophole complicated such
prosecutions.
The 2006 amendments addressed this issue by amending § 2320 to
allow the prosecution of traffickers in counterfeit labels, documentation,
and packaging directly under § 2320. See Stop Counterfeiting in
Manufactured Goods Act, Pub. L. No. 109-181, § 1, 120 Stat. 285 (Mar.
16, 2006). See also Section III.B.3.c. of this Chapter. In doing so,
Congress did not relax the requirement of matching the defendant's goods
and services to those on the registration certificate. Instead, Congress
adapted the requirement for labels, documentation, and packaging cases
so that the government must prove that those items were “designed,
marketed, or otherwise intended to be used on or in connection with the
goods or services for which the mark is registered in the United States
Patent and Trademark Office.” § 2320(e)(1)(A)(iii) (as amended by the
Stop Counterfeiting in Manufactured Goods Act, Pub L. No. 109-181,
§ 1, 120 Stat. 285, 287 (Mar. 16, 2006)). Note that the 2006
amendments moved this requirement from § 2320(e)(1)(A)(ii) to
(e)(1)(A)(iii). Id.

The class of goods or services for which a particular mark was
registered can be found on the mark's registration certificate. For
information on obtaining these certificates, see Section III.B.4.c. of this
Chapter.

The government must prove that the counterfeit mark is “likely to
cause confusion, to cause mistake, or to deceive.” 18 U.S.C.
§ 2320(e)(1)(A)(iii) (pre-2006 amendments); § 2320(e)(1)(A)(iv) (as
amended by the Stop Counterfeiting in Manufactured Goods Act, Pub L.
No. 109-181, § 1, 120 Stat. 285, 286-87 (Mar. 16, 2006).) (For the
standards in cases involving protected Olympic symbols, see Section
III.D.8. of this Chapter.) Although courts and commentators routinely
focus only on the counterfeit mark's propensity to confuse, the statute
also allows for proof of mistake or deception, and all three should be
charged in the indictment.
The government does not have to prove that the defendant's conduct
resulted in actual confusion, because “[t]he statute expressly requires only
likelihood of confusion.” United States v. Yamin, 868 F.2d 130, 133 (5th
Cir. 1989) (emphasis added).
Defendants often argue that their conduct raised no likelihood of
confusion because the purchaser knew that the goods were counterfeit,
because the fake goods were priced comparatively low, or because the
defendant specifically told the purchaser that the goods were counterfeit.
Courts have uniformly rejected these arguments. See, e.g., United States
v. Foote, 413 F.3d 1240, 1246 (10th Cir. 2005); United States v. Hon,
904 F.2d 803, 808 (2d Cir. 1990); Yamin, 868 F.2d at 133; United States
v. Torkington, 812 F.2d 1347, 1352 (11th Cir. 1987); United States v.
Gantos, 817 F.2d 41, 43 (8th Cir. 1987). For example, in Foote, because
the defendant “openly advertised that he sold counterfeit merchandise”
and “informed each customer that his merchandise was fake,” he argued
that his actions did not meet the confusion requirement in § 2320. Foote,
413 F.3d at 1245. The Tenth Circuit rejected this argument because the
confusion requirement is “not restricted to instances in which direct
purchasers are confused or deceived by the counterfeit goods.” Id .
(internal quotation marks omitted) (citing Yamin, 868 F.2d at 132).
Rather, the plain language of the statute indicates that it is “the
defendant's use of the product in commerce (i.e., the sale of the
counterfeit product) that is likely to cause confusion, mistake, or
deception in the public in general.” Foote, 413 F.3d at 1246.

The doctrine that supports a finding of confusion in such cases is that
of “secondary” or “post-sale” confusion, i.e., the confusion of the direct
purchaser's downstream customers or even of non-purchasers who could
be confused by seeing the counterfeit merchandise on the street. See, e.g.,
Foote, 413 F.3d at 1245; Yamin, 868 F.2d at 133. “A trademark holder's
ability to use its mark to symbolize its reputation is harmed when
potential purchasers of its goods see unauthentic goods and identify these
goods with the trademark holder.” Torkington, 812 F.2d at 1353
(emphasis added) (citations omitted). See also S. Rep. No. 98-526
(1984), reprinted in 1984 U.S.C.C.A.N. 3627. This doctrine was
originally developed by courts in interpreting the identical confusion
provision in the Lanham Act. See 3 J. Thomas McCarthy, McCarthy on
Trademarks and Unfair Competition § 23:7 (4th ed. 2005).
Courts adopted the post-sale confusion doctrine in criminal cases
because to hold otherwise would undermine the goals of trademark
protection. Section 2320 was “not just designed for the protection of
consumers,” but also for “the protection of trademarks themselves and for
the prevention of the cheapening and dilution of the genuine product.”
Hon, 904 F.2d at 806; see also Torkington, 812 F.2d at 1352-53; see
also H. Rep. 109-68, at 8 n.2 (“Congress was concerned not only that
trademark counterfeiting defrauds purchasers, ... but also that
counterfeiters can earn enormous profits by capitalizing on the ... efforts
of honest manufacturers at little expense to themselves.”) (citations,
alterations in original, and internal quotation marks omitted) (legislative
history to Stop Counterfeiting in Manufactured Goods Act, Pub. L. No.
109-181, § 1, 120 Stat. 285 (2006)). Interpreting “section 2320's
confusion requirement to include the non-purchasing public advances the
important purpose underlying the trademark laws of protecting the
trademark owner's investment in the quality of the mark and his product's
reputation, one that is independent of the goal of preventing consumer
deception.” Hon, 904 F.2d at 806. This is the same reason why the
government need not demonstrate that the counterfeit product is of lesser
quality than the genuine product. Even if the consumer is not defrauded,
the counterfeiter is still trading off another's name without his
authorization. See Section III.D.1. of this Chapter.
Because the government need only prove the likelihood of confusion,
it need not prove that the defendant intended to defraud or mislead
purchasers. See United States v. Brooks, 111 F.3d 365, 372 (4th Cir.
1997) (rejecting defense that defendants did not use counterfeit marks
“for the purpose of deception or to cause confusion or mistake”); Yamin,
868 F.2d at 132 (holding that the statute's application is not restricted to
instances in which direct purchasers are confused or deceived by the

counterfeit goods); Gantos, 817 F.2d at 42-43 (affirming conviction even
though defendant disclosed to his immediate customers that Rolex
watches were copies); Torkington, 812 F.2d at 1353 n.7 (noting that
Congress eliminated from § 2320 a mens rea element consisting of an
intent to deceive or defraud).
Likelihood of confusion can be proved with a variety of evidence, such
as the testimony of customers who mistakenly bought fakes, experts on
market confusion, or victim representatives who can discuss the fake and
real goods' similarities. See, e.g., 3 J. Thomas McCarthy, McCarthy on
Trademarks and Unfair Competition §§ 23:2.1, :13, :17, :63. Although
evidence of actual confusion is not necessary, it can often be very
persuasive. See United States v. McEvoy, 820 F.2d 1170, 1172 (11th Cir.
1987) (affirming conviction based on, inter alia, expert testimony that
customers often confuse fake and genuine watches and on a defense
witness's inability to distinguish between fake and genuine watches).
To determine likelihood of confusion in criminal cases, the Eleventh
Circuit has applied a test that was developed in civil cases . See
Torkington, 812 F.2d at 1354. The relevant factors are:
1. Type of trademark
2. Similarity of design
3. Similarity of product
4. Identity of retail outlets and purchasers
5. Similarity of advertising media used
6. Defendant's intent
7. Actual confusion
Id. No one factor is essential; all seven are weighed in an equitable
determination by the fact finder. Id. This test was originally developed
under civil law to determine whether infringement had occurred when the
underlying goods are different. Hon, 904 F.2d at 808. But when the goods
are “identical and the jury has concluded that the [government] has met
the two-pronged mens rea standard of section 2320, a requirement that
confusion among actual or potential purchasers be shown is unnecessary.”
Id. See also Polaroid Corp. v. Polarad Elecs. Corp., 287 F.2d 492, 495 (2d
Cir. 1961) (test often used in civil cases, unless goods are identical and
directly competitive). See generally 3 McCarthy on Trademarks and
Unfair Competition § 23.19 (discussing multi-factor tests for likelihood
of confusion). In any event, criminal jury instructions need not set forth

this seven-factor test, because it is not contained in the statute. See
McEvoy, 820 F.2d at 1172.
As to how the comparison should be made between the counterfeit
and legitimate products at trial, civil law suggests three principles. First,
counterfeit and genuine marks should “be compared in their entireties”
and “should not be dissected or split up into [] component parts [with]
each part then compared with corresponding parts,” because “[i]t is the
impression that the mark as a whole creates on the average reasonably
prudent buyer and not the parts thereof, that is important.” 3 McCarthy
on Trademarks § 23:41 (4th ed. 2005) (footnote omitted); see also id.
§ 23:42. Second, because the average purchaser focuses on two marks'
similarities rather than their differences, the fact finder should do the
same. 3 McCarthy on Trademarks § 23:41. Third, whether the
counterfeit and genuine marks should be compared side by side or serially
depends on how the average consumer would encounter them in the
market: “Where products in the relevant market are not typically
displayed in the same locations, centering on whether they are likely to be
distinguished when viewed simultaneously is incorrect, and will result in
a faulty likelihood-of-confusion analysis.” Louis Vuitton Malletier v.
Burlington Coat Factory Warehouse Corp., 426 F.3d 532, 534 (2d Cir.
2005) (Calabresi, J.) (discussing likelihood of confusing handbags); see
also 3 McCarthy on Trademarks §§ 23:58-:59. But see Louis Vuitton
Malletier v. Dooney & Bourke, Inc., 454 F.3d 108, 112 (2d Cir. 2006)
(suggesting that side-by-side comparison may be acceptable to determine
whether goods are identical). Finally, in a criminal case, even if some of
the markings on the defendant’s goods deviate from those on the original
and his goods are of noticeably poor quality, they are counterfeit so long
as his goods bear at least one trademark identical to or substantially
indistinguishable from the original. See United States v. Yi, __F.3d__,
2006 WL 2294854, at *1 n.1, *3 n.4, 9 & n.14 (5th Cir. Aug. 10, 2006).
III.B.5. The Defendant Used the Counterfeit Mark “Knowingly”

The final element required for a § 2320 offense is that the defendant
“knowingly” used the counterfeit mark on or in connection with the
trafficked goods or services. After the 2006 amendments, in cases
involving counterfeit marks on labels, documentation, or packaging, the
government must prove that the defendant trafficked in such items
“knowing that a counterfeit mark has been applied thereto, the use of
which is likely to cause confusion, to cause mistake, or to deceive.”
§ 2320(a) (as amended by the Stop Counterfeiting in Manufactured
Goods Act, Pub L. No. 109-181, § 1, 120 Stat. 285 (Mar. 16, 2006)).

To prove this element, the government must present evidence that the
defendant had “an awareness or a firm belief” that the mark used was
counterfeit. See Joint Statement, 130 Cong. Rec. 31,674 (1984).
Knowledge can also be proved with evidence that the defendant acted
with willful blindness, conscious avoidance, or deliberate ignorance, which
means the defendant “deliberately closed his eyes to what otherwise
would have been obvious to him concerning the fact in question.” See
United States v. Brodie, 403 F.3d 123, 148 (3d Cir. 2005) (quotations
and citation omitted). “[I]f the prosecution proves that the defendant was
'willfully blind' to the counterfeit nature of the mark, it will have met its
burden of showing 'knowledge.'” Joint Statement, 130 Cong. Rec. 31,674
(1984) (citing United States v. Jewell, 532 F.2d 697 (9th Cir. 1976)
(other citations omitted). See also United States v. Hiltz, 14 Fed. Appx.
17, 19 (1st Cir. 2001); United States v. Hamamoto, 2000 WL 1036199,
at *2 (9th Cir. July 27, 2000); cf. Tal S. Benschar et al., Proving
Willfulness in Trademark Counterfeiting Cases, 27 Colum. J.L. & Arts
121, 125 (2003). Although certain circuits may be generally reticent to
allow proof of willful blindness to satisfy actual knowledge in criminal
cases, Congress's specific intent with respect to § 2320(a) should trump
that reluctance in these cases.
On the other hand, “a manufacturer who believes in good faith that
he or she has a prior right to use a particular mark, or that a mark does
not infringe a registered mark, could not be said to 'know' that the mark
is counterfeit.” Joint Statement, 130 Cong. Rec. 31,674 (1984).
The government may prove the defendant's knowledge or willful
blindness of a counterfeit mark through direct or circumstantial evidence.
Circumstantial evidence could include evidence that:
• the defendant purchased or sold goods after notice of potential
infringement.
• the defendant knew that the victim distributed its goods only
through authorized dealers, when the defendant and his supplier
were not authorized dealers.
• the goods came from a questionable supplier.
• the defendant or his source used coded invoices for branded
merchandise.
• the goods were of inferior quality.
• the goods were bought or sold for an unusually low price.

Cf. Tal S. Benschar et al., Proving Willfulness in Trademark
Counterfeiting Cases , 27 Colum. J.L. & Arts 121, 130-35 (2003)
(discussing civil cases).
For more case examples, see United States v. Jewell, 532 F.2d 697,
699-702 (9th Cir. 1976) (cited in § 2320's legislative history) (upholding
willful blindness instruction when defendant had declined to buy drugs
from a stranger but then agreed to drive the stranger's car from Mexico to
the United States for $100, while he suspected there was something
wrong or illegal with the car and examined the car but avoided
investigating an apparently hidden compartment in the trunk that was
later found to contain drugs); United States v. Hamamoto, No. 99-10019,
2000 WL 1036199, at *1 (9th Cir. July 27, 2000) (bribes to defendant,
a customs agent in Guam, to clear airway bills for goods imported from
Korea, a primary source of counterfeit goods to Guam); United States v.
Rodriguez, Nos. 88-1125, 88-1127, 1989 WL 69934, at *2 (9th Cir. June
23, 1989) (citing defendant's own distinction between “phony” and “real”
Rolex watches, defendant's inability to sell the counterfeits at work, and
defendant's admission that she had to be quiet about selling them);
United States v. McEvoy, 820 F.2d 1170, 1172-73 (11th Cir. 1987)
(rejecting defendants' contention that § 2320 was unconstitutionally
vague, because defendants appeared to know “that their actions in selling
the watches violated the law,” particularly when defendants admitted that
the watches seized by the government contained trademarks virtually
identical to registered trademarks for Rolex, Piaget, and Gucci); United
States v. Guerra , 293 F.3d 1279, 1288 (11th Cir. 2002) (citing
defendant's knowledge that the counterfeit labels he produced were not
all being sold to authorized dealers of Cuban cigars and that the
purchasers of defendant's counterfeit labels did not purport to be
authorized dealers themselves); United States v. Sung, 51 F.3d 92, 93-94
(7th Cir. 1995) (holding that although the victim's genuine mark was not
always identified with the ® symbol, defendant's knowledge that the
“marks were on the bottles, caps, and boxes” of the counterfeit shampoo
he sold sufficed because § 2320(e)(1)(A)(ii) imposes on the defendant
“the duty to inquire about the status of the mark”); United States v. Park,
164 Fed. Appx. 584, 585-86 (9th Cir. 2006) (holding that government
demonstrated knowing use of a counterfeit mark by introducing
settlement agreement from an earlier civil action between defendant and
victim in which she had agreed not to sell identical merchandise with
which she was caught in criminal case) (unpublished); United States v. Yi,
__F.3d__, 2006 WL 2294854, at *3-*4 (5th Cir. Aug. 10, 2006) (holding
that jury could conclude that defendant knew the marks were counterfeit,
notwithstanding his numerous factual counterarguments, in light of the

defendant’s admissions, attempt to bribe a Customs agent, receipt of
cease-and-desist letters, and the counterfeit goods’ poor quality).
For a case in which circumstantial evidence was insufficient, consider
United States v. Sultan, 115 F.3d 321 (5th Cir. 1997). In Sultan, the
defendant shared a warehouse with an auto parts dealer who obtained re-
manufactured auto parts and altered them to make them look new. Id. at
323-24. Although the two businesses were kept separate, the defendant
purchased a large amount of merchandise from the auto parts dealer. Id.
at 324. In holding that the government failed to show that the defendant
knew that he was selling counterfeit parts, the Fifth Circuit largely
rejected the government's circumstantial evidence of knowledge,
including:
• the defendant's penchant for thriftiness and knowledge of market
prices. Id. at 326.
• the defendant's inconsistent statements to investigators (because
he may have made these statements for non-criminal reasons). Id.
• the defendant shared the warehouse space with the auto parts
dealer (which alone was not sufficient because the defendant's
mere presence in a climate of criminal activity could not serve as
a basis for conviction). Id. at 328.
• the counterfeit parts' low prices (which alone were not sufficient
evidence of knowledge when there were legal ways to obtain
goods at this price range and the defendant was paying 80% to
90% of the market price for legitimate distributors). Id. at 329.
• evidence of the defendant's knowledge regarding legitimate
packaging (because there was no evidence that the defendant was
aware that the packaging materials stored by the auto parts dealer
were counterfeit, particularly when one witness never saw the
defendant in the counterfeit room and another witness testified
that the defendant kept his inventory separate from the auto
parts dealer). Id. at 329-30.
Holding that this circumstantial evidence required the jury to go “beyond
making reasonable inferences” by “making unreasonable leaps,” the court
reversed the conviction on the ground that there was insufficient evidence
to support the jury's finding that the defendant knowingly used a
counterfeit mark beyond a reasonable doubt. Id. at 330.
The government need not prove that the defendant knew that the
mark he counterfeited was registered with the United States Patent and
Trademark Office. See Section III.B.4.c. of this Chapter. Nor must the

government prove that the defendant knew that his conduct constituted
a crime. Hamling v. United States, 418 U.S. 87, 123 (1974); United
States v. Baker, 807 F.2d 427, 428-30 (5th Cir. 1986).
III.B.6. Venue
An interesting case involving venue and foreign purchases of
counterfeit trademarked goods is United States v. DeFreitas, 92 F. Supp.
2d 272 (S.D.N.Y. 2000). In DeFreitas , the defendant imported
counterfeit Beanie Babies from China to New Jersey via New York for
eventual sale in New Jersey. Id. at 276. The defendant challenged his
conviction under §§ 2320 and 371 (conspiracy) on the basis of improper
venue in New York, arguing that the substantive offense under § 2320 did
not begin until he received the counterfeit goods in New Jersey. The court
rejected his argument by holding that trafficking is a continuing offense
beginning with obtaining control over the counterfeit goods, continuing
with transport, and ending with the transfer or disposal of the goods. Id.
at 277. Because the offense began when the defendant purchased the
counterfeit goods in China and directed that they be shipped to New
Jersey, venue was proper at any point through which the goods traveled
after they entered the United States, including the Southern District of
New York. Id.
III.C. Defenses
Many general defenses, such as the absence of proper venue or
jurisdiction, are available in every criminal case and their application
needs no further elaboration here. The following discussion addresses
defenses specific to § 2320.
III.C.1. Authorized-Use Defense: Overrun Goods

The authorized-use defense excludes from the definition of counterfeit
mark any mark that is
used in connection with goods or services[, or a mark or designation
applied to labels, patches, stickers, wrappers, badges, emblems,
documentation, or packaging of any type or nature used in connection
with such goods or services,] of which the manufacturer or producer
was, at the time of the manufacture or production in question[,]
authorized to use the mark or designation for the type of goods or

services so manufactured or produced, by the holder of the right to
use such mark or designation.
18 U.S.C. § 2320(e)(1)(B). The bracketed language was inserted by the
Stop Counterfeiting in Manufactured Goods Act, Pub. L. No. 109-181,
§ 1(b)(3), 120 Stat. 285, 287 (Mar. 16, 2006), and thus applies only to
offenses arising after that time.
The authorized-use defense applies to “overrun” goods or services,
that is, goods or services that an authorized manufacturer or producer
makes and sells on the side without the mark-holder or licensor's
knowledge or approval. For instance, consider a trademark licensee who
is authorized to make 500,000 umbrellas bearing the licensor's trademark
but who manufactures without authorization an additional 500,000
umbrellas bearing that mark during the course of the license. Because the
trademark owner in this situation can protect himself through
“contractual and other civil remedies,” Congress felt that it was
“inappropriate to criminalize such practices.” Joint Statement, 130 Cong.
Rec. 31,676 (1984) (internal quotation marks and citation omitted).
Thus, “[i]f a licensee manufactures overruns during the course of the valid
license, the marks on those goods will remain noncounterfeit for the
purposes of this act.” Id.
The overrun goods defense attaches to the overrun goods themselves,
not just to the party who produced them. This follows from
§ 2320(e)(1)(B)'s specification that overrun goods are not counterfeit.
Consequently, any overrun goods that are produced and completed during
the course of the license remain noncounterfeit even after the license runs
out, Joint Statement, 130 Cong. Rec. 31,676 (1984), and the defense is
available to any party who traffics in overrun goods downstream of the
manufacturer.
The overrun goods defense does not, however, allow counterfeiters to
escape criminal liability by attaching real or overrun labels to counterfeits.
As discussed in Section III.B.4.a. of this Chapter (citing 4 J. Thomas
McCarthy, McCarthy on Trademarks and Unfair Competition § 25:15
(4th ed. 2006) and United States v. Petrosian,126 F.3d 1232, 1234 (9th
Cir. 1997) ) , i t i s s t a n d a rd trademark law—both civilly and
criminally—that a genuine or authentic mark becomes counterfeit when
it is used in connection with something else that is counterfeit. As revised,
the authorized-use exception provides that a counterfeit mark “does not
include any mark or designation used in connection with goods or
services, or a mark or designation applied to labels, ... documentation, or
packaging of any type or nature used in connection with such goods or
services, of which the manufacturer or producer was, at the time of the

manufacture or production in question, authorized to use the mark or
designation for the type of goods or services so manufactured or produced,
by the holder of the right to use such mark or designation.”
§ 2320(e)(1)(B) (emphasis added). The 2006 amendments reworded the
authorized-use exception to retain its focus on whether the goods and
services are overrun, rather than whether the labels, documentation, or
packaging themselves are overrun. As before, the text focuses on the
authorization of the manufacturer or producer of the goods and services,
not the manufacturer or producer of the labels, documentation, or
packaging. Interpreting the amendment differently would cause a major
change in trademark law, one which Congress would have signaled in
much clearer terms had the change been intended. Given that the 2006
amendments were intended to strengthen the government's ability to
prosecute cases concerning counterfeit labels, documentation, and
packaging, and the legislative history indicates nothing to the contrary,
the authorized-use exception should still allow the government to
prosecute those who use or traffic in real or overrun labels,
documentation, or packaging to turn inauthentic goods into counterfeits.
The overrun defense does, however, have a few limits. First, “the
overrun exemption does not apply if a licensee produces a type of goods
in connection with which he or she was not authorized to use the
trademark in question.” Id. at 31,676-77. For example, “if a licensee is
authorized to produce 'Zephyr' trench coats, but without permission
manufactures 'Zephyr' wallets, the overrun exception would not apply.”
Id. at 31,677. In this example, the licensee could be prosecuted for
producing the wallets only if the 'Zephyr' mark was registered for use on
wallets as well as trench coats. See also Section III.B.4.f. of this Chapter.
Second, the overrun goods defense is limited to goods or services for
which authorization existed “during the entire period of production or
manufacture.” United States v. Bohai Trading Co., 45 F.3d 577, 580 (1st
Cir. 1995). In Bohai, Stride Rite authorized the defendant to arrange for
the manufacture of 200,000 pairs of its KEDS trademarked sneakers in
China in 1987 and 1988. Id. at 578. Stride Rite terminated the
defendant's license in the spring of 1989, after which the defendant
arranged for the Chinese factory to manufacture an additional 100,000
pairs of KEDS and to backdate the shoes as being produced in 1988. Id.
at 578-79. The defendant then imported the shoes to the United States
and sold them as genuine KEDS. Id. at 579. On appeal from its
conviction, the defendant argued that § 2320 was unconstitutionally
vague because it did not define the meaning of “production” within the
authorized-use exception, and thus the defendant could not discern
whether its conduct was illegal. The First Circuit disagreed, holding that

the statute's plain language clearly indicates that the licensee must have
a valid trademark license at all stages of manufacture or production. Id.
at 580-81. Stride Rite's permission to assemble materials and train
Chinese factory workers in 1988 (which the defendant argued was
“production” within the meaning of § 2320) did not authorize him to
apply the KEDS trademark to shoes in 1989 after his license was
terminated. Id.
The use of a licensee's rejected irregular goods was addressed in
United States v. Farmer, 370 F.3d 435 (4th Cir.), cert. denied, 125 S. Ct.
676 (2004). In Farmer, the defendant purchased irregular garments
without trademarks from legitimate manufacturers' authorized factories,
and had different companies sew or silk-screen on the manufacturers'
trademarks. Id. at 437-38. On appeal, the defendant argued that he had
not “confuse[d] customers about the source of his goods” because the
garments had been manufactured to the trademark holders' specifications
by factories from which the trademark holders themselves purchased. Id.
at 440. The First Circuit disagreed, reasoning that § 2320 focuses not on
the quality of the counterfeit goods but on the counterfeit trademark
attached to those goods and the right of trademark holders to control the
manufacturing and sale of goods with their trademarks. Id. Although the
decision did not specifically discuss the overrun goods defense, that
defense likely would have been rejected because the garments had not
been fully manufactured or produced until the marks were placed on them
by the companies the defendant hired, which were not authorized by the
trademark holders. Had the defendant instead purchased garments from
authorized factories with the trademarks already on them, the overrun
goods defense might have prevailed.
The defendant bears the burden of proving “that the goods or services
in question fall within the overrun exclusion, under both the criminal and
civil provisions” by a preponderance of the evidence. Joint Statement, 130
Cong. Rec. 31,676 (1984).
III.C.2. Authorized-Use Defense: Gray Market Goods

“Gray market goods,” also known as “parallel imports,” are
“trademarked goods legitimately manufactured and sold overseas, and
then imported into the United States” through channels outside the
trademark owner's traditional distribution channels. Joint Statement, 130
Cong. Rec. 31,676 (1984) (citing Bell & Howell: Mamiya Co. v. Masel
Supply Co., 719 F.2d 42 (2d Cir. 1983)). As with overrun goods, the
marks on gray market goods are placed there with the mark-holder's

authorization. What the mark-holder has not authorized is the sale of
those foreign goods within the United States.
Just as with overrun goods (discussed in Section III.C.1 of this
Chapter), the authorized-use defense excludes parallel imports and gray
market goods from the definition of a counterfeit mark because such a
mark is “placed there with the consent of the trademark owner.” Joint
Statement, 130 Cong. Rec. 31,676 (1984). Congress carefully considered
“gray market” goods and intended that those who traffic in them not be
prosecuted. Id.; S. Rep. No. 98-526, at 11 (1984), reprinted in 1984
U.S.C.C.A.N. 3627, 3637.
Additionally, as with the overrun goods defense, the gray market
goods defense is available not just to the party who produced the goods,
but also to any party who traffics in them downstream, because
§ 2320(e)(1) declares that such goods are not counterfeit. The burden of
proof on this issue, as with overrun goods, is placed on the defendant.
This defense does not apply if the gray market goods were
subsequently modified or remarked in a manner that made the new mark
counterfeit. See Section III.C.3. of this Chapter.
III.C.3. Repackaging Genuine Goods

When the defendant's goods themselves are genuine and bear the
trademark of the rights-holder but have been repackaged by the
defendant, whether the defendant's repackaging is criminal depends on
whether he deceived the public or damaged the mark-owner's good will.
This rule ran through the cases, and was written into § 2320 by the Stop
120 Stat. 285 (Mar. 16, 2006).
The case of United States v. Hanafy, 302 F.3d 485 (5th Cir. 2002),
established the first half of the rule, that a defendant cannot be
prosecuted under 18 U.S.C. § 2320 for repackaging genuine goods with
reproduced trademarks if the defendant did so without deceiving or
confusing others. In Hanafy, the defendants purchased individual cans of
infant formula from various convenience stores and other sources and
then repackaged the cans into trays for resale. Id. at 486. The defendants
marked the shipping trays with reproductions of the can manufacturers'
trademarks and resold the trays to other wholesalers. Id. Although the
cans had not been packaged by the original manufacturers for resale in
this form, the defendants' goods were genuine, unadulterated, and were
sold within the “sell by” date. Id. The district court ruled that the
unauthorized use of a reproduction of a mark in connection with genuine

goods (that is, what the mark represents the goods to be) does not violate
§ 2320. Id. at 487-88. In so ruling, the court concluded that the
repackaging rule of Prestonettes, Inc. v. Coty, 264 U.S. 359, 368-69
(1924), which applies to actions brought under the Lanham Act, does not
apply to criminal prosecutions under § 2320. Hanafy, 302 F.3d at 488.
Affirming the district court, the Fifth Circuit held that the shipping
trays did not qualify as counterfeit under § 2320. Id. at 488-89. Although
repackaging the goods without the manufacturer's approval or control
might violate civil trademark law, attaching a mark to trays containing the
“genuine unadulterated, unexpired products associated with that mark
does not give rise to criminal liability under section 2320.” Id. at 489. The
court distinguished Petrosian, which involved fake Coca-Cola in real Coke
bottles, because the infant formula in this case was genuine. Id.; see also
the discussion of Petrosian in Section III.B.4.a. of this Chapter. Thus,
under Hanafy, a person usually cannot be prosecuted under § 2320 for
repackaging goods with reproductions of the original trademark if the
goods themselves are genuine and in the same condition that they would
have been had the rights-holder distributed them itself.
The case of United States v. Milstein, 401 F.3d 53, 62-63 (2d Cir.
2005), confirmed the second half of the rule, that the defendant can be
prosecuted under § 2320 if he repackages genuine goods to defraud
consumers, such as by presenting fraudulent information. In Milstein, the
defendant obtained drugs manufactured for foreign markets and
repackaged them with false lot numbers and other markings to make the
drugs appear as if they had been approved by the FDA for sale in the
United States. Milstein, 401 F.3d at 59-60. The repackaged drugs were
not identical to the drugs manufactured for U.S. markets. Id. On appeal,
the defendant cited Hanafy to argue that his repackaging did not violate
§ 2320. Id. at 62. The Second Circuit distinguished Hanafy because
“[w]hile the cans in Hanafy were 'merely being repackaged, such that
consumers could be sure of the goods' quality and source,' ... the drugs
here were repackaged so that consumers would believe foreign versions of
the drug were in fact domestic, FDA-approved versions.” Id. (quoting
Hanafy, 302 F.3d at 486). The critical distinction was that Hanafy's false
marks “contained no more information than that which was carried on
the cans themselves,” whereas “Milstein sold [drugs] in forged packaging
bearing false lot numbers.” Id. (internal quotation marks and alterations
omitted). See also United States v. Lexington Wholesale Co., 71 Fed.
Appx. 507, 508 (6th Cir. 2003) (affirming restitution for a § 2320
conviction based on repackaging of loose cans of infant formula into cases
that did not accurately reflect the “use by” date).

In amending § 2320 in 2006, Congress essentially wrote Hanafy and
Milstein into the newly-enacted § 2320(f): “Nothing in this section shall
entitle the United States to bring a criminal cause of action under this
section for the repackaging of genuine goods or services not intended to
deceive or confuse.” § 2320(f) (as amended Mar. 16, 2006)). The
legislative history confirms that Congress intended to codify Hanafy. See
H. Rep. No. 109-68, at 8 & n.1 (2005). “Because the bill amends the
definition of a counterfeit trademark to include packaging and labeling
formats, which can be used lawfully by a variety of businesses, this
language is intended to clarify that repackaging activities such as
combining single genuine products into gift sets, separating combination
sets of genuine goods into individual items for resale, inserting coupons
into original packaging or repackaged items, affixing labels to track or
otherwise identify genuine products, [and] removing genuine goods from
original packaging for customized retail displays are not intended to be
prosecuted as counterfeiting activities under the amended title 18 U.S.C.
§ 2320.” Id. at 8.
The newly-enacted language also, however, codifies the rule set in
Milstein of allowing prosecution of those who repackage genuine goods
in a manner that defrauds consumers. In determining whether to
prosecute such a case, the government is expected to “consider evidence
tending to show an intent to deceive or confuse such as altering,
concealing, or obliterating expiration dates, or information important to
the consumer['s] use of the product such as safety and health information
about the quality, performance, or use of the product or service;
statements or other markings that a used, discarded, or refurbished
product is new; or statements or other markings that the product meets
testing and certification requirements.” Id. “Also relevant ... would be a
meaningful variance from product testing and certification requirements,
placing seals on product containers that have been opened and the
original manufacturer's seal has been broken, or altering or otherwise
adulterating the genuine product.” Id. at 9.
Although the above cases concern consumables such as food and
drugs, similar issues arise in other industries. See, e.g., United States
Attorney's Office, Eastern District of New York, New York Electronic
Crimes Task Force Arrests Two Individuals on Charges of Trafficking in
Counterfeit Computer Chips and Software (June 22, 2000) (computer
chips remarked to indicate ability to operate at a higher speed than the
manufacturer's rating), available at http://www.cybercrime.gov/
platinum.htm; Intel Corp. v. Terabyte Int'l, Inc., 6 F.3d 614, 616, 620
(9th Cir. 1993) (holding defendants liable for infringement for purchasing

and later distributing computer chips from a distributor who had relabeled
the chips with a model number signifying a higher processing speed).
Section 2320(f) does not preempt the prosecution of deceptionless
repackaging under statutes other than § 2320: “Nothing in this section
shall entitle the United States to bring a criminal cause of action under
this section for the repackaging of genuine goods or services not intended
to deceive or confuse.” § 2320(f) (as amended) (emphasis added). For
instance, repackaging cases that involve consumer products such as food,
drugs, medical devices, cosmetics, and other items designed for consumers
to use in the household, might be prosecuted under the product
tampering statute, 18 U.S.C. § 1365, which addresses tampering with
labels and communicating false information that a consumer product was
tainted, or under the Food, Drug, and Cosmetics Act, 21
U.S.C. §§ 331(a), 333, 343, 352, 362, which punishes trafficking in
misbranded food, drugs and cosmetics. See Section III.F. of this Chapter.
III.C.4. Lanham Act Defenses

The Lanham Act's civil defenses have been incorporated as defenses
against criminal charges brought under § 2320. “All defenses, affirmative
defenses, and limitations on remedies that would be applicable in an
action under the Lanham Act [for trademark infringement] shall be
applicable in a prosecution under this section.” 18 U.S.C. § 2320(c).
However, “only those defenses, affirmative defenses, and limitations on
relief [in the Lanham Act] that are relevant under the circumstances will
be applicable.” Joint Statement, 130 Cong. Rec. 31,675 (1984). In
addition, “any affirmative defense under the Lanham Act will remain an
affirmative defense under this [section], which a defendant must prove by
a preponderance of the evidence.” Id.
Statutory defenses under the Lanham Act primarily address the
incontestability of a mark once it has been registered for five years. 15
U.S.C. § 1115(b). The defenses to incontestability include: 1) fraud by
the mark-holder in obtaining the registration; 2) abandonment of the
mark by its owner; 3) the registered mark's use by or with the registrant
to misrepresent the source of the goods or services on or in connection
with which the mark is used; 4) use of the name, term, or device charged
to be an infringement is a use of the defendant's individual name in his
own business, or of someone in privity with that party, or a term that is
used in good faith to describe the goods or services of such party or their
geographic origin; 5) innocent and continuous prior use of the mark
without registration by the defendant; 6) the defendant's innocent prior
use of the mark with registration; 7) use by the mark-holder of a

trademark in violation of the antitrust laws; 8) the mark is functional; and
9) equitable defenses, such as laches, estoppel, and acquiescence. 15
U.S.C. § 1115 (b). Other Lanham Act defenses or limitations mentioned
prominently in the legislative history are those limitations on actions
against printers and newspapers in 15 U.S.C. § 1114(2). For instance, the
owner of an infringed mark is limited to an injunction against future
printing under 15 U.S.C. § 1125(a). See Joint Statement, 130 Cong. Rec.
31,675 (1984). For an extensive discussion of these defenses, see David
J. Goldstone & Peter J. Toren, The Criminalization of Trademark
Counterfeiting, 31 Conn. L. Rev. 1, 43-65 (1998).
The applicability of the Lanham Act's statute of limitations (or lack
thereof) is discussed in Section III.C.5. of this Chapter.
Civil cases decided under the Lanham Act may prove instructive when
applying the Lanham Act defenses in criminal cases, but those defenses
should not be applied mechanically in a criminal case. For example,
although an “unclean hands” defense may deny relief to a plaintiff mark-
holder in a civil case, 15 U.S.C. § 1115(b)(3), (9); 37 C.F.R.
§ 2.114(b)(1) (Oct. 6, 2005), the mark-holder's unclean hands are less
relevant in a criminal case, where the mark-holder is not a party and the
prosecutors act in the public's interest rather than exclusively the mark-
holder's interest. Thus, application of this Lanham Act defense in a
criminal case might not serve the public interest.
At this writing, few criminal cases address the Lanham Act defenses.
See, e.g., United States v. Milstein, 401 F.3d 53, 63-64 (2d Cir. 2005)
(holding laches defense unavailable in § 2320 prosecutions); United
States v. Sung, 51 F.3d 92, 94 (7th Cir. 1995) (discussing how 15 U.S.C.
§ 1111's limitations on remedies in civil cases applies to criminal cases);
United States v. Sheng, 26 F.3d 135 (9th Cir. 1994) (unpublished)
(affirming denial of defendant's motion for discovery concerning antitrust
defense, due to defendant's failure to make a prima facie case for
discovery); United States v. Shinyder, 888 F.2d 1387 (4th Cir. 1989) (per
curiam) (unpublished) (holding that defendant failed to demonstrate
ineffective assistance of counsel because defendant gave his attorney no
information regarding purported invalidity of victim's mark due to its
prior use by defendant); United States v. Almany, 872 F.2d 924 (9th Cir.
1989) (appeal based on evidentiary issues related to Lanham Act
defenses).
III.C.5. Statute of Limitations

Under 18 U.S.C. § 3282(a), the statute of limitations for almost all
non-capital federal crimes is five years unless otherwise expressly provided

by law. Because § 2320 does not specify a limitations period itself,
violations of § 2320 are subject to the general five-year limitations period.
See United States v. Foote, 413 F.3d 1240, 1247 (10th Cir. 2005);
United States v. Milstein, No. CR 96-899 (RJD), 2000 WL 516784, at
*1 (E.D.N.Y. 2000).
Defendants, however, sometimes seek a shorter statute of limitations
by arguing that the courts should apply the limitations period applicable
to civil trademark violations. In Foote, for instance, the defendant argued
that the statute of limitations should be determined by state law because
§ 2320(c) incorporates “[a]ll defenses, affirmative defenses, and
limitations on remedies that would be applicable under the Lanham Act,”
and courts apply state statutes of limitations to Lanham Act cases since
the federal civil statute does not contain an express limitation period.
Foote, 413 F.3d at 1247. The Tenth Circuit disagreed, holding that the
lack of an “express statute of limitations in either the Counterfeit
Trademark Act or the Lanham Act” means that the general criminal
limitations period in § 3282(a) applies. Id. See also United States v.
Foote, 238 F. Supp. 2d 1271, 1276-77 (D. Kan. 2002) (containing an
extended policy discussion of this issue).
III.D. Special Issues

III.D.1. High-Quality and Low-Quality Counterfeits
Defense counsel often argue that it is inappropriate to charge a § 2320
offense if the counterfeit goods are of very low or, conversely, very high
quality, arguing that nobody is fooled by low-quality counterfeits and that
nobody is harmed or deceived by high-quality counterfeits. Both
arguments are misguided. See, e.g., United States v. Farmer, 370 F.3d 435
(4th Cir.) (affirming conviction under § 2320 for irregular garments
purchased from factories that manufactured garments to trademark
holder's specifications), cert. denied, 125 S. Ct. 676 (2004); United States
v. Gonzalez, 630 F. Supp. 894, 896 (S.D. Fla.1986) (denying motion to
dismiss § 2320 indictment because the counterfeits' low price did not
preclude finding that they could cause confusion, mistake or deception).
The government's response lies in the plain language of the statute:
Subsection 2320(a) and (e) focus on whether the counterfeit mark is
likely to cause confusion, cause mistake, or to deceive, and make no
mention of the counterfeit item's quality. See United States v. Foote, 413
F.3d 1240, 1246 (10th Cir. 2005) (“[T]he correct test is whether the
defendant's use of the mark was likely to cause confusion, mistake or

deception in the public in general.”). As discussed in Section III.B.4.g. of
this Chapter, § 2320 was “not just designed for the protection of
consumers,” but also for “the protection of trademarks themselves and for
the prevention of the cheapening and dilution of the genuine product.”
United States v. Hon, 904 F.2d 803, 806 (2d Cir. 1990) (internal
quotation marks and citations omitted). In this vein, “[o]ne of the rights
that a trademark confers upon its owner is the 'right to control the quality
of the goods manufactured and sold' under that trademark. For this
purpose the actual quality of the goods is irrelevant; it is the control of
quality that a trademark holder is entitled to maintain.” Farmer, 370 F.3d
at 441 (internal quotation marks and citations omitted) (emphasis
added).
Because both high-quality and low-quality counterfeit goods affect the
intellectual property rights of the trademark holder, a § 2320 charge can
be appropriate in either circumstance. See also Section III.B.4.g. of this
Chapter.
III.D.2. Counterfeit Goods with Genuine Trademarks

Although the definition of “counterfeit mark” in § 2320(e) indicates
that the mark itself must be counterfeit, not the good to which it is
attached, a genuine or authentic mark becomes counterfeit when it is
applied to counterfeit goods. See the discussion of United States v.
Petrosian, 126 F.3d 1232 (9th Cir. 1997), in Section III.B.4.a. of this
Chapter.
Genuine trademarks can also become counterfeit when they are
applied to genuine product in a manner that misrepresents the genuine
product's quality. See Section III.C.3 of this Chapter.

Defendants who disclose to consumers that their merchandise is
counterfeit may not argue that no criminal liability should attach because
their customers were not deceived into thinking they were purchasing
genuine goods. See Section III.B.4.g. of this Chapter.
III.D.4. Selling Another's Trademarked Goods As One's Own

(Reverse Passing-Off)
Agents sometimes inquire whether a target can be prosecuted for
criminal trademark infringement if he sells another's goods as his own
under his own trademark, such as selling stolen Marlboro cigarettes as his
own Acme brand cigarettes. This conduct, called “reverse passing-off,” is

civilly actionable under the Lanham Act. See, e.g., Dastar Corp. v. 20th
Century Fox Film Corp., 539 U.S. 23, 32-37 (2003); Web Printing
Controls Co. v. Oxy-Dry Corp., 906 F.2d 1202 (7th Cir. 1990); Arrow
United Indus., Inc. v. Hugh Richards, Inc., 678 F.2d 410, 416 (2d Cir.
1982); Smith v. Montoro, 648 F.2d 602, 606 & n.5 (9th Cir. 1981).
Reverse passing-off is not a crime under § 2320, however, because it does
not involve the use of a counterfeit mark as defined in § 2320(e). The
defendant's own Acme mark is, in fact, a genuine mark.
III.D.5. Mark-Holder's Failure to Use ® Symbol

The trademark code requires the holder of a federally registered mark
to give others notice of registration by displaying the mark with the words
“Registered in U.S. Patent and Trademark Office”, “Re. U.S. Pat. & Tm.
Off.”, or the familiar ® symbol. Without this notice next to its mark on
its goods and services, the mark-holder cannot recover its profits or
damages against an infringer unless the infringer had actual notice of the
registration. 15 U.S.C. § 1111. The commonly-seen TM and SM symbols do
not give notice of federal registration; they can be used with unregistered
marks. 3 J. Thomas McCarthy, McCarthy on Trademarks and Unfair
Competition § 19:148 (4th ed. 2005).
The victim's intentional or inadvertent failure to use the statutory
means of notice mentioned above does not preclude the defendant's
prosecution under § 2320. U.S. v. Sung, 51 F.3d 92, 93-94 (7th Cir.
1995). Section 2320 criminalizes counterfeiting “whether or not the
defendant knew [the victim's] mark was so registered.” 18 U.S.C.
§ 2320(e)(1)(A)(ii); Sung , 51 F.3d at 93-94. Moreover, the notice
provisions in 15 U.S.C. § 1111 do not create a defense that excuses
infringement, but rather they only limit the mark-holder's remedies. Sung,
51 F.3d at 94; see also 3 McCarthy on Trademarks and Unfair
Competition § 19:144 (“Failure to use the statutory symbol does not
create a defense: it is merely a limitation on remedies.”) (footnote
omitted). For a discussion of how these remedies are limited in criminal
cases, see Section III.E.3. of this Chapter.
III.D.6. Storage Costs and Destruction

Unlike many other intellectual property crimes, criminal trademark
infringement frequently generates a substantial quantity of physical
evidence. Although large intellectual property seizures can be a problem
to store, storage is the safest option. (Chapter X of this Manual discusses
whether victims may assist with storage.) If storage is not feasible, part of
the evidence probably can be destroyed after a hearing if the seized

property is counterfeit. Destruction of the evidence, however, carries its
own complications with respect to making evidence available for
defendants and jurors to inspect, and employing sound procedures for
taking representative samples.
The decision to allege all or only a part of the seized intellectual
property in the indictment and at trial must be made on a case-by-case
basis. In most cases, it should be possible either to indict for all seized
goods and present evidence of a representative sample to prove the whole
at trial, or to indict and present evidence of only some of the goods, using
evidence of the full quantity as relevant conduct only at sentencing.
(Chapter VIII's discussion of determining the infringement amount
considers the justification for and methods of estimation.) Charging a
subset for trial and proving the remainder at sentencing may also have
some tactical advantages, such as streamlining the trial and deferring loss
calculations to the sentencing phase.
Because these issues can become quite complex, prosecutors should
consider them early on, even before the search is conducted. If the
prosecutor wants all the evidence to be available for trial, it is important
to coordinate with the seizing agency to ensure that any forfeited material
is not destroyed or is at least destroyed only after a sound procedure for
taking representative samples is completed. (Of course, destruction is not
permissible until the items have been forfeited.)
Prosecutors can discuss these issues with the Computer Crime and
Intellectual Property Section at (202) 514-1026.
III.D.7. Units of Prosecution

Because a defendant often traffics in numerous counterfeit
trademarks, drafting an indictment that reflects the defendant's actions
is not always easy. The United States Department of Justice's Criminal
Resource Manual 215, available at http://www.usdoj.gov/usao/eousa/
foia_reading_room/usam/title9/crm00215.htm, advises that “all U.S.
Attorneys should charge in indictments and informations as few separate
counts as are reasonably necessary to prosecute fully and successfully and
to provide for a fair sentence on conviction”, and generally recommends
charging no more than fifteen counts. But trademark counterfeiters of any
significant size will often have infringed numerous trademarks in
numerous transactions.
The charging determination is subject to the rule of reason, and
generally the best approach is to organize charges around specific courses
of conduct in order to keep the case as straightforward as possible for the

jury. Counts may be organized by the mark infringed, the identity of the
mark-holder, or the date upon which the infringing goods were obtained,
manufactured, distributed, or seized. Indictments charging counterfeiting
schemes can be unified through a conspiracy count under 18
U.S.C. § 371.
If the defendant infringed only one trademark, the defendant can be
charged with a single count. However, separate sales of goods bearing the
same counterfeit mark have sometimes been charged in separate counts.
See, e.g., United States v. Gantos, 817 F.2d 41, 42 (8th Cir. 1987)
(defendant charged and convicted on four counts, each for separate sales
of counterfeit Rolex watches).
If the defendant counterfeited multiple marks, the indictment may
also contain separate counts for each separate genuine mark. For example,
in United States v. Song, 934 F.2d 105 (7th Cir. 1991), the court upheld
the defendant's conviction on five separate counts “because she was
trafficking in goods bearing five different counterfeit marks.” Id. at 109.
The court relied on the plain language of § 2320, which punishes someone
who “'intentionally traffics or attempts to traffic in goods or services and
knowingly uses a counterfeit mark' on such goods or services.” Id. at 108
(quoting 18 U.S.C. § 2320(a)) (emphasis in original) (footnote omitted).
The courts have not yet addressed several sentencing issues that will
continue to arise in trademark prosecutions:
• Whether a single sale of multiple items that infringe multiple
trademarks may be charged in a single counterfeiting count. The
issue is whether such a charge would be duplicitous—i.e., charging
two or more distinct offenses in a single count—or rather just an
allegation that multiple means were used to commit a single
offense. Prosecutors who confront this issue should consult the
Department's manual, Federal Grand Jury Practice § 11.29
(2000) (“Duplicitous indictments”).
• How multiple counterfeit trademarks on a single good should be
charged in a criminal indictment: as one count, using the
counterfeit good as the unit of prosecution, or as multiple counts,
using each mark as a unit of prosecution.
• Whether a defendant who traffics in a counterfeit sneaker
wrapped in counterfeit packaging may be charged in one count
that covers both the sneaker and packaging, and/or whether
charging the sneaker and packaging separately in multiple counts
is necessary or permissible, now that § 2320 (as amended Mar.
16, 2006) criminalizes trafficking in counterfeit labels,

documentation, and packaging in addition to counterfeit goods
and services.
III.D.8. Olympic Symbols

The definition of “counterfeit mark” in § 2320(e)(1)(B) includes
designations protected by the Olympic Charter Act, such as the five
interlocking rings of the Olympic games. See also 36 U.S.C.
§ 220506(a)(2) (giving the United States Olympic Committee exclusive
rights to the symbol of the International Olympic Committee, consisting
of 5 interlocking rings, the symbol of the International Paralympic
Committee, consisting of 3 TaiGeuks, and the symbol of the Pan-
American Sports Organization, consisting of a torch surrounded by
concentric rings).
Some of the rules that apply to prosecutions involving other marks do
not apply to cases involving the Olympic symbols:
• The mark need not have been registered on the principal register
in the United States Patent and Trademark Office (“USPTO”).
Section 2320(e)(1)(A)'s registration requirements do not apply to
cases dealing with criminal trademark infringement of Olympic
symbols. Compare 18 U.S.C. § 2320(e)(1)(A)(ii) with
§ 2320(e)(1)(B); see also 36 U.S.C. § 220506; Joint Statement,
130 Cong. Rec. 31,675 (1984) (explicitly exempting cases
involving Olympic symbols from the registration requirement).
See also the discussion of registration in Section III.B.4.c. of this
Chapter.
• Section 2320(e)(1)(A)(ii)'s use requirement does not apply to
cases involving protected Olympic symbols. See also the
discussion of use in Section III.B.4.d. of this Chapter.
• The requirement that the defendant have used the counterfeit
mark in connection with the goods or services for which the mark
had been registered does not apply to cases involving protected
Olympic symbols. See also Section III.B.4.f. of this Chapter.
• In cases involving protected Olympic symbols, the mark is
counterfeit under 18 U.S.C. § 2320(e)(1)(B) if the defendant's
counterfeit symbols are “identical with or substantially
indistinguishable” from the genuine symbols. No further proof of
likely confusion, mistake, or deception is required. See also
Section III.B.4.g. of this Chapter.

The other rules discussed in this Chapter apply equally to cases
involving Olympic symbols.
III.E. Penalties
III.E.1. Fines
An individual defendant can be fined a maximum of $2,000,000 for
a first offense or $5,000,000 for subsequent convictions, or twice the
monetary loss or gain. See 18 U.S.C. §§ 2320(a) (trademark fines),
3571(b), (d). A corporate defendant can be fined a maximum fine of
$5,000,000 for a first offense or $15,000,000 for subsequent convictions,
or twice the monetary gain or loss. See 18 U.S.C. §§ 2320(a), 3571(c),
(d).
III.E.2. Imprisonment
The maximum term of imprisonment is 10 years for a first offense and
20 years for subsequent convictions. A defendant can be fined and/or
imprisoned. 18 U.S.C. § 2320(a). A challenge to incarceration, probation,
and supervised release, on the ground that these remedies are not present
in the civil Lanham Act, was rejected in United States v. Foote, No. CR.A.
00-20091-01KHV, 2003 WL 22466158, at *2-3 (D. Kan. 2003), aff'd in
part on other grounds, 413 F.3d 1240 (10th Cir. 2005).
III.E.3. Restitution
Before the 2006 amendments, § 2320 contained no express provision
for restitution, but restitution was properly awarded in § 2320 cases under
18 U.S.C. § 3663A(c)(1)(A)(ii), which provides mandatory restitution to
victims of crimes against property in Title 18, and under Section 5E1.1
of the Sentencing Guidelines, which provides restitution when there is an
identifiable victim and restitution is authorized under 18 U.S.C. § 3663A.
See, e.g., United States v. Lexington, 71 Fed. Appx. 507, 508 (6th Cir.
2003) (affirming contested restitution order under 18 U.S.C. § 3663 and
U.S.S.G. § 5E1.1 following a § 2320 conviction); United States v. Hanna,
No. 02 CR.1364-01 (RWS), 2003 WL 22705133, at *3 (S.D.N.Y. Nov.
17, 2003) (including restitution in sentence for § 2320 conviction). See
also Chapter VIII of this Manual.
The 2006 amendments made the right to restitution explicit. Newly-
amended § 2320(b)(4) now provides that “[w]hen a person is convicted
of an offense under this section, the court, pursuant to sections 3556,

3663A, and 3664, shall order the person to pay restitution to the owner
of the mark and any other victim of the offense as an offense against
property referred to in section 3663A(c)(1)(A)(ii).” 18 U.S.C.
§ 2320(b)(4) (as amended Mar. 16, 2006). This provision does not mean
that restitution will be proper in every § 2320 case, but rather that
restitution shall be ordered under 18 U.S.C. § 3663A(c)(1)(A)(ii) if there
is a victim who was harmed in a manner that would entitle him to
restitution as the victim of a property crime. A “victim” is defined in
newly-enacted § 2320(b)(5) as having “the meaning given that term in
section 3663A(a)(2),” which defines a victim as “a person directly and
proximately harmed as a result of the commission of an offense for which
restitution may be ordered.” There is some question whether a mark-
holder qualifies for restitution if the defendant's conduct did not diminish
the mark-holder's sales. See also Chapter VIII of this Manual.
In § 2320 cases, the victim's right to restitution may be subject to an
important qualification: the Lanham Act's limitation on remedies in 15
U.S.C. § 1111. In civil cases, 15 U.S.C. § 1111 prohibits a plaintiff from
recovering monetary damages from a defendant who lacked actual notice
that the plaintiff's mark was registered. One court has ruled that 15
U.S.C. § 1111 limits restitution in a § 2320 prosecution because
§ 2320(c) incorporates civil Lanham Act defenses: “[R]estitution in a
criminal case is the counterpart to damages in civil litigation,” and thus
“restitution payable to the trademark owner is proper only if the goods
contained the proper notice or the infringer had actual knowledge of the
registration.” United States v. Sung, 51 F.3d 92, 94 (7th Cir. 1995). In
Sung , the Seventh Circuit held that specific findings on these
points—proper notice or actual knowledge of the registration—must be
made by the sentencing court on the record before ordering restitution.
Id. See the discussion of what constitutes proper notice in Section III.D.5.
of this Chapter. For cases addressing how to prove notice or the
defendant's actual knowledge of registration, see United Srvs. Auto. Ass'n
v. National Car Rental Sys. , No. Civ. A.SA00CA1370G, 2001 WL
1910543, at *4 (W.D. Tex. Sept. 26, 2001) (holding that “actual notice
requirement is met when a party receives information portraying a
registered trademark bearing a ® symbol,” including a letter asking the
defendant to cease and desist); Schweitzz Dist. Co. v. P & K Trading, No.
93 CV 4785, 1998 WL 472505 (E.D.N.Y. July 16, 1998) (holding that
defendant's testimony that it was aware of plaintiff's use of the ® symbol
on the open market sufficed to prove notice).
Even if other courts follow the Seventh Circuit's holding in Sung, two
points are worth noting. First, the defendant's knowledge or notice of the
registration is not a defense to a criminal conviction; it is only a limitation

on remedies. See Sung, 51 F.3d at 93-94. See also Section III.D.5. of this
Chapter. Second, the rule should not limit restitution to any consumers
whom the defendant defrauded. Sung's holding was stated only in terms
of restitution to the mark-holder, and its rationale should not be extended
to consumers, who have no say in whether the mark-holder gave the
defendant notice. See Sung, 51 F.3d at 94 (“First, as a form of money
damages, restitution payable to the trademark owner is proper only if ...”)
(emphasis added); cf. United States v. Foote, 413 F.3d 1240, 1252 (10th
Cir. 2005) (holding Sung inapplicable to criminal fines, because “[t]he
court's conclusion in Sung was based on its reasoning that restitution is
a form of money damages payable to the trademark owner. Unlike
restitution [to the trademark owner], fines are a form of criminal
punishment rather than a form of damages, and are payable to the
government rather than to the trademark owner.”)
For a more in-depth discussion of restitution in intellectual property
crimes, such as whether a trademark-holder can be awarded restitution
even if the defendant did not cost the trademark-holder any sales, see
Chapter VIII of this Manual.
III.E.4. Forfeiture
Forfeiture is covered in Chapter VIII of this Manual.
III.E.5. Sentencing Guidelines

The applicable sentencing guideline is U.S. Sentencing Guidelines
Manual § 2B5.3. It is covered in Chapter VIII of this Manual.
One of the most difficult issues in sentencing § 2320 offenses
concerns how to compute the infringement amount of goods in the
defendant's possession to which he had not yet applied a counterfeit
mark. If the defendant had not completed applying the counterfeit mark
to the goods at issue (such as in cases of attempt or aiding-and-abetting
where the defendants produced counterfeit labels or packaging), and the
prosecution wants to obtain a sentence based on those uncompleted
goods, the government must establish with a “reasonable certainty” that
the defendant intended to complete and traffic in those goods. See United
States v. Guerra, 293 F.3d 1279, 1293-94 (11th Cir. 2002) (“There is no
support for the proposition that the number of 'infringing items' may be
based on the number of seized articles that have the mere potential of
ultimately forming a component of a finished counterfeit article, without
a determination as to the extent to which defendants had a reasonable
likelihood of actually completing the goods.”); United States v. Sung, 51
F.3d 92, 94-95 (7th Cir. 1995) (remanding for resentencing because the

district court did not find with reasonable certainty that Sung intended
to sell 240,000 counterfeit shampoo bottles where the only evidence of
intent was the possession of counterfeit trademarked shipping cartons
that could hold 240,000 bottles, and defendant had liquid to fill only
17,600 bottles). Further, if the counterfeit label was not attached to the
good, the counterfeit item's value might be determined by whether the
counterfeit label itself has a market value separate from the value of the
infringing item for which it was intended. Compare United States v. Bao,
189 F.3d 860, 862-63 (9th Cir. 1999) (holding that the most appropriate
retail value to use in sentencing under 18 U.S.C. § 2318 for trafficking in
counterfeit computer software manuals was that of the genuine computer
manual, not the total software package) with Guerra, 293 F.3d at 1292
(distinguishing Bao in § 2320 conviction because the cigar labels had no
retail value apart from being attached to the cigars).
Nevertheless, when the government can show with reasonable
certainty that the defendant would likely have attached the unattached
counterfeit labels or packaging to actual product, it should include these
items in the infringement amount. Thus, for a defendant caught with
counterfeit purses along with generic, no-name purses and labels intended
to turn the generic items into counterfeits, the infringement amount may
include the number of generic purses or counterfeit labels—whichever is
lower. And the infringement amount may also include the excess generic
purses (purses for which there was no corresponding counterfeit label) or
excess counterfeit labels (labels for which there was no corresponding
generic purse) if the evidence of past or potential future sales suggests that
the defendant would have acquired the missing elements, completed the
manufacture, and attempted to sell these wares.
All these issues are likely to be settled more definitely in the second
half of 2006, during the next round of amendments to the Sentencing
Guidelines. On March 16, 2006, Congress directed the Sentencing
Commission to determine whether the guidelines are “adequate to address
situations in which the defendant has been convicted of [a § 2320
offense] and the item in which the defendant trafficked was not an
infringing item but rather was intended to facilitate infringement, ... or
the item in which the defendant trafficked was infringing and also was
intended to facilitate infringement in another good or service, such as a
counterfeit label, documentation, or packaging, taking into account cases
such as U.S. v. Sung, 87 F.3d 194 (7th Cir. 1996).” Stop Counterfeiting
in Manufactured Goods Act, Pub. L. No. 109-181, § 1, 120 Stat. 285,
287 (Mar. 16, 2006). This review of the guidelines will hopefully help
resolve how to value uncompleted goods and how to value counterfeit
labels, documentation, and packaging.

In the meantime, one principle to bear in mind is that before the Stop
Counterfeiting in Manufactured Goods Act was awarded, the appropriate
guideline for addressing an uncompleted good to which a counterfeit mark
had yet to apply counterfeit labels, documentation, or packaging might
have been U.S.S.G. § 2B5.3 in conjunction with U.S.S.G. § 2X1.1
(Conspiracies, Attempts, Solicitations), see Sung, 51 F.3d at 94-95, but
only because trafficking in counterfeit labels, documentation, and
packaging was not a completed crime. Now that the Stop Counterfeiting
in Manufactured Goods Act has made trafficking in unattached
counterfeit labels, documentation, and packaging a crime on its own,
there is some question whether U.S.S.G. § 2X1.1 will apply to such cases.
III.F. Other Charges to Consider

When confronted with a case that implicates counterfeit trademarks,
service marks, or certification marks, prosecutors may consider the
following crimes in addition to or in lieu of § 2320 charges if § 2320's
elements cannot be met:
• Conspiracy and aiding-and-abetting, 18 U.S.C. §§ 2, 371
Consider these charges if the defendant only supplied counterfeit
labels or packaging that were attached by another person. See Section
III.B.3.c. of this Chapter.
• Mail and wire fraud, 18 U.S.C. §§ 1341, 1343
These charges can be filed if the defendant used the mail (or other
interstate carrier) or wires (including the Internet) in a scheme to defraud
purchasers, whether direct or indirect purchasers. Mail and wire fraud may
be especially appropriate when there are foreign victims and domestic
jurisdiction under § 2320 is difficult to establish. See Pasquantino v.
United States, 544 U.S. 349, 125 S. Ct. 1766 (2005) (affirming wire
fraud conviction where victim was the Canadian government); United
States v. Trapilo, 130 F.3d 547, 552 (2d Cir. 1997) (“The [wire fraud]
statute reaches any scheme to defraud involving money or property,
whether the scheme seeks to undermine a sovereign's right to impose
taxes, or involves foreign victims and governments.”) (emphasis in
original) (citations omitted).
Mail and wire fraud charges may be available if the defendant told his
direct purchasers that his goods were counterfeit, so long as he and his
direct purchasers intended to defraud the direct purchasers' customers. If,
however, all the participants intended that the goods be sold to the

ultimate customers as admitted “replicas,” then mail and wire fraud
charges will likely be unavailable.
• Copyright infringement, 17 U.S.C. § 506, 18 U.S.C. § 2319
Consider these charges if the underlying goods are not only
trademarked or service marked, but also contain copyrighted contents,
such as books, movies, music, or software. See Chapter II of this Manual.
• Trafficking in counterfeit labels, illicit labels, or counterfeit
documentation or packaging, 18 U.S.C. § 2318
Consider charging § 2318 if the labels, documentation, or packaging
were intended to be used with copyrighted works. See Chapter VI of this
Manual.
• Trafficking in misbranded food, drugs and cosmetics
See Food, Drug, and Cosmetics Act and Title 21 provisions, including
21 U.S.C. §§ 331(a) (prohibitions on misbranding), 333 (criminal
penalties), 343 (misbranded food), 352 (misbranded drugs and devices),
362 (misbranded cosmetics) and, 841(a)(2) (prohibiting distribution of
counterfeit controlled substances).
• Tampering with consumer products, 18 U.S.C. § 1365
Tampering with labels and communicating false information that a
consumer product has been tainted.
• Trafficking in mislabeled wool, fur and textile fiber products
Title 15 U.S.C. §§ 68a, 68h (prohibiting commercial dealing in
misbranded wool products), 69a, 69i (prohibiting commercial dealing in
misbranded fur products); 70a, 70i (prohibiting commercial dealing in
misbranded textile fiber products).
• Racketeer Influenced and Corrupt Organizations (RICO), 18
U.S.C. §§ 1961-1968
Consider RICO if the intellectual property crimes are committed by
organizations. Counterfeit labeling, 18 U.S.C. § 2318; criminal copyright
infringement, 18 U.S.C. § 2319; trafficking in recordings of live musical
performances, 18 U.S.C. § 2319A; and trademark counterfeiting, 18
U.S.C. § 2320, are all predicate offenses for a racketeering charge under
18 U.S.C. § 1961(1)(B). A RICO charge requires prior approval from the
Organized Crime and Racketeering Section of the Criminal Division. See
USAM 9-110.101, 9-110.320.

• Money laundering, 18 U.S.C. §§ 1956, 1957
Section 2320 is a predicate offense for a money laundering charge. 18
U.S.C. § 1956(c)(7)(D). See, e.g., United States v. Bohai Trading Co., 45
F.3d 577, 579 (1st Cir. 1995) (charging § 2320 and § 1957 offenses).
Those seeking additional information on enforcing criminal provisions

designed to protect consumers should contact the Justice Department's
Office of Consumer Litigation at (202) 616-0219.
Congress has also provided civil remedies for violations of its
prohibitions on misbranded goods and has established agencies to enforce
those laws, such as the Federal Trade Commission and the Food and Drug
Administration. Cases appropriate for civil enforcement may be referred
to the appropriate agency. The Federal Trade Commission's Marketing
Practices Section, which is part of the Consumer Protection Bureau, may
be reached at (202) 326-3779. The Federal Trade Commission's website
is www.ftc.gov, and their general information telephone number is (202)
326-2222. The Food and Drug Administration's website is www.fda.gov,
they may be reached by telephone at 1-888-INFO-FDA (1-888-463-
6322).

IV.
Theft of Commercial
Trade Secrets—
18 U.S.C. §§ 1831-1839
IV.A. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139

IV.B. The Economic Espionage Act of 1996,
18 U.S.C. §§ 1831-1839 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
IV.B.1. Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
IV.B.2. Relevance of Civil Cases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
IV.B.3. Elements Common to 18 U.S.C. §§ 1831, 1832 . . . . 143
IV.B.3.a. The Information Was a Trade Secret . . . . . . . . 143
IV.B.3.a.i. Generally . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
IV.B.3.a.ii. Employee’s General Knowledge, Skill, or Abilities
Not Covered . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
IV.B.3.a.iii. Specification of Trade Secrets . . . . . . . . . 145
IV.B.3.a.iv. Novelty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
IV.B.3.a.v. Secrecy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
IV.B.3.a.vi. Disclosure’s Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
IV.B.3.a.viii. Independent Economic Value . . . . . . . . 153
IV.B.3.A.ix. Example: Customer Lists . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
IV.B.3.b. Misappropriation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
IV.B.3.b.i. Types of Misappropriation . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
IV.B.3.b.ii. Memorization Included . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
IV.B.3.b.iii. Lack of Authorization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
137
IV.B.3.b.iv. Misappropriation of Only Part of a
Trade Secret . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
IV.B.3.b.v. Mere Risk of Misappropriation Not Prosecutable,
but Attempts and Conspiracies Are
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
IV.B.3.c. Knowledge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
IV.B.4. Additional 18 U.S.C. § 1831 Element: Intent to Benefit a
Foreign Government, Foreign Instrumentality, or Foreign
Agent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
IV.B.5. Additional 18 U.S.C. § 1832 Elements . . . . . . . . . . . 159
IV.B.5.a. Economic Benefit to a Third Party . . . . . . . . . . 159
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
IV.B.5.c. Product Produced for or Placed in Interstate or Foreign
Commerce . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
IV.B.6. Attempts and Conspiracies, Including the Impossibility
Defense . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
IV.C. Defenses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
IV.C.1. Parallel Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
IV.C.2. Reverse Engineering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
IV.C.3. Impossibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
IV.C.4. Advice of Counsel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
IV.C.5. Claim of Right—Public Domain and
Proprietary Rights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
IV.C.6. The First Amendment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
IV.C.7. Void-For-Vagueness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
IV.D. Special Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
IV.D.1. Civil Injunctive Relief for the United States . . . . . . . 169
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
IV.D.3. Extraterritoriality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
IV.D.4. Department of Justice Oversight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173

IV.E. Penalties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
IV.E.1. Statutory Penalties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
IV.E.1.a. Imprisonment and Fines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
IV.E.1.b. Criminal Forfeiture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
IV.E.1.c. Restitution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
IV.E.2. Sentencing Guidelines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
IV.F. Other Charges to Consider . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
IV.A. Introduction
“A trade secret is really just a piece of information (such as a customer
list, or a method of production, or a secret formula for a soft drink) that
the holder tries to keep secret by executing confidentiality agreements
with employees and others and by hiding the information from outsiders
by means of fences, safes, encryption, and other means of concealment,
so that the only way the secret can be unmasked is by a breach of contract
or a tort.” ConFold Pac. v. Polaris Indus., 433 F.3d 952, 959 (7th Cir.
2006) (Posner, J.) (citations omitted). Or, as Judge Posner could have
pointed out, it can be unmasked by a criminal act.
Until 1996, no federal statute explicitly criminalized the theft of
commercial trade secrets. Some statutes could punish trade secret theft in
limited situations: 18 U.S.C. § 1905 for the unauthorized disclosure of
government information, including trade secrets, by a government
employee; 18 U.S.C. § 2314 for the interstate transportation of stolen
property, including trade secrets; and 18 U.S.C. §§ 1341, 1343, and 1346
for the use of mail or wire communications in a scheme to use information
in violation of a confidential or fiduciary relationship. See Section IV.F.
of this Chapter.
In 1996, Congress acted to correct the occasional mismatch between
then-existing statutes and commercial trade secret theft by enacting the
Economic Espionage Act of 1996, Pub. L. No. 104-294, 110 Stat. 3489
(1996) (codified at 18 U.S.C. §§ 1831-1839).
This Chapter considers a number of issues arising under the Economic
Espionage Act in depth. A sample indictment and jury instructions appear
at Appendix D. In addition to this Chapter, prosecutors may wish to
consult the following treatises or law review articles: Uniform Trade
IV. Theft of Commercial Trade Secrets 139

Secrets Act §§ 1 et seq. (1985); Roger M. Milgrim, Milgrim on Trade
Secrets (1994); J. Michael Chamblee, Validity, Construction, and
Application of Title I of Economic Espionage Act of 1996 (18 U.S.C.A.
§§ 1831 et seq.), 177 A.L.R. Fed. 609 (2002); James M. Fischer, Note, An
Analysis of the Economic Espionage Act of 1996, 25 Seton Hall Legis. J.
239 (2001); Louis A. Karasik, Under the Economic Espionage Act:
Combating Economic Espionage is No Longer Limited to Civil Actions to
Protect Trade Secrets, 48-OCT Fed. Law. 34 (2001); Marc J. Zwillinger
& Christian S. Genetski, Calculating Loss Under the Economic Espionage
Act of 1996, 9 Geo. Mason L. Rev. 323 (2000); Michael Coblenz,
Intellectual Property Crimes, 9 Alb. L.J. Sci. & Tech. 235 (1999); Sylvia
N. Albert et al., Intellectual Property Crimes, 42 Am. Crim. L. Rev. 631
(2005); James H.A. Pooley, Mark A. Lemley & Peter J. Toren,
Understanding the Economic Espionage Act of 1996, 5 Tex. Intell. Prop.
L.J. 177 (1997).
IV.B. The Economic Espionage Act of

1996, 18 U.S.C. §§ 1831-1839
IV.B.1. Overview
The Economic Espionage Act of 1996 (“EEA”) criminalizes two types
of trade secret misappropriation in Title 18. Section 1831punishes the
theft of a trade secret to benefit a foreign government, instrumentality, or
agent:
(a) In general.—Whoever, intending or knowing that the offense will
benefit any foreign government, foreign instrumentality, or foreign
agent, knowingly—
(1) steals, or without authorization appropriates, takes, carries
away, or conceals, or by fraud, artifice, or deception obtains a
trade secret;
(2) without authorization copies, duplicates, sketches, draws,
photographs, downloads, uploads, alters, destroys, photocopies,
replicates, transmits, delivers, sends, mails, communicates, or
conveys a trade secret;
(3) receives, buys, or possesses a trade secret, knowing the same
to have been stolen or appropriated, obtained, or converted
without authorization;

(4) attempts to commit any offense described in any of
paragraphs (1) through (3); or
(5) conspires with one or more other persons to commit any
offense described in any of paragraphs (1) through (3), and one
or more of such persons do any act to effect the object of the
conspiracy,
shall, except as provided in subsection (b), be fined not more than
$500,000 or imprisoned not more than 15 years, or both.
18 U.S.C. § 1831(a) (emphasis added).
Section 1832, in contrast, punishes the commercial theft of trade
secrets carried out for economic advantage, whether or not it benefits a
foreign government, instrumentality, or agent:
(a) Whoever, with intent to convert a trade secret, that is related to
or included in a product that is produced for or placed in interstate or
foreign commerce, to the economic benefit of anyone other than the
owner thereof, and intending or knowing that the offense will injure
any owner of that trade secret, knowingly—
(1) steals, or without authorization appropriates, takes, carries
away, or conceals, or by fraud, artifice, or deception obtains such
information;
(2) without authorization copies, duplicates, sketches, draws,
photographs, downloads, uploads, alters, destroys, photocopies,
replicates, transmits, delivers, sends, mails, communicates, or
conveys such information;
(3) receives, buys, or possesses such information, knowing the
same to have been stolen or appropriated, obtained, or converted
without authorization;
(4) attempts to commit any offense described in paragraphs (1)
through (3); or
(5) conspires with one or more other persons to commit any
offense described in paragraphs (1) through (3), and one or more
of such persons do any act to effect the object of the conspiracy,
shall, except as provided in subsection (b), be fined under this title or
imprisoned not more than 10 years, or both.
18 U.S.C. § 1832(a) (emphasis added).

Although § 1831 (foreign economic espionage) and § 1832
(commercial economic espionage) define separate offenses, they are
nevertheless related. Both require the government to prove beyond a
reasonable doubt that: (1) the defendant misappropriated information (or
conspired or attempted to do so); (2) the defendant knew or believed that
this information was a trade secret; and (3) the information was in fact a
trade secret (unless, as is discussed below, the crime charged is a
conspiracy or an attempt). See 18 U.S.C. §§ 1831(a), 1832(a). Both
sections criminalize not only the misappropriation of a trade secret, but
also the knowing receipt, purchase, destruction, or possession of a stolen
trade secret. See 18 U.S.C. §§ 1831(a)(3), 1832(a)(3).
To establish foreign economic espionage under 18 U.S.C. § 1831, the
government must also prove that the defendant knew the offense would
benefit or was intended to benefit a foreign government or a foreign-
government instrumentality or agent.
If a foreign connection does not exist or cannot be proved, the
government may still establish a violation of 18 U.S.C. § 1832 by proving,
in addition to the first three elements described above, that: (4) the
defendant intended to convert the trade secret to the economic benefit of
anyone other than the owner; (5) the defendant knew or intended that
the owner of the trade secret would be injured; and (6) the trade secret
was related to or was included in a product that was produced or placed
in interstate or foreign commerce.
The EEA can be applied to a wide variety of criminal conduct. It
criminalizes attempts and conspiracies to violate the EEA and certain
extraterritorial conduct. See Sections IV.B.6. and IV.D.3. of this Chapter.
The EEA also provides several remedies that are unusual in a criminal
statute: civil injunctive relief against violations, to be obtained by the
Attorney General, 18 U.S.C. § 1836, and confidentiality orders to
maintain the trade secret’s secrecy throughout the prosecution. See
Section IV.D. of this Chapter.
For a discussion of the Department of Justice’s oversight of EEA
prosecutions, see Section IV.D.4.
IV.B.2. Relevance of Civil Cases

The EEA’s definition of a trade secret, 18 U.S.C. § 1839(3), is based
on the trade secret definition in the Uniform Trade Secrets Act. See H.R.
Rep. 104-788, at 12 (1996), reprinted in 1996 U.S.C.C.A.N. 4021, 4031.
Cases that address trade secrets outside the EEA should, in most cases, be
relevant in EEA prosecutions.

IV.B.3. Elements Common to 18 U.S.C. §§ 1831, 1832
The elements for completed offenses are discussed in the ensuing
Sections. Attempts and conspiracies are discussed in Section IV.B.6. of
this Chapter.
IV.B.3.a. The Information Was a Trade Secret

IV.B.3.a.i. Generally
As mentioned in the introduction, “[a] trade secret is really just a
piece of information (such as a customer list, or a method of production,
or a secret formula for a soft drink) that the holder tries to keep secret ...,
so that the only way the secret can be unmasked is by [unlawful
activity].” ConFold Pac. v. Polaris Indus., 433 F.3d 952, 959 (7th Cir.
2006) (Posner, J.) (citations omitted). Whether particular information is
a trade secret is a question of fact. 4 Roger M. Milgrim, Milgrim on Trade
Secrets § 15.01[1][a][i].
The EEA’s definition of a trade secret is very broad. As defined at 18
U.S.C. § 1839, a trade secret includes generally all types of information,
regardless of the method of storage or maintenance, that the owner has
taken reasonable measures to keep secret and that itself has independent
economic value:
(3) the term “trade secret” means all forms and types of financial,
business, scientific, technical, economic, or engineering information,
including patterns, plans, compilations, program devices, formulas,
designs, prototypes, methods, techniques, processes, procedures,
programs, or codes, whether tangible or intangible, and whether or
how stored, compiled, or memorialized physically, electronically,
graphically, photographically, or in writing if —
(A) the owner thereof has taken reasonable measures to keep such
information secret; and
(B) the information derives independent economic value, actual
or potential, from not being generally known to, and not being
readily ascertainable through proper means by, the public.
18 U.S.C. § 1839(3). As mentioned above, the EEA’s definition of a trade
secret, 18 U.S.C. § 1839(3), comes from civil law, so cases that address
trade secrets outside the EEA should, in most cases, be relevant in EEA
prosecutions. See Section IV.B.2. of this Chapter.
Examples of trade secrets include:

• a computer software system used in the lumber industry.
Rivendell Forest Prods., Ltd. v. Georgia-Pacific Corp., 28 F.3d
1042, 1046 (10th Cir. 1994).
• measurements, metallurgical specifications, and engineering
drawings to produce an aircraft brake assembly. United States v.
Lange, 312 F.3d 263 (7th Cir. 2002).
• information involving zinc recovery furnaces and the tungsten
reclamation process. Metallurgical Indus. Inc. v. Fourtek, Inc.,
790 F.2d 1195, 1202 (5th Cir. 1986).
• information concerning pollution control chemicals and related
materials. Apollo Techs. Corp. v. Centrosphere Indus. Corp., 805
F. Supp. 1157, 1197 (D.N.J. 1992).
• information regarding contact lens production. Syntex
Ophthalmics, Inc. v. Tsuetaki, 701 F.2d 677, 684 (7th Cir.
1983).
• pizza recipes. Magistro v. J. Lou, Inc., 703 N.W.2d 887, 890-91
(Neb. 2005).
For an extensive collection of cases analyzing whether specific types of
information constitute a trade secret, see 1 Milgrim on Trade Secrets
§ 1.09.
In cases alleging attempt and conspiracy, the government need not
prove that the information actually was a trade secret. See Section IV.B.6.
of this Chapter.
IV.B.3.a.ii. Employee’s General Knowledge, Skill, or Abilities

Not Covered
The EEA does not apply “to individuals who seek to capitalize on the
personal knowledge, skill, or abilities they may have developed” in moving
from one job to another. H.R. Rep. No. 104-788, at 7 (1996), reprinted
in 1996 U.S.C.C.A.N. 4021, 4026. “The statute is not intended to be
used to prosecute employees who change employers or start their own
companies using general knowledge and skills developed while employed.”
Id. Section 1832(a) “was not designed to punish competition, even when
such competition relies on the know-how of former employees of a direct
competitor. It was, however, designed to prevent those employees (and
their future employers) from taking advantage of confidential information
gained, discovered, copied, or taken while employed elsewhere.” United
States v. Martin, 228 F.3d 1, 11 (1st Cir. 2000) (emphasis in original). “It
is not enough to say that a person has accumulated experience and

knowledge during the course of his or her employ. Nor can a person be
prosecuted on the basis of an assertion that he or she was merely exposed
to a trade secret while employed. A prosecution that attempts to tie skill
and experience to a particular trade secret should not succeed unless it can
show that the particular material was stolen or misappropriated.” 142
Cong. Rec. 27, 117 (1996).
These principles are often cited when the purported trade secret is one
the defendant remembered only casually. For example, one court held that
a terminated agent cannot be prohibited from using skills that he
acquired, or casually remembered information that he acquired, while
employed by the principal. Apollo Techs. Corp. v. Centrosphere Indus.
Corp., 805 F. Supp. 1157, 1200 (D.N.J. 1992) (quoting Restatement
(Second) of Agency § 396 comments b, h). In another case, a court ruled
that “[r]emembered information as to specific needs and business habits
of particular customers is not confidential.” Tactica Int’l, Inc. v. Atlantic
Horizon Int’l, Inc., 154 F. Supp. 2d 586, 606 (S.D.N.Y. 2001) (citations
omitted). In Tactica , the court cited two reasons for finding that
remembered information concerning customer preferences was not a trade
secret. First, no evidence was offered that the defendants intentionally
memorized information, or that they stole it in any other way. Id. at 606-
07 (citing Levine v. Bochner, 517 N.Y.S.2d 270, 271 (N.Y. App. Div.
1987) (“The use of information about an employer’s customers which is
based on casual memory is not actionable.”)). Second, the information in
question could easily be recalled or obtained subsequently by the
defendants. Id. at 607.
Moreover, an employee who changes employers or starts his own
company cannot be prosecuted under the EEA merely on the ground that
he was exposed to a trade secret while employed. Rather, the government
must establish that he actually stole or misappropriated a particular trade
secret, or at least that he conspired or attempted to do so.
IV.B.3.a.iii. Specification of Trade Secrets

The government should ascertain which specific information the
victim claims as a trade secret early on. “[A] prosecution under [the EEA]
must establish a particular piece of information that a person has stolen
or misappropriated.” 142 Cong. Rec. 27, 117 (1996). This will help avoid
the defendant’s defense that he was merely relying on his general
knowledge, skills, and abilities along, perhaps, with legitimate reverse-
engineering (see Section IV.C.2. of this Chapter).
The defense, however, has no right to take pre-trial depositions of the
government’s expert witnesses to determine what the government will

claim is a trade secret and why. See United States v. Ye, 436 F.3d 1117
(9th Cir. 2006).
IV.B.3.a.iv. Novelty
Unlike patents or copyrights, which require higher degrees of novelty,
trade secrets must possess only “minimal novelty.” Kewanee Oil Co. v.
Bicron Corp., 416 U.S. 470, 476 (1974) (quoting Comment, The Stiffel
Doctrine and the Law of Trade Secrets, 62 Nw. U. L. Rev. 956, 969
(1968)); see also Arco Indus. Corp. v. Chemcast Corp., 633 F.2d 435, 442
(6th Cir. 1980) (same).
In other words, a trade secret must contain some element that is not
known and that sets it apart from what is generally known. “While we do
not strictly impose a novelty or inventiveness requirement in order for
material to be considered a trade secret, looking at the novelty or
uniqueness of a piece of information or knowledge should inform courts
in determining whether something is a matter of general knowledge, skill
or experience.” 142 Cong. Rec. 27, 117 (1996). See, e.g., Buffets, Inc. v.
Klinke, 73 F.3d 965, 968 (9th Cir. 1996) (holding that plaintiff’s recipes
were not trade secrets in part because they lacked the requisite novelty).
IV.B.3.a.v. Secrecy
The key attribute of a trade secret is that the underlying information
“not be[] generally known to ... the public” and that it “not be[] readily
ascertainable through proper means by [] the public.” 18
U.S.C. § 1839(3)(B). The “public” may not necessarily mean the general
public. “[E]ither the phrase ‘readily ascertainable’ or the phrase ‘the
public’ must be understood to concentrate attention on either potential
users of the information, or proxies for them (which is to say, persons who
have the same ability to ‘ascertain’ the information).” United States v.
Lange, 312 F.3d 263, 268 (7th Cir. 2002) (Easterbrook, J.). But see id. at
271-72 (Ripple, J., concurring) (suggesting that this holding is dictum).
In other words, information will not necessarily be a trade secret just
because it is not readily ascertainable by the general public. Under the
Seventh Circuit’s view, the information will not be a trade secret if it is
readily ascertainable by those within the information’s field of specialty.
If a scientist could ascertain a purported trade secret formula only by
gleaning information from publications and then engaging in many hours
of laboratory testing and analysis, the existence of such publications
would not necessarily disqualify the formula as a trade secret under the
EEA, since the scientist’s work would probably not qualify as “readily
ascertainable by the public.” See 18 U.S.C. § 1839(3)(B). But the formula

would not be a trade secret if it could be ascertained or reverse-engineered
within a relatively short time. See Lange, 312 F.3d at 269 (EEA case)
(“Such measurements could not be called trade secrets if ... the assemblies
in question were easy to take apart and measure.”); Marshall v. Gipson
Steel, 806 So.2d 266, 271-72 (Miss. 2002) (holding that company’s bid
estimating system was readily ascertainable by using simple math applied
to data on past bids, and thus was not a trade secret); Weins v. Sporleder,
569 N.W.2d 16, 20-21 (S.D. 1997) (holding formula of cattle feed
product not a trade secret because the ingredients could be determined
through chemical or microscopic analysis in four or five days, at most, and
for about $27); Buffets, Inc. v. Klinke, 73 F.3d 965, 968 (9th Cir. 1996)
(holding restaurant chain’s recipes not to be trade secrets because,
although innovative, the recipes were readily ascertainable by others).
A trade secret can include elements that are in the public domain if
the trade secret itself constitutes a unique, “effective, successful and
valuable integration of the public domain elements.” Rivendell Forest
Prods., Ltd. v. Georgia-Pacific Corp., 28 F.3d 1042, 1046 (10th Cir.
1994); accord Metallurgical Indus., Inc. v. Fourtek, Inc., 790 F.2d 1195,
1202 (5th Cir. 1986); Apollo Techs. Corp. v. Centrosphere Indus., 805
F. Supp. 1157, 1197 (D.N.J. 1992). In fact, “[a] trade secret can exist in
a combination of characteristics and components, each of which, by itself,
is in the public domain, but the unified process, design and operation of
which, in unique combination, affords a competitive advantage and is a
protectable secret.” Metallurgical Indus., 790 F.2d at 1202 (quoting
Imperial Chem., Ltd. v. National Distillers & Chem. Corp., 342 F.2d 737,
742 (2d Cir. 1965)); accord Syntex Ophthalmics, Inc. v. Tsuetaki, 701
F.2d 677, 684 (7th Cir. 1983); Rivendell Forest Prods., 28 F.3d at 1046.
For example, in Metallurgical Industries, when the company modified a
generally-known zinc recovery process, the modified process could be
considered a trade secret even though the original process and the
technologies involved were publicly known, because the details of the
modifications were not. 790 F.2d at 1201-03.
IV.B.3.a.vi. Disclosure’s Effects

A trade secret can lose its protected status through disclosure. To
prove secrecy, the government often has the difficult burden of proving
a negative, i.e., that the information was not generally available to the
public. For this reason, the prosecutor should ascertain early on whether
the purported trade secret was ever disclosed and to what extent those
disclosures affect the information’s status as a trade secret. These issues
are covered thoroughly in Donald M. Zupanec, Annotation, Disclosure of
Trade Secret as Abandonment of Secrecy, 92 A.L.R.3d 138 (2005) and

1 Roger M. Milgrim, Milgrim on Trade Secrets §§ 1.05-1.06 (2005). The
following is an overview.
• Disclosure Through the Patent and Copyright Processes
Information that has been disclosed in a patent application can
nevertheless qualify as a trade secret between the times of the
application’s submission and the patent’s issuance, as long as the patent
application itself is not published by the patent office. Scharmer v.
Carrollton Mfg. Co., 525 F.2d 95, 99 (6th Cir. 1975) (citing Grant v.
Raymond, 31 U.S. 218, 242 (1832)). The patented process or device is
no longer a trade secret once the application is published or the patent is
issued, because publication of the application or patent makes the process
publicly available for all to see. Id. (citing A.O. Smith Corp. v. Petroleum
Iron Works Co., 73 F.2d 531, 537 (6th Cir. 1934)); 37 C.F.R. § 1.14, 35
U.S.C.A. App. I, at 653); see also On-Line Techs. v. Perkin-Elmer Corp.,
253 F. Supp. 2d 313, 323-27 (D. Conn. 2003). In return for the
disclosure, the owner enjoys patent protection against other companies’
use of the technology. See Chapter VII of this Manual. A subsequent
refinement or enhancement to the patented technology may be a trade
secret if it is not reasonably ascertainable from the published patent itself.
See United States v. Hsu, 185 F.R.D. 192, 200 (E.D. Pa. 1999).
Substantially the same analysis applies to information that has been
submitted to the United States Copyright Office for registration.
Submitting material to the Copyright Office can render it open to public
examination and viewing, thus destroying the information’s value as a
trade secret, unless the material is submitted under special procedures to
limit trade secret disclosure. See Tedder Boat Ramp Sys. v. Hillsborough
County, Fla., 54 F. Supp. 2d 1300, 1303-04 (M.D. Fla. 1999); Religious
Tech. Ctr. v. Netcom On-Line Communication Servs., 923 F. Supp. 1231,
1255 n.28 (N.D. Cal. 1995); 1 Milgrim on Trade Secrets § 1.06[6]-[9].
But see Compuware Corp. v. Serena Software Int’l, 77 F. Supp. 2d 816
(E.D. Mich. 1999) (holding that material could continue to be a trade
secret even after its owner submitted it to the Copyright Office without
redaction, because the owner had taken other steps to keep it secret and
there was no evidence that it had become known outside the owner’s
business).
• Disclosure Through Industry Publications or Conferences
Information can also lose protection as a trade secret through
accidental or intentional disclosure by an employee at a conference or
trade show, or in technical journals or other publications. See, e.g., Mixing
Equip. Co. v. Philadelphia Gear, Inc., 436 F.2d 1308, 1311 n.2 (3d Cir.

1971) (holding that industrial mixing equipment charts and graphs lost
trade secret status through publication in trade journals).
• Disclosure to Licensees, Vendors, and Third Parties
Information that has been disclosed to licensees, vendors, or third
parties for limited purposes can remain a trade secret under certain
circumstances. See, e.g., United States v. Lange, 312 F.3d 263, 266 (7th
Cir. 2002) (EEA case); Rockwell Graphic Sys., Inc. v. DEV Indus., Inc.,
925 F.2d 174, 177 (7th Cir. 1991). For the security measures the trade
secret owner must take to maintain secrecy during those disclosures, see
Section IV.B.3.a.vii. of this Chapter.
• Disclosure Through Internet Postings
A trade secret can lose its protected status after it is posted
anonymously on the Internet, even if the trade secret was originally
gathered through improper means. See Religious Tech. Ctr. v. Netcom
On-Line Communication Servs., 923 F. Supp. 1231 (N.D. Cal. 1995). If
the Internet posting causes the information to fall into the public domain,
a person who republishes the information is not guilty of misappropriating
a trade secret, even if he knew that the information was originally
acquired by improper means. DVD Copy Control Ass’n Inc. v. Bunner, 10
Cal. Rptr. 3d 185, 194 (Cal. Ct. App. 2004). “[T]hat which is in the
public domain cannot be removed by action of the states under the guise
of trade secret protection.” Id. at 195.
Disclosure over the Internet does not, however, strip away a trade
secret’s protection automatically. For example, in United States v.
Genovese, the court held that a trade secret could retain its secrecy
despite a brief disclosure over the Internet: “[A] trade secret does not lose
its protection under the EEA if it is temporarily, accidentally or illicitly
released to the public, provided it does not become ‘generally known’ or
‘readily ascertainable through proper means.’” 409 F. Supp. 2d 253, 257
(S.D.N.Y. 2005) (citing 18 U.S.C. § 1839(3)(B)). Publication on the
Internet does not destroy the trade secret’s status “if the publication is
sufficiently obscure or transient or otherwise limited so that it does not
become generally known to the relevant people, i.e., potential competitors
or other persons to whom the information would have some economic
value.” DVD Copy Control Ass’n, 10 Cal. Rptr. 3d at 192-93.
• Disclosure During Law Enforcement Investigations
Disclosures to the government to assist an investigation or
prosecution of an EEA case should not waive trade secret protections. See
United States v. Yang, 1999 U.S. Dist. LEXIS 7130 (N.D. Ohio Mar. 18,

1999) (holding that victim’s disclosure of trade secret to government for
use in a sting operation under oral assurances that the information would
not be used or disclosed for any purpose unrelated to the case did not
vitiate trade secret status). Disclosure to the government is essential for
the investigation and prosecution of illegal activity and is expressly
contemplated by the EEA. First, 18 U.S.C. § 1833(2) specifically
encourages disclosures to the government, stating: “[the EEA] does not
prohibit ... the reporting of a suspected violation of law to any
governmental entity of the United States ... if such entity has lawful
authority with respect to that violation.” Second, 18 U.S.C. § 1835
authorizes the court to “enter such orders and take such other action as
may be necessary and appropriate to preserve the confidentiality of trade
secrets, consistent with the requirements of the Federal Rules of Criminal
and Civil Procedure ... and all other applicable laws.” See also
infra Section IV.D.2. Section 1835 gives “a clear indication from Congress
that trade secrets are to be protected to the fullest extent during EEA
litigation.” United States v. Hsu, 155 F.3d 189, 197 (3d Cir. 1988).
Together, these sections demonstrate Congress’s intent to encourage the
reporting of an EEA violation.
Laws other than the EEA similarly limit the Department of Justice’s
disclosure of trade secrets without the consent of the trade secret owner
or the express written authorization of senior officials at the Department.
See, e.g., 28 C.F.R. § 16.21 (2005).
Information does not lose its status as a trade secret if the government
discloses it to the defendant as “bait” during a sting operation. See United
States v. Hsu, 185 F.R.D. 192, 199 (E.D. Pa. 1999). “[T]o hold that
dangling such bait waives trade secret protection would effectively
undermine the Economic Espionage Act at least to the extent that the
Government tries ... to prevent an irrevocable loss of American technology
before it happens.” Id.
• Disclosure by the Original Misappropriator or His
Co-Conspirators
The person who originally misappropriates a trade secret cannot
immunize himself from prosecution by disclosing it into the public
domain. Although disclosure of a trade secret may cause it to lose trade-
secret status after the disclosure, disclosure does not destroy trade-secret
status retroactively. Consequently, one who initiates the disclosure may
be prosecuted, whereas one who distributes the information post-
disclosure may not, unless he was working in concert with the original
misappropriator. Cf. Underwater Storage, Inc. v. United States Rubber
Co., 371 F.2d 950, 955 (D.C. Cir. 1966) (“We do not believe that a

misappropriator or his privies can ‘baptize’ their wrongful actions by
general publication of the secret.”); Religious Tech. Ctr. v. Netcom On-
Line Communication Servs., 923 F. Supp. at 1256.

Trade secrets are fundamentally different from other forms of
property in that a trade secret’s owner must take reasonable measures
under the circumstances to keep the information confidential. See 18
U.S.C. § 1839(3)(A); United States v. Lange, 312 F.3d 263, 266 (7th Cir.
2002). This requirement is generally not imposed upon those who own
other types of property. For example, a thief can be convicted for stealing
a bicycle the victim left unlocked in a public park, whereas a thief cannot
be convicted (at least under the EEA) for stealing the bicycle’s design
plans if the victim left the plans in a public park.
For these reasons, prosecutors should determine what measures the
victim used to protect the trade secret. These protections will be a critical
component of the case or the decision not to prosecute.
Typical security measures include:
• keeping the secret physically secure in locked drawers, cabinets,
or rooms
• restricting access to those with a need to know
• restricting visitors to secret areas
• requiring recipients to sign confidentiality, nondisclosure, or
noncompetition agreements
• marking documents as confidential or secret
• encrypting documents
• protecting computer files and directories with passwords
• splitting tasks among people or entities to avoid concentrating
too much information in any one place
See 1 Roger M. Milgrim, Milgrim on Trade Secrets § 1.04 (2005); Lange,
312 F.3d at 266 (EEA case concerning aircraft brake assemblies); MAI
Sys. Corp. v. Peak Computer, Inc., 991 F.2d 511, 521 (9th Cir. 1993)
(discussing steps to safeguard computer system manufacturer’s trade
secrets from computer servicing company); Reingold v. Swiftships, Inc.,
126 F.3d 645, 650 (5th Cir. 1997) (discussing steps to protect ship-
builder’s mold for fiberglass boat hulls).

The owner’s security measures need not be absolutely airtight. Rather,
they must be reasonable under the facts of the specific case. See H.R. Rep.
No. 104-788, reprinted in 1996 U.S.C.C.A.N. 4021, 4026, 4031; Lange,
312 F.3d at 266. See also 1 Milgrim on Trade Secrets § 1.04; Pioneer Hi-
Bred Int’l v. Holden Found. Seeds, Inc., 35 F.3d 1226, 1235-36 (8th Cir.
1994) (discussing steps to safeguard genetic messages of genetically
engineered corn); Gates Rubber Co. v. Bando Chem. Indus., 9 F.3d 823,
848-49 (10th Cir. 1993) (discussing steps to protect industrial belt
replacement software); K-2 Ski Co. v. Head Ski Co., 506 F.2d 471, 473-
74 (9th Cir. 1974) (discussing steps to protect design and manufacture
specifications of high performance skis); Elm City Cheese Co. v. Federico,
752 A.2d 1037, 1049-53 (Conn. 1999) (holding that victim’s failure to
require defendant employee to sign a confidentiality, nondisclosure, or
noncompetition agreement was reasonable “in light of the close personal
relationship enjoyed over the years” by the parties).
Information might not qualify as a trade secret if any low-level
employee in a large company could access it. The theft of relatively
unprotected information might, however, be prosecuted under a different
statute. See Section IV.F. of this Chapter.
If the trade secret was disclosed to licensees, vendors, or third parties
for limited purposes, those disclosures do not waive trade secret
protections so long as the trade secret owner took reasonable security
measures before and during disclosure, such as requiring non-disclosure
agreements from all recipients. See, e.g., Quality Measurement Co. v.
IPSOS S.A., 56 Fed. Appx. 639, 647 (6th Cir. 2003); MAI Sys. Corp.,
991 F.2d at 521; Religious Tech. Ctr., 923 F. Supp. at 1254. However,
where the trade secret owner “rel[ies] on deeds (the splitting of tasks)
rather than promises to maintain confidentiality,” it is “irrelevant that
[the victim] does not require vendors to sign confidentiality agreements.”
Lange, 312 F.3d at 266 (emphasis in original).
As is discussed above, information does not lose its status as a trade
secret if it is disclosed to the government for purposes of investigation or
prosecution. For this reason, federal prosecutors and law enforcement
agents need not sign protective orders with victims before accepting trade
secret information.
A defendant who was unaware of the victims’ security measures can
be convicted under the EEA if he was aware that the misappropriated
information was proprietary. United States v. Krumrei, 258 F.3d 535,
538-39 (6th Cir. 2001) (rejecting void-for-vagueness argument against
EEA); accord United States v. Genovese, 409 F. Supp. 2d 258 (S.D.N.Y
2005) (rejecting void-for-vagueness challenge to EEA indictment). But see

id. (noting that the defendant could argue that he was unaware of the
victim’s security measures at trial).
IV.B.3.a.viii. Independent Economic Value

The trade secret must derive “independent economic value, actual or
potential, from not being generally known to and not being readily
ascertainable by the public.” 18 U.S.C. § 1839(3)(B). Although the EEA
does not require the government to prove a specific jurisdictional level of
value, the government must prove that the secret had some value.
Economic value “speaks to the value of the information to either the
owner or a competitor; any information which protects the owner’s
competitive edge or advantage.” US West Communications v. Office of
Consumer Advocate, 498 N.W.2d 711, 714 (Iowa 1993) (citations
omitted). “[I]nformation kept secret that would be useful to a competitor
and require cost, time and effort to duplicate is of economic value.” Id.
(citation omitted).
The secret’s economic value can be demonstrated by the
circumstances of the offense, such as the defendant’s acknowledgment
that the secret is valuable; the defendant’s asking price, or an amount of
time or money the defendant’s buyers would have required to replicate
the information. See Lange, 312 F.3d at 269; Genovese, 409 F. Supp. 2d
at 257. For more on methods of proving a trade secret’s specific value, see
Section VIII.C.2. of this Manual.
Not all of a business’s confidential information is valuable in a
competitor’s hands. For example, in Microstrategy v. Business Objects,
331 F. Supp. 2d 396, 421 (E.D. Va. 2004), the court found that a
company-wide e-mail concerning the firm’s financial problems and plans
for survival was not a trade secret because it was unclear what economic
value it would have had to anyone outside the company. See also US
West Communications, 498 N.W.2d at 714 (finding no evidence of
economic value without evidence that disclosure would have harmed the
victim).
IV.B.3.a.ix. Example: Customer Lists

Some information that a company deems proprietary will not qualify
as a trade secret. For example, under the Uniform Trade Secrets
Act—which defines trade secrets in a manner similar to the EEA—a
customer list is generally a trade secret only if the customers are not
known to others in the industry, and could be discovered only by
extraordinary efforts, and the list was developed through a substantial
expenditure of time and money. See ATC Distribution Group v.

Whatever It Takes Transmissions & Parts, 402 F.3d 700, 714-15 (6th
Cir. 2005); Conseco Fin. Servicing Corp. v. North Am. Mortgage Co., 381
F.3d 811, 819 & n.6 (8th Cir. 2004) (holding customer files of thousands
of customers nationwide who were identified through a complex computer
system to be trade secrets); Electro Optical Indus., Inc. v. White, 90 Cal.
Rptr. 2d 680, 684 (Cal. Ct. App. 1999); Leo Silfen, Inc. v. Cream, 278
N.E.2d 636, 639-41 (N.Y. 1972). Conversely, a customer list is less likely
to be considered a trade secret if customers’ identities are readily
ascertainable to those outside the list-owner’s business and the list was
compiled merely through general marketing efforts. See ATC Distribution
Group, 402 F.3d at 714-15 (affirming that customer list of transmission
parts customers was not a trade secret because names of purchasers could
“be ascertained simply by calling each shop and asking”); Standard
Register Co. v. Cleaver, 30 F. Supp. 2d 1084, 1095 (N.D. Ind. 1998)
(holding that customer list was not a trade secret where owner’s
competitors knew customer base, knew other competitors quoting the
work, and were generally familiar with the customers’ needs); Nalco
Chem. Co. v. Hydro Techs., Inc., 984 F.2d 801, 804 (7th Cir. 1993)
(holding that customer lists were not a trade secret when base of potential
customers was neither fixed nor small).
IV.B.3.b. Misappropriation
IV.B.3.b.i. Types of Misappropriation
Under either § 1831 or § 1832, the defendant must have
misappropriated the trade secret through one of the acts prohibited in
§ 1831(a)(1)-(5) or § 1832(a)(1)-(5). Misappropriation covers a broad
range of acts. It includes not only traditional methods of theft in which
a trade secret is physically removed from the owner’s possession, but also
less traditional methods of misappropriation and destruction such as
copying, duplicating, sketching, drawing, photographing, downloading,
uploading, altering, destroying, photocopying, replicating, transmitting,
delivering, sending, mailing, communicating, or conveying the
information. See 18 U.S.C. §§ 1831(a)(1) (2), 1832(a)(1)-(2). Although
many of these means of misappropriation leave the original property in
the hands of its owner, they reduce or destroy the trade secret’s value
nonetheless. Congress prohibited all types of misappropriation “to ensure
that the theft of intangible information is prohibited in the same way that
the theft of physical items is punished.” H.R. Rep. No. 104-788, at 11
(1996), reprinted in 1996 U.S.C.C.A.N. 4021, 4030.

Misappropriation also includes the knowing receipt, purchase, or
possession misappropriated trade secrets. See 18 U.S.C. §§ 1831(3),
1832(3).
IV.B.3.b.ii. Memorization Included

The above types of misappropriation include not only manipulating
a physical object, but also conveying or using intangible information that
has been memorized. The EEA defines a trade secret as “all forms and
types of financial, business, scientific, technical, economic, or engineering
information, ... whether tangible or intangible, and whether or how
stored.” 18 U.S.C. § 1839(3) (emphasis added). The statute also prohibits
not only actions taken against a trade secret’s physical form, such as
“steal[ing], ...tak[ing], [and] carr[ying] away”, 18 U.S.C. §§ 1831(a)(1),
1832(a)(1), but also actions that can be taken against a trade secret in a
memorized, intangible form, such as “sketch[ing], draw[ing], ...
download[ing], upload[ing], ..., transmit[ting], ... communicat[ing], [and]
convey[ing],” 18 U.S.C. §§ 1831(a)(2), 1832(a)(2). See James H.A.
Pooley et al., Understanding the Economic Espionage Act of 1996, 5 Tex.
Intell. Prop. L.J. 177 (1997). In this respect, as in others, the EEA echoes
civil law and some pre-EEA caselaw. See, e.g., 4 Roger M. Milgrim,
Milgrim on Trade Secrets § 15.01[e]; Stampede Tool Warehouse v. May,
651 N.E.2d 209, 217 (Ill. App. Ct. 1995) (“A trade secret can be
misappropriated by physical copying or by memorization.”) (citations
omitted). Trade secret cases to the contrary that do not involve the EEA
are thus not persuasive authority on this point.
This is not to say, however, that any piece of business information
that can be memorized is a trade secret. As noted, the EEA does not apply
to individuals who seek to capitalize on their lawfully developed
knowledge, skill, or abilities. When the actions of a former employee are
unclear and evidence of theft has not been discovered, it may be advisable
for a company to pursue its civil remedies and make another criminal
referral if additional evidence of theft is developed.
Where available, tangible evidence of theft or copying is helpful in all
cases to overcome the potential problem of prosecuting the defendant’s
“mental recollections” and a defense that “great minds think alike.”
IV.B.3.b.iii. Lack of Authorization

The crux of misappropriation is that the defendant acted “without
authorization” from the trade secret’s owner. The necessary
“authorization is the permission, approval, consent or sanction of the

owner” to obtain, destroy, or convey the trade secret. 142 Cong. Rec.
27,116 (1996). Thus, although an employee may be authorized to possess
a trade secret during his employment, he would violate the EEA if he
conveyed it to a competitor without his employer’s permission.
IV.B.3.b.iv. Misappropriation of Only Part of a Trade Secret

The defendant can be prosecuted even if he misappropriated only part
of the trade secret. Using only part of the secret, so long as it too is secret,
qualifies as misappropriation. Mangren Research and Dev. Corp. v.
National Chem. Co., 87 F.3d 937, 943-44 (7th Cir. 1996); cf. United
States v. Pemberton, 904 F.2d 515, 517 (9th Cir. 1990) (rejecting
argument of defendant convicted for receiving 30 stolen technical
landscape and irrigation drawings for a commercial development “that the
incomplete nature of the drawings rendered them worthless,” because
evidence established that “some of the drawings would have been useful
to the developer, even though not entirely finished,” and the developer
might have been willing to adjust the price for the drawings’ incomplete
nature); United States v. Inigo, 925 F.2d 641, 653-54 (3d Cir. 1991)
(Hobbs Act conviction) (rejecting defendant’s argument that the victim
should not have feared economic loss because, inter alia, he possessed less
than five percent of the confidential documents on a subject, and that
“what matters is how important the documents [the defendant] had were
to [the defendant], not their number”).
IV.B.3.b.v. Mere Risk of Misappropriation Not Prosecutable,

But Attempts and Conspiracies Are
However, a former employee cannot be prosecuted just because she
was exposed to a trade secret at her former job and has now moved to a
competitor. The government must establish that she actually stole or
misappropriated a particular trade secret or that she attempted or
conspired to do so.
IV.B.3.c. Knowledge
The first mens rea element in an EEA case is that the defendant
misappropriated the trade secret “knowingly.” Section 1831(a) applies to
anyone who misappropriates a trade secret “knowingly.” Section 1832(a),
by contrast, applies to “[w]hoever, with intent to convert a trade secret,”
engages in misappropriation. This is a distinction without a difference,
because knowing misappropriation is equivalent to the intent to convert.
“A knowing state of mind with respect to an element of the offense
is (1) an awareness of the nature of one’s conduct, and (2) an awareness

of or a firm belief in or knowledge to a substantial certainty of the
existence of a relevant circumstance, such as whether the information is
proprietary economic information as defined by this statute.” S. Rep. No.
104-359, at 16 (1996). Because criminal statutes covering the theft of
tangible property generally require the government to prove that the
defendant “[knew] that the object he [stole was] indeed a piece of
property that he [had] no lawful right to convert for his personal use,” the
government generally must show that the defendant knew or had a firm
belief that the information he or she was taking was a trade secret in an
EEA case as well. 142 Cong. Rec. 27,117 (1996) (EEA legislative history).
See United States v. Genovese, 409 F. Supp. 2d 253, 258 (S.D.N.Y.
2005) (discussing alleged circumstances that would indicate that EEA
defendant knew the information was a trade secret).
Ignorance of the law is no defense. The government need not prove
that the defendant himself had concluded that the information he took
fit the legal definition of a “trade secret” set forth in 18 U.S.C. § 1839(3).
If the government had to prove this, EEA violations would be nearly
impossible to prosecute and Congress’s intent would be contravened:
This [knowledge] requirement should not prove to be a great barrier
to legitimate and warranted prosecutions. Most companies go to
considerable pains to protect their trade secrets. Documents are
marked proprietary; security measures put in place; and employees
often sign confidentiality agreements.
142 Cong. Rec. 27,117 (1996). Based on this legislative history, the
government should be able to establish that the defendant knew that the
information was a trade secret by proving that he was aware that the
information was protected by proprietary markings, security measures,
and confidentiality agreements. Id. More generally, the government could
simply prove that the defendant knew or had a firm belief that the
information was valuable to its owner because it was not generally known
to the public, and that its owner had taken measures to protect it, that is,
the information had the attributes of a trade secret described in 18
U.S.C. § 1839(3). Cf. Genovese, 409 F. Supp. 2d at 258 (discussing
alleged circumstances that would indicate that EEA defendant knew the
information was a trade secret). On the other hand, a person cannot be
prosecuted under the EEA if “he [took] a trade secret because of
ignorance, mistake, or accident.” 142 Cong. Rec. 27,117 (1996). Nor
could he be prosecuted if “he actually believed that the information was
not proprietary after [he took] reasonable steps to warrant such belief.”
Id.

IV.B.4. Additional 18 U.S.C. § 1831 Element: Intent to Benefit a
Foreign Government, Foreign Instrumentality, or Foreign
Agent
Under 18 U.S.C. § 1831, the second mens rea requirement is that the
defendant intended or knew that the offense would “benefit” a “foreign
government, foreign instrumentality, or foreign agent.” A “foreign
instrumentality” is “any agency, bureau, ministry, component, institution,
association, or any legal, commercial, or business organization,
corporation, firm, or entity that is substantially owned, controlled,
sponsored, commanded, managed, or dominated by a foreign
government.” 18 U.S.C. § 1839(1). A “foreign agent” is “any officer,
employee, proxy, servant, delegate, or representative of a foreign
government.” 18 U.S.C. § 1839(2). Thus, the government must show that
the defendant knew or had a firm belief that misappropriation would
benefit an entity tied to a foreign government. See Section IV.B.3.c. of
this Chapter. If this “entity” is not a government entity per se, such as a
business, there must be “evidence of foreign government sponsored or
coordinated intelligence activity.” 142 Cong. Rec. 27,116 (1996).
The “benefit” to the foreign entity should be interpreted broadly. It
is not limited to an economic benefit, but rather also includes a
“reputational, strategic, or tactical benefit.” H.R. Rep. No. 104-788, at 11
(1996), reprinted in 1996 U.S.C.C.A.N. 4021, 4030.
The requirement that the benefit accrue to a foreign government,
instrumentality, or agent should be analyzed very carefully. To establish
that the defendant intended to benefit a “foreign instrumentality,” the
government must show that the entity was “ substantially owned,
controlled, sponsored, commanded, managed, or dominated by a foreign
government.” 18 U.S.C. § 1839(1) (emphasis added). The EEA does not
define “substantially,” but its use suggests that the prosecution need not
prove complete ownership, control, sponsorship, command, management,
or domination:
Substantial in this context, means material or significant, not
technical or tenuous. We do not mean for the test of substantial
control to be mechanistic or mathematical. The simple fact that the
majority of the stock of a company is owned by a foreign government
will not suffice under this definition, nor for that matter will the fact
that a foreign government only owns 10 percent of a company exempt
it from scrutiny. Rather the pertinent inquiry is whether the activities
of the company are, from a practical and substantive standpoint,
foreign government directed.

142 Cong. Rec. 27,116 (1996).
Thus, § 1831 does not apply to a foreign corporation that acted
without the sponsorship of, or “coordinated intelligence activity” by, a
foreign government. Id . In such an instance, however, the foreign
corporation could still be properly charged under 18 U.S.C. § 1832.
For questions concerning charges under § 1831, contact the
Department’s Counterespionage Section at (202) 514-1187 or CCIPS at
(202) 514-1026.
IV.B.5. Additional 18 U.S.C. § 1832 Elements

IV.B.5.a. Economic Benefit to a Third Party
Under 18 U.S.C. § 1832, the government must prove that the
defendant’s misappropriation was intended for the “economic benefit of
anyone other than the owner thereof.” 18 U.S.C. § 1832(a). The recipient
of the intended benefit can be the defendant, a competitor of the victim,
or some other person or entity.
One who misappropriates a trade secret but who does not intend for
anyone to gain economically from the theft cannot be prosecuted under
18 U.S.C. § 1832. This requirement differs from foreign-government
economic espionage under 18 U.S.C. § 1831, for which the economic or
non-economic nature of the misappropriation is immaterial. Compare 18
U.S.C. § 1831(a) with § 1832(a).

Beyond demonstrating in a § 1832 case that the defendant both knew
that the information he took was proprietary and that he intended the
misappropriation to economically benefit someone other than the rightful
owner, the government must also prove that the defendant intended to
“injure” the owner of the trade secret. See 18 U.S.C. § 1832(a). This
provision “does not require the government to prove malice or evil intent,
but merely that the actor knew or was aware to a practical certainty that
his conduct would cause some disadvantage to the rightful owner.” H.R.
Rep. No. 104-788, at 11-12 (1996), reprinted in 1996 U.S.C.C.A.N.
4021, 4030.
By definition, for a trade secret to have value, it must confer a
commercial advantage to its owner. See 18 U.S.C. § 1839(3)(B); H.R.
Rep. No. 104-788, at 4 (1996), reprinted in 1996 U.S.C.C.A.N. 4021,
4023. The trade secret loses its value once it is disclosed to another
person for the recipient’s benefit. See H.R. Rep. No. 104-788, at 11

(1996), reprinted in 1996 U.S.C.C.A.N. 4021, 4030 (“[M]isappropriation
effectively destroys the value of what is left with the rightful owner.”).
Most employees understand that their misappropriation will injure the
victim once he loses the exclusive use of his trade secret.
IV.B.5.c. Product Produced for or Placed in Interstate or

Foreign Commerce
On a charge of domestic economic espionage under 18 U.S.C. § 1832,
the government must prove that the trade secret was “related to or
included in a product that is produced for or placed in interstate or
foreign commerce.” 18 U.S.C. § 1832; compare 18 U.S.C. § 1831
(containing no explicit language about being included in or related to a
product).
The defendant need not have known that the trade secret was related
to or included in a product that was produced for or placed in interstate
or foreign commerce. The nexus to interstate or foreign commerce appears
to have been intended merely to allow federal jurisdiction. The statute’s
plain text confirms this. The jurisdictional language quoted above is set
off in the statute by commas to qualify which types of trade secrets fall
under the statute. It precedes the word “knowingly,” thus putting it
outside the elements the government must prove the defendant knew.
The phrase “a product produced for or placed in interstate or foreign
commerce” includes trade secrets developed for existing products and for
future products. In the case of an existing product, this nexus can usually
be satisfied by evidence of the trade secret’s connection to the current
product and the product’s current or potential interstate or foreign sales.
By contrast, if the product is still being developed, § 1832 would
merely require proof that the trade secret was “related to ... a product that
is produced for ... interstate or foreign commerce.” 18 U.S.C. § 1832(a).
A defendant might argue that a product still in the research and
development stage is not yet being “produced for ... interstate commerce,”
18 U.S.C. § 1832, because the prototype itself is not being “produced” for
sale. But this argument would withhold the EEA’s protection when it was
most needed. The research and development phase is often when a trade
secret is most valuable. Once the final product embodying the trade secret
is released to the public, the trade secret’s value can be lost because of its
availability to competitors who can examine the product legitimately and
obtain or deduce the trade secret for themselves.
To prove that the product was produced for interstate or foreign
commerce, the government need only show the victim’s intent to

distribute the product or utilize the process under development for a
product. This can be demonstrated through evidence of the project’s
goals.
At this writing, the only published case concerning these issues is
United States v. Yang, 281 F.3d 534, 551 & n.4 (6th Cir. 2002), which
held that a patent application had a sufficient nexus to interstate
commerce because it involved a product that generated $75-100 million
in sales the previous year and it was related to products produced and sold
in the United States and Canada; and also because the victim also had
sought patents for the product in Europe.
This element implicitly distinguishes between the misappropriation
of trade secrets related to products—which is punishable under
§ 1832—and trade secrets related to services—which is not. For criminal
charges to consider when the trade secret is related to services, see Section
IV.F. of this Chapter.
Distinguishing when a trade secret relates to a product and when it
relates to a service is sometimes easier said than done. Although the
“product” requirement is not discussed in the legislative history, the
term’s plain meaning appears to exclude pure services such as technical
skills and know-how that are not embodied in or related to a saleable,
transportable good. Consider a chiropractor’s secret technique to treat
back pain by manipulating a patient’s spine. If the chiropractor is not
developing and has not developed a medical product that uses or
embodies the secret, but instead merely uses the technique in private
practice, the technique’s theft by a coworker or common thief would not
violate § 1832. By contrast, cellular telephone companies sell services that
are accompanied by a “free” cellular phone or require the purchase of a
compatible phone. If a cellular company develops a trade secret relating
to the technical operation of its cellular network, the fact that the essence
of what the company provides is a service should not necessarily preclude
a prosecution under the EEA, given that the secret could be categorized
as being “related to ... a product [the phone] that is produced for or
placed in interstate or foreign commerce.” §1832(a).
IV.B.6. Attempts and Conspiracies, Including the Impossibility

Defense
As noted, the EEA—both foreign and domestic—punishes attempts
and conspiracies to misappropriate trade secrets. 18 U.S.C. §§ 1831(a)(4)-
(5), 1832(a)(4)-(5). For an attempt, the defendant must (1) have the
intent needed to commit a crime defined by the EEA, and (2) perform an
act amounting to a “substantial step” toward the commission of that

crime. United States v. Hsu, 155 F.3d 189, 202 (3d Cir. 1998). For a
conspiracy, the defendant must agree with one or more people to commit
a violation, and one or more of the co-conspirators must commit an overt
act to effect the object of the conspiracy. 18 U.S.C. §§ 1831(a)(5),
1832(a)(5).
In Hsu, the Sixth Circuit ruled that to convict a defendant under the
EEA of attempt or conspiracy, the government need not prove that the
information the defendant sought actually constituted a trade secret. Hsu,
155 F.3d at 204.
The defendants were charged with attempting and conspiring to steal
the techniques for manufacturing an anti-cancer drug from Bristol-Meyers
Squibb. The district court compelled the government to disclose to the
defendants the trade secrets at issue, on the grounds that the defendants
were entitled to demonstrate that the materials were not trade secrets in
fact. United States v. Hsu, 982 F. Supp. 1022, 1024 (E.D. Pa. 1997). The
Third Circuit disagreed, holding that to prove an attempt or conspiracy
under the EEA, the government need not prove the existence of an actual
trade secret, but, rather, that the defendants believed that the information
was a trade secret—regardless of whether the information was truly a
trade secret or not—and that they conspired in doing so. Hsu, 155 F.3d
at 203-04.
The government need not prove the existence of an actual trade
secret, because “a defendant’s culpability for a charge of attempt depends
only on ‘the circumstances as he believes them to be,’ not as they really
are.” Id. at 203. Thus, to prove an attempt, the government need only
prove “beyond a reasonable doubt that the defendant sought to acquire
information which he or she believed to be a trade secret, regardless of
whether the information actually qualified as such.” Id.
The Third Circuit also rejected the defendants’ contention that the
government had to disclose the trade secrets so the defendants could
prepare a potential defense of legal impossibility. Although elsewhere the
Third Circuit generally allowed the common-law defense of legal
impossibility in cases charging attempt, it found that the EEA evidenced
Congress’s intent to foreclose an impossibility defense. Hsu, 155 F.3d at
202 (“[T]he great weight of the EEA’s legislative history evinces an intent
to create a comprehensive solution to economic espionage, and we find it
highly unlikely that Congress would have wanted the courts to thwart that
solution by permitting defendants to assert the common law defense of
legal impossibility.”). The court found it significant that “[t]he EEA was
drafted in 1996, more than twenty-five years after the National
Commission on Reform of the Federal Criminal Laws had concluded that

the abolition of legal impossibility was already ‘the overwhelming modern
position.’” Id. Lastly, the court noted that if legal impossibility were “a
defense to the attempted theft of trade secrets, the government would be
compelled to use actual trade secrets during undercover operations.” Id.
This would “have the bizarre effect of forcing the government to disclose
trade secrets to the very persons suspected of trying to steal them, thus
gutting enforcement efforts under the EEA.” Id. Therefore, the court held
that “legal impossibility is not a defense to a charge of attempted
misappropriation of trade secrets in violation of 18 U.S.C. § 1832(a)(4).”
Id.
Nor is legal impossibility a defense to a charge of conspiracy to violate
the EEA. Because the basis of a conspiracy charge is the “conspiratorial
agreement itself and not the underlying substantive acts,” the
impossibility of achieving the conspiracy’s goal is irrelevant See Hsu, 155
F.3d at 203 (citing United States v. Jannotti, 673 F.2d 578, 591 (3d
Cir.1982) (en banc)); see also United States v. Wallach, 935 F.2d 445,
470 (2d Cir. 1991); United States v. LaBudda, 882 F.2d 244, 248 (7th
Cir. 1989); United States v. Petit, 841 F.2d 1546, 1550 (11th Cir. 1988);
United States v. Everett, 692 F.2d 596, 599 (9th Cir. 1982).
Hsu’s reasoning has been adopted by the Sixth Circuit in United
States v. Yang, 281 F.3d 534, 542-45 (6th Cir. 2002), cert. denied, 537
U.S. 1170 (2003), and the Seventh Circuit in United States v. Lange, 312
F.3d 263, 268-69 (7th Cir. 2002).
IV.C. Defenses
IV.C.1. Parallel Development
According to the EEA’s legislative history, the owner of a trade secret,
unlike the holder of a patent, does not have “an absolute monopoly on
the information or data that comprises a trade secret.” 142 Cong. Rec.
27,116 (1996). Other companies and individuals have the right to
discover the information underlying a trade secret through their own
research and hard work; if they do, there is no misappropriation under the
EEA. Id.
IV.C.2. Reverse Engineering

Similarly, a person may legally discover the information underlying a
trade secret by “reverse engineering,” that is, the practice of taking
something apart to determine how it works or how it was made or

manufactured. See, e.g., Kewanee Oil Co. v. Bicron Corp., 416 U.S. 470,
476 (1974) (holding that the law does not protect the owner of a trade
secret from “discovery by fair and honest means, such as by independent
invention, accidental disclosure, or by so-called reverse engineering”);
ConFold Pac., Inc. v. Polaris Indus., 433 F.3d 952, 959 (7th Cir. 2006)
(“[I]t is perfectly lawful to ‘steal’ a firm’s trade secret by reverse
engineering.”) (Posner, J.) (citations omitted).
Although the EEA does not expressly address when reverse
engineering is a valid defense, its legislative history states that “[t]he
important thing is to focus on whether the accused has committed one of
the prohibited acts of this statute rather than whether he or she has
‘reverse engineered.’ If someone has lawfully gained access to a trade
secret and can replicate it without violating copyright, patent, or this law,
then that form of ‘reverse engineering’ should be fine.” 142 Cong. Rec.
27,116 (1996).
The mere fact that a particular secret could have been reverse-
engineered after a time-consuming and expensive laboratory process does
not provide a defense for someone who intended to avoid that time and
effort by stealing the secret, unless the information was so apparent as to
be deemed “readily ascertainable,” and thus not a trade secret. See 4
Roger M. Milgrim, Milgrim on Trade Secrets § 15.01[d][iv]; Alcatel USA,
Inc. v. DGI Techs., Inc., 166 F.3d 772, 784-85 (5th Cir. 1999) (holding
that a competitor could not assert reverse engineering defense after it had
first unlawfully obtained a copy of the software and then used the copy
to reverse engineer); Pioneer Hi-Bred Int’l v. Holden Found. Seeds, Inc.,
35 F.3d 1226, 1237 (8th Cir. 1994) (stating that fact “that one ‘could’
have obtained a trade secret lawfully is not a defense if one does not
actually use proper means to acquire the information”); Telerate Sys., Inc.
v. Caro, 689 F. Supp. 221, 233 (S.D.N.Y. 1988) (“[T]he proper focus of
inquiry is not whether an alleged trade secret can be deduced by reverse
engineering but rather, whether improper means are required to access
it.”).
To counter a defense of reverse engineering, prosecutors should
establish how the defendant obtained the trade secret. Proving
misappropriation should refute a claim of reverse engineering.
IV.C.3. Impossibility
The defense of impossibility has largely been rejected by courts in
EEA prosecutions. See Section IV.B.6. of this Chapter.

IV.C.4. Advice of Counsel
“There is no such thing as an ‘advice of counsel’ defense.” United
States v. Urfer, 287 F.3d 663, 666 (7th Cir. 2002) (Posner, J.) (charges
of willfully injuring federal property). Rather, “if a criminal statute
requires proof that the defendant knew he was violating the statute in
order to be criminally liable for the violation, and it is unclear whether the
statute forbade his conduct, the fact that he was acting on the advice of
counsel is relevant because it bears on whether he knew that he was
violating the statute.” Id. In other words, advice of counsel is a defense
only if it negates the mens rea needed to prove a violation.
Advice of counsel could conceivably negate an EEA defendant’s mens
rea in several ways. As is discussed Section IV.B.3.c. of this Chapter, the
defend a n t c a n n o t be c o n v i c t e d un less he knew that he was
misappropriating a trade secret. Thus, the defendant’s mens rea might be
negated if counsel advised him either that the information in question was
not a trade secret or that it was a trade secret to which he could claim
ownership. See Section IV.C.5.
To rely on advice of counsel at trial, the defendant must first provide
“independent evidence showing (1) the defendant made full disclosure of
all material facts to his or her attorney before receiving the advice at issue;
and (2) he or she relied in good faith on the counsel’s advice that his or
her course of conduct was legal.” Covey v. United States, 377 F.3d 903,
908 (8th Cir. 2004) (citations and alterations omitted); see also United
States v. Butler, 211 F.3d 826, 833 (4th Cir. 2000) (same).
IV.C.5. Claim of Right—Public Domain and Proprietary Rights

As is discussed in Section IV.B.3.c. of this Chapter, the defendant
cannot be convicted unless he knew that he was misappropriating a trade
secret. Thus, the defendant’s mens rea might be negated if he believed in
good faith that he had a right to use the information, either because it was
in the public domain or because it belonged to him.
The former situation, information in the public domain, is discussed
Section IV.B.3.a.vi. (discussing how disclosure affects trade secret status).
The latter situation, when the accused acts under a proprietary claim
of right, can occur when two parties have a legitimate dispute over who
owns the trade secret. This type of dispute is most likely to occur after the
parties developed technology together and their respective ownership
interests are unclear. In these circumstances, one party’s unilateral action
with regard to the trade secret might precipitate a criminal referral from
the other party. Such cases are rarely appropriate for criminal prosecution,

especially if the putative defendant acted on the advice of counsel. See
Section IV.C.4. of this Chapter. Notwithstanding the passage of the EEA,
many disputes about trade secrets are still best resolved in a civil forum.
IV.C.6. The First Amendment

The First Amendment is no defense when the defendant’s speech
itself is the very vehicle of the crime. See, e.g., United States v. Morison,
844 F.2d 1057, 1068 (4th Cir. 1988) (rejecting defendant’s First
Amendment defense and upholding a conviction for a violation of 18
U.S.C. § 793 for stealing secret government documents, noting that “[w]e
do not think that the First Amendment offers asylum ... merely because
the transmittal was to a representative of the press”); United States v.
Rowlee, 899 F.2d 1275 (2d Cir. 1990) (rejecting First Amendment
defense against charges of tax evasion conspiracy). In a prosecution similar
to the theft of trade secrets under the EEA, the First Amendment was held
to provide no defense to a charge under 18 U.S.C. § 2314 for the
interstate transportation of stolen computer files:
In short, the court finds no support for [the defendant’s] argument
that the criminal activity with which he is charged ... is protected by
the First Amendment. Interpreting the First Amendment as shielding
[the defendant] from criminal liability would open a gaping hole in
criminal law; individuals could violate criminal laws with impunity
simply by engaging in criminal activities which involve speech-related
activity. The First Amendment does not countenance that kind of end
run around criminal law.
United States v. Riggs, 743 F. Supp. 556, 560-61 (N.D. Ill. 1990).
In most instances, if the government can establish that the defendant
intended his misappropriation to benefit a third party economically, he
should have a hard time claiming that his disclosure of the trade secret
was protected by the First Amendment. In other words, where the
defendant’s motivation was pecuniary, the defendant’s argument that he
disclosed the trade secret as a public service or to educate the public
should be significantly undermined. See DVD Copy Control Ass'n v.
Bunner, 75 P.3d 1, 19 (Cal. 2003) (“We merely hold that the preliminary
injunction does not violate the free speech clauses of the United States
and California Constitutions, assuming the trial court properly issued the
injunction under California's trade secret law. On remand, the Court of
Appeal should determine the validity of this assumption.”).

Because the First Amendment does not protect speech that is
criminal, the government should seek to exclude evidence regarding that
defense through an appropriate motion in limine.
IV.C.7. Void-for-Vagueness
Several defendants have challenged the EEA on grounds that it is
vague or otherwise unconstitutional. Thus far, all such challenges have
been rejected.
In United States v. Hsu, 40 F. Supp. 2d 623 (E.D. Pa. 1999), the
defendant was charged with, among other things, conspiracy to steal trade
secrets in violation of 18 U.S.C. § 1832(a)(5) and attempted theft of
trade secrets in violation of 18 U.S.C. § 1832(a)(4). Hsu moved to
dismiss, arguing that the EEA was unconstitutionally vague on numerous
grounds.
In denying Hsu’s motion to dismiss, the court noted that a statute is
not unconstitutionally vague just because “Congress might, without
difficulty, have chosen ‘clearer and more precise language’ equally capable
of achieving the end which it sought.” Hsu, 40 F. Supp. 2d at 626
(quoting United States v. Powell, 423 U.S. 87, 94 (1975) (citation
omitted)). Because the First Amendment was not implicated, Hsu’s void-
for-vagueness challenge could succeed only if the EEA were vague as
applied to his conduct and as applied to “the facts of the case at hand.”
Id. at 626-27. Hsu argued that the First Amendment was implicated
because the Bristol-Meyers Squibb “employee who aided the Government
‘sting’ operation by posing as a corrupt employee [had] a right freely to
express himself and exchange information with the defendant, or with
anyone else he [thought was] a potential employer.” Id. at 627. The court
disagreed. It noted first that Hsu lacked standing to raise the victim’s
employee’s purported First Amendment rights. Id. And even if Hsu had
standing, the court said, the employee had knowingly participated in a
government sting operation, not in a job interview with a potential
employer. Id. Therefore, no First Amendment interests were implicated.
Id.
The court also rejected Hsu’s argument that the term “related to or
included in a product that is produced for or placed in interstate or
foreign commerce” is unacceptably vague. Id. Prior First Amendment
decisions disapproving of the term “related” had no bearing on the use of
“related to or included in” in the EEA, which the court found “readily
understandable to one of ordinary intelligence, particularly here, where
the defendant appears to be well versed as to [the nature of the
technology at issue].” Id.

The court also concluded that the EEA’s definition of “trade secret”
was not unconstitutionally vague as applied to Hsu. As to the requirement
that the owner take “reasonable measures” to keep the information secret,
the mere use of the word “reasonable” or “unreasonable” does not render
a statute vague. Id. at 628. The court further noted that these terms were
taken “with only minor modifications” from the Uniform Trade Secrets
Act, which had been adopted in forty states and the District of Columbia
and had also withstood a void-for-vagueness attack. Id.
Also preventing Hsu’s void-for-vagueness challenge was his own
knowledge of the facts at the time of the offense. Hsu knew that Bristol-
Meyers Squibb had taken many steps to keep its technology secret. He
had been told on several occasions that the technology was proprietary to
Bristol-Meyers Squibb, could not be acquired through a license or joint
venture, and could be obtained only through an allegedly corrupt
employee. The court therefore held that he could not contend that the
term “reasonable measures” was vague as applied to him. Id.
Finally, the Hsu court concluded that the EEA was not void for
vagueness in qualifying that the information not be “generally known to”
or “readily ascertainable by” the public. The court concluded that the
EEA’s use of those terms was problematic because “what is ‘generally
known’ and ‘readily ascertainable’ about ideas, concepts, and technology
is constantly evolving in the modern age.” Id. at 630. Nonetheless, Hsu’s
e-mails, telephone calls, and conversations together showed that he
believed that the information he sought could not be acquired through
legal or public means. Therefore, the court concluded that the EEA’s
definition of trade secret was not unconstitutionally vague as applied to
Hsu.
Subsequent courts have ruled similarly. See United States v. Yang,
281 F.3d 534, 544 n.2 (6th Cir. 2002) (rejecting defendants’ argument
that the EEA would be unconstitutionally vague if attempt and conspiracy
charges need not be based on actual trade secrets, because “[w]e have
every confidence that ordinary people seeking to steal information that
they believe is a trade secret would understand that their conduct is
proscribed by the statute”); United States v. Genovese, 409 F. Supp. 2d
253 (S.D.N.Y. 2005) (denying motion to dismiss indictment as vague by
defendant who argued that, having found confidential source code on the
Internet, he could not know whether the code was generally known to the
public or whether the code’s owners took reasonable measures to keep it
secret, and ruling that the government’s allegations established that the
defendant was on notice that the code was proprietary and any protective
measures had been circumvented). But see id. at 258 (stating further that

the defendant could argue that he could not have known the victim’s
protective measures at a later stage of the proceedings).
IV.D. Special Issues

IV.D.1. Civil Injunctive Relief for the United States
The EEA authorizes the government to file a civil action seeking
injunctive relief. See 18 U.S.C. § 1836(a). Prosecutors should consider
seeking injunctive relief to prevent further disclosure of a trade secret by
the defendant or third parties during a criminal investigation, or as part
of the judgment at the end of the case.
Prosecutors may even seek injunctive relief in matters that do not
warrant criminal prosecution if the victim is unable to do so. Note,
however, that most victims can obtain injunctive and monetary relief on
their own through state-law statutory and common-law remedies. For an
extensive discussion of injunctive relief in civil cases, see 4 Roger M.
Milgrim, Milgrim on Trade Secrets § 15.02[1].
The civil remedy in § 1836 can be enforced only by the government.
Neither that section nor any other section of the EEA creates a private
right of action that can be enforced by private citizens. Cooper Square
Realty v. Jensen, No. 04 Civ. 01011 (CSH), 2005 WL 53284 (S.D.N.Y.
Jan. 10, 2005); Barnes v. J.C. Penney Co., No. 3-04-CV-577-N, 2004 WL
1944048 (N.D. Tex. Aug. 31, 2004), magistrate’s findings adopted, 2004
WL 2124062 (N.D. Tex. Sept. 22, 2004).

Victims of trade secret theft are often conflicted about whether to
report these thefts to law enforcement authorities. They want the thief to
be punished, but worry that their trade secret would be disclosed during
discovery or trial.
Congress resolved this dilemma by giving the government measures
to preserve the confidentiality of trade secrets throughout the prosecution.
142 Cong. Rec. 27,105 (1996). The EEA provides that the court “shall
enter such orders and take such other action as may be necessary and
appropriate to preserve the confidentiality of trade secrets, consistent with
the requirements of the Federal Rules of Criminal and Civil Procedure,
the Federal Rules of Evidence, and all other applicable laws." 18
U.S.C. § 1835. The government has the right to an interlocutory appeal
from an order authorizing a trade secret’s disclosure. Id.; see also United

States v. Ye, 436 F.3d 1117, 1120-24 (9th Cir. 2006) (discussing extent
and limits to interlocutory appeal 18 U.S.C. § 1835 and when mandamus
relief in an EEA discovery dispute may be ordered under 28 U.S.C.
§ 1651).
Prosecutors are therefore strongly encouraged to move the court to
take such actions as necessary and appropriate to prevent the trade
secret’s harmful disclosure. There are a number of ways to accomplish
this. Protective orders can limit the amount or degree of disclosure in
discovery, permit in camera review by the court prior to disclosure, allow
or require the submission of redacted documents and sealed exhibits, and
allow or require the use of courtroom video monitors to display
documents to counsel, the court, and the jury, but not to the public. See,
e.g., Burlington N.R.R. Co. v. Omaha Pub. Power Dist., 888 F.2d 1228,
1232 (8th Cir. 1989) (reviewing contract in camera without revealing
trade secret); Canal Refining Co. v. Corrallo, 616 F. Supp. 1035, 1045
(D.D.C. 1985) (granting plaintiff’s motion for protective order to seal
separate portions of affidavit designated as exhibit); Skolnick v. Altheimer
& Gray, 730 N.E. 2d 4, 14 (Ill. 2000) (holding that trial court abused its
discretion by refusing to modify a protective order that allowed parties to
designate information disclosed in discovery as “confidential”).
The use of protective orders was endorsed in United States v. Hsu,
155 F.3d 189, 197 (3d Cir. 1998). In the district court, the government
moved under 18 U.S.C. § 1835 and Fed. R. Crim. P. 16(d)(1) for a
protective order to limit the government’s production of documents used
in the sting operation to redacted copies of documents relating to the
trade secrets at issue. United States v. Hsu, 982 F. Supp. 1022, 1023
(E.D. Pa. 1997). The defendants wanted unredacted copies, but were
willing to stipulate that they would use the documents only in the
criminal litigation and would return or destroy the documents at the
case’s end. The district court agreed with the defendants’ need for
unredacted documents. Id. at 1029-30.
On the government’s interlocutory appeal, the Third Circuit held that
18 U.S.C. § 1835 clearly demonstrates Congress’s intent to protect the
confidentiality of trade secrets to the fullest extent possible under the law.
Hsu, 155 F.3d at 197. While recognizing that such protection does not
abrogate criminal defendants’ constitutional and statutory rights, the
court held that the government’s proposed order to produce only redacted
copies of the targeted documents did not violate the defendants’
constitutional rights because “a defendant’s culpability for a charge of
attempt depends only on ‘the circumstances as he believes them to be,’
not as they really are,” and the actual trade secret documents were

irrelevant to that inquiry. Id. at 203. Because the indictment did not
charge a completed theft, the Third Circuit refrained from addressing the
district court’s conclusion that in a case charging a completed offense,
actual trade secrets must be disclosed to defendants. The Third Circuit
characterized this question as “complex,” noting that the EEA’s definition
of trade secret “raises an issue as to whether the information or formula
itself is in fact material to the existence of the trade secret.” Id. at n.15.
Thus, the limits of the government’s ability to restrict disclosure in a
criminal case concerning a completed offense have not yet been addressed.
As to the defendants’ claim that they needed to see the trade secrets
to prepare their other defenses, including entrapment and outrageous
government conduct, the Third Circuit skeptically remanded these issues
to the district court. Id. at 205. On remand, the district court held that
the defendants were not entitled to receive unredacted trade secret
documents under Fed. R. Crim. P. 16(a)(1)(C), and found the unredacted
documents to be irrelevant to the defenses of entrapment and outrageous
government conduct. United States v. Hsu, 185 F.R.D. 192, 198 n.19
(E.D. Penn. 1999). Just as a drug defendant needs no access to the drugs
to allege entrapment, neither does an EEA defendant need access to the
trade secrets to do the same. Id.
The court similarly rejected the defendants’ arguments for full
disclosure based on the defenses of document integrity and chain of
custody. Id. at 199 (concluding that those defenses could “be resolved at
a later date without the defense viewing the redacted information ... just
as chain of custody questions in drug or gun prosecutions can be resolved
without having to touch the objects themselves” as well as the claims that
the government and Bristol-Meyers waived the confidentiality of the trade
secrets when they showed the documents voluntarily during the sting
operation).
Finally, the court disagreed that the unredacted documents could help
the defendants prove that the documents’ information was in the public
domain. After in camera review by a court-appointed technical advisor
who had taken an oath of confidentiality, the court concluded that the
largest category of redactions, consisting of “specific examples of
experimental conditions,” satisfied the statutory definition of a trade
secret contained in 18 U.S.C. § 1839(3). After reviewing this category of
redactions in camera and consulting with the expert, the court held that
the redactions were proper to avoid disclosure of trade secrets. Id. at 200.
The court did, however, order the disclosure of certain redacted
information that fell outside the EEA’s definition of a trade secret. Id.

Taken together, the appellate and trial courts’ opinions in Hsu suggest
that courts will recognize and respect Congress’s directive to preserve the
confidentiality of trade secrets throughout the criminal process.
Before trial, the defense has no right to take depositions of the
government’s expert witnesses to determine what the government will
claim is a trade secret and why. See United States v. Ye, 436 F.3d 1117
(9th Cir. 2006).
During trial, courts can limit the public disclosure of information
without violating the defendant’s right to a public trial under the Sixth
Amendment. The right to a public criminal trial is not absolute and may
be limited in certain circumstances. See Richmond Newspapers, Inc. v.
Virginia, 448 U.S. 555, 599-600 (1980) (Stewart, J. concurring); see also
Gannett v. DePasquale, 443 U.S. 368, 419-33 (1979) (Blackmun, J.,
concurring in part and dissenting in part) (tracing the history of the right
to a public trial and citing cases where that right has been limited); State
ex rel. La Crosse Tribune v. Circuit Court, 340 N.W.2d 460, 466-67
(Wis. 1983) (discussing court’s inherent power to limit the public nature
of trials).
Before requesting that a courtroom be sealed, prosecutors should
comply with the procedures in the federal regulations and Department of
Justice guidelines requiring the Deputy Attorney General’s prior approval.
See 28 C.F.R. § 50.9; USAM 9-5.150. The regulations create a strong
presumption against sealing courtrooms and provide for such action “only
when a closed proceeding is plainly essential to the interests of justice.”
28 C.F.R. § 50.9. A prosecutor who wants to close a judicial proceeding
in a case or matter under the supervision of the Criminal Division should
contact the Criminal Division’s Policy and Statutory Enforcement Unit,
Office of Enforcement Operations at (202) 305-4023. In cases or matters
supervised outside of the Criminal Division, the prosecutor should contact
the supervising division. USAM 9-5.150.
For a helpful discussion of the use of protective orders in civil cases
and a collection of relevant cases, see 3 Roger M. Milgrim, Milgrim on
Trade Secrets § 14.02[5]-[7].
IV.D.3. Extraterritoriality
Federal criminal laws are generally presumed not to apply to conduct
outside the United States or its territories unless Congress indicates
otherwise. See, e.g., United States v. Corey, 232 F.3d 1166, 1170 (9th
Cir. 2000). Congress made an exception for the EEA. The EEA expressly
applies to conduct outside the United States if (1) the offender is a citizen

or permanent resident alien of the United States, or an organization
organized under the laws of the United States or a State or political
subdivision thereof; or (2) an act in furtherance of the offense was
committed in the United States. 18 U.S.C. § 1837.
IV.D.4. Department of Justice Oversight

Before Congress passed the EEA, the Attorney General promised that
all EEA prosecutions during the EEA’s first five years would be approved
by the Attorney General, the Deputy Attorney General, or the Assistant
Attorney General of the Criminal Division. This requirement was codified
at 28 C.F.R. § 0.64-5 and applied to the filing of complaints, indictments,
and civil proceedings, but not to search warrant applications or other
investigative measures.
The approval requirement for § 1832 prosecutions lapsed after the
five-year period expired on October 11, 2001, so federal prosecutors may
now prosecute 18 U.S.C. § 1832 offenses without prior approval.
However, the Attorney General strongly urges consultation with the
Computer Crime and Intellectual Property Section (CCIPS) before filing
§ 1832 charges because of CCIPS’s experience in handling these complex
cases and its access to valuable information and resources. CCIPS can be
reached at (202) 514-1026.
In contrast, the Attorney General renewed the prior approval
requirement for initiating prosecutions under 18 U.S.C. § 1831. Approval
must be obtained from the Assistant Attorney General for the Criminal
Division, through the Counterespionage Section. USAM 9-2.400,
9-59.000. The Counterespionage Section can be reached at (202) 514-
1187..
IV.E. Penalties
IV.E.1. Statutory Penalties
IV.E.1.a. Imprisonment and Fines
Reflecting the more serious nature of economic espionage sponsored
by a foreign government, the maximum sentence for a defendant
convicted under 18 U.S.C. § 1831 is 15 years’ imprisonment and a fine
of $500,000 or twice the monetary gain or loss, or both, whereas the
maximum sentence for a defendant convicted under 18 U.S.C. § 1832 is
10 years’ imprisonment and a fine of $250,000 or twice the monetary
gain or loss, or both. See 18 U.S.C. §§ 1831(a)(4), 1832(a)(5). Similarly,

organizations can be fined up to $10 million for violating § 1831 or $5
million for violating § 1832. 18 U.S.C. §§ 1831(b), 1832(b).
IV.E.1.b. Criminal Forfeiture

The EEA provides criminal forfeiture. It directs that the sentencing
court
shall order ... that the person forfeit to the United States—
(1) any property constituting, or derived from, any proceeds the
person obtained, directly or indirectly, as the result of such
violation; and
(2) any of the person's property used, or intended to be used, in
any manner or part, to commit or facilitate the commission of
such violation, if the court in its discretion so determines, taking
into consideration the nature, scope, and proportionality of the
use of the property in the offense.
18 U.S.C. § 1834(a). Forfeiture of proceeds is mandatory, while forfeiture
of instrumentalities is discretionary. 18 U.S.C. § 1834(a)(1)-(2).
As a procedural matter, the government should allege forfeiture in the
indictment. For additional discussion of forfeiture in intellectual property
infringement cases, see Chapter VIII of this Manual.
IV.E.1.c. Restitution
The Mandatory Victims Restitution Act of 1996 (“MVRA”), codified
at 18 U.S.C. § 3663A, requires the court to order restitution in all
convictions for, among others, any “offense against property, including
any offense committed by fraud and deceit,” and “in which an identifiable
victim or victims has suffered a physical injury or pecuniary loss.” See 18
U.S.C. § 3663A(c)(1)(A)(ii), (B). For cases involving “damage to or loss
or destruction of property of a victim of the offense,” the MVRA requires
that the defendant return the property to its owner. If return of the
property is “impossible, impracticable, or inadequate,” the MVRA requires
the defendant to pay an amount equal to the property’s value on the date
of its damage, destruction, or loss, or its value at the time of sentencing,
whichever is greater, less the value of any part of the property that is
returned. See 18 U.S.C. § 3663A(b)(1).
The theft of trade secrets meets § 3663A’s definition of property
offenses that require restitution. Section 3663A’s legislative history
indicates that restitution is required in “violent crimes, property and fraud
crimes under title 18, product tampering, and certain drug crimes.” S.

Rep. No. 104-179, at 14 (1995), reprinted in 1996 U.S.C.C.A.N. 924,
927 (emphasis added). The misappropriation of trade secrets is essentially
the theft of property. Cf. Carpenter v. United States, 484 U.S. 19, 28
(1987) (holding that newspaper's confidential information qualified as
“property”); Matter of Miller , 156 F.3d 598, 602 (5th Cir. 1998)
(defining misappropriation of proprietary information as the “wrongful
taking and use of another’s property”); Westinghouse Elec. Corp. v. U.S.
Nuclear Regulatory Comm’n, 555 F.2d 82, 95 (3d Cir. 1977) (describing
“property in the form of its proprietary information”). Accordingly, the
theft of trade secrets should qualify as an “offense against property” under
§ 3663A for which the defendant must make restitution.
As noted, the mandatory restitution statute also applies to any offense
where “an identifiable victim has suffered a physical injury or a pecuniary
loss.” 18 U.S.C. § 3663A(c)(1)(B). Restitution must be ordered “to each
victim in the full amount of each victim’s losses as determined by the
court and without consideration of the economic circumstances of the
defendant.” 18 U.S.C. § 3664(f)(1)(A). Thus, to the extent a court has
already calculated the loss or injury actually suffered by a victim of trade
secret theft in determining the offense level under U.S.S.G. § 2B1.1, the
same amount could be used for restitution under the MVRA. For
additional discussion of restitution in intellectual property infringement
cases, see Chapter VIII of this Manual.
IV.E.2. Sentencing Guidelines

Issues concerning the sentencing guidelines are covered in Chapter
VIII of this Manual.
IV.F. Other Charges to Consider

When confronted with a case that implicates confidential proprietary
information, prosecutors may wish to consider the following crimes in
addition to or in lieu of EEA charges:
• Disclosing government trade secrets, 18 U.S.C. § 1905, which
punishes government employees and contractors who, inter alia,
“divulge” or “disclose” government trade secrets. United States v.
Wallington, 889 F.2d 573 (5th Cir. 1989) (affirming defendant’s
conviction for running background checks on several people
whom the defendant’s friend suspected of dealing drugs).
Defendants face a fine, a year in prison, and removal from office
or employment.

• Unlawfully accessing or attempting to access a protected
computer to obtain information, 18 U.S.C. § 1030(a)(2), (b), for
access to a computer used for interstate or foreign commerce or
by or for a financial institution or the United States government,
18 U.S.C. § 1030(e)(2). The term “information” is to be
construed broadly and need not be confidential or secret in
nature. S. Rep. No. 104-357, pt. IV(1)(B), at 7 (1996).
“‘[O]btaining information’ includes merely reading it. There is no
requirement that the information be copied or transported.” Id.
A violation is a misdemeanor unless it was committed for
commercial advantage or private financial gain, to further any
tortious or criminal act, or if the information’s value exceeds
$5,000. See 18 U.S.C. § 1030(c)(2).
• Unlawfully accessing or attempting to access a protected
computer to commit fraud, 18 U.S.C. §1030(a)(4), (b), where the
defendant “knowingly and with intent to defraud,” accessed or
attempted to access a protected computer without authorization,
or in excess of authorized access, and by means of such conduct
furthered the intended fraud and obtained anything of value,
“unless the object of the fraud and the thing obtained” was
computer time worth less than $5,000. What constitutes “fraud”
under § 1030(a)(4) is defined broadly. See 132 Cong. Rec. 7,189
(1986) (“The acts of ‘fraud’ that we are addressing in proposed
section 1030(a)(4) are essentially thefts in which someone uses
a [protected computer] to wrongly obtain something of value
from another”); see also Shurgard Storage Centers, Inc., v.
Safeguard Self Storage, Inc. 119 F. Supp. 2d 1121, 1126 (W.D.
Wash. 2000) (holding that the word “fraud” as used in
§ 1030(a)(4) simply means “wrongdoing” and does not require
proof of the common-law elements of fraud). EEA charges, which
generally involve some level of deception and knowing
wrongdoing, will often qualify as fraud. Harming a victim’s
“goodwill and reputation” provides a defendant with something
of “value.” See, e.g., In re America Online, Inc., 168 F. Supp. 2d
1359, 1380 (S.D. Fla. 2001).
• Mail or wire fraud, 18 U.S.C. §§ 1341, 1343, 1346, for schemes
that use the mail or wires to defraud another of property or to
deprive them of the intangible right of honest services, which
often cover the misappropriation of confidential and proprietary
information. See, e.g., United States v. Martin, 228 F.3d 1, 16-19
(1st Cir. 2000) (affirming mail and wire fraud convictions for

schemes to obtain confidential business information under both
theories).
First, a scheme to defraud another of property includes intangible
property, such as confidential, nonpublic, prepublication, and
proprietary information. Carpenter v. United States, 484 U.S. 19
(1987) (holding that financial journalist’s trading on information
gathered for his newspaper column defrauded the newspaper of
its right to the exclusive use of the information); United States v.
Wang, 898 F. Supp. 758, 760 (D. Colo. 1995) (holding that 18
U.S.C. § 1343 applies not just to physical goods, wares, or
merchandise, but also to confidential computer files transmitted
by wire); United States v. Seidlitz, 589 F.2d 152 (4th Cir. 1978)
(holding that data the defendant downloaded from his former
employer’s computer system qualified as property under the wire
fraud statute and a trade secret).
Second, a scheme to defraud may include the defendant’s
deprivation of the victim’s intangible right to the defendant’s
honest services, under 18 U.S.C. § 1346. Under § 1346, the
defendant is charged not with fraudulently obtaining proprietary
information, but rather with breaching his fiduciary duty of
loyalty to his employer by misappropriating the proprietary
information. Id. The government need not, however, prove that
the defendant realized financial gain from the theft or attempted
theft. See, e.g., United States v. Kelly, 507 F. Supp. 495 (E.D. Pa.
1981) (holding that a private employee may be convicted for mail
fraud for failing to render honest and faithful services to his
employer if he devises a scheme to deceive, mislead, or conceal
material information, in case where the defendants violated their
employer’s policy by extensively using the employer’s computer
facilities for their own gain and had attempted to conceal their
actions from the employer). Section 1346 covers all employees,
not just those who work for a government. See United States v.
Martin, 228 F. 3d 1, 17 (1st Cir. 2000); United States v. Frost,
125 F.3d 346, 365 (6th Cir. 1997).
Mail and wire fraud convictions stemming from the theft of trade
secrets have been upheld even when charges under the National
Transportation of Stolen Property Act, 18 U.S.C. §§ 2314-15, see
infra, were rejected. See, e.g., Abbott v. United States, 239 F.2d
310 (5th Cir. 1956) (affirming § 1341 conviction, but finding
insufficient evidence to sustain conviction under 18 U.S.C.
§ 2314 because government failed to prove market value of map

or how or who caused the map to be transported). The mail and
wire fraud statute’s broader scope results from its concern for the
theft of “property” generally, as compared to the NTSP Act’s
focus on the arguably narrower class of “goods, wares and
merchandise” used in § 2314 and § 2315. See, e.g., Wang, 898 F.
Supp. at 760 (holding that 18 U.S.C. § 1343 applies to items
other than physical goods, wares, and merchandise).
For a more detailed discussion of 18 U.S.C. §§ 1341 and 1343,
refer to Title 9, Chapter 43 of the U.S. Attorneys’ Manual, and
contact the Fraud Section of the Criminal Division at (202) 514-
7023 for further information and guidance.
• Criminal copyright infringement, 17 U.S.C. § 506 and 18 U.S.C.
§ 2319, when the defendant stole and reproduced or distributed
copyrighted information. The Copyright Act does not preempt
trade secret or related charges if the defendant stole confidential
copyrighted material. See Wang, 898 F. Supp. at 760-61 (holding
that Copyright Act did not preempt wire fraud prosecution for
stealing confidential copyrighted material); Association of Am.
Med. Colls. v. Princeton Review, Inc., 332 F. Supp. 2d 11, 22-24
(D.D.C. 2004) (analyzing issue and collecting cases).
• Interstate transportation and receipt of stolen property or goods,
the International Transportation of Stolen Property Act
(hereinafter “ITSP Act”), which punishes “[w]hoever transports,
transmits, or transfers in interstate or foreign commerce any
goods, wares, merchandise, securities or money, of the value of
$5,000 or more, knowing the same to have been stolen, converted
or taken by fraud,” 18 U.S.C. § 2314, and “[w]hoever receives,
possesses, conceals, stores, barters, sells, or disposes” stolen
property that has crossed a state or federal boundary after being
stolen, 18 U.S.C. § 2315.
At least one court has held that the ITSP Act does not apply to
the theft of trade secrets or other proprietary and confidential
information unless the information is of a type bought, sold, or
transferred in a legitimate or black market. In an unpublished
district court opinion, the court held that “goods,” “wares,” and
“merchandise” do not include every item “related to commerce,”
but rather only “those things that are bought and sold in the
marketplace.” United States v. Kwan, No. 02 CR.241 (DAB),
2003 WL 22973515, at *6 (S.D.N.Y. Dec. 17, 2003). Because
the government had not proved that the victim’s travel industry
“proprietary information includ[ing] hotel contact lists, hotel rate

sheets, travel consortium contact lists, travel consortium rate
sheets, and cruise operator rate sheets,” were the type of goods,
wares, or merchandise that were ever bought, sold, or traded in a
market, “legal or otherwise,” the Kwan court vacated the
defendant’s ITSP conviction. Id. at *1, *6.
Assuming that particular stolen items qualify as goods, wares, or
merchandise, the courts agree that sections 2314 and 2315 apply
when a defendant steals a tangible object—for example, a piece of
paper or a computer disk—that contains intellectual property.
See, e.g., United States v. Martin, 228 F.3d 1, 14-15 (1st Cir.
2000); United States v. Walter, 43 M.J. 879, 884 (N.M. Ct.
Crim. App. 1996) (“[C]ourts will include intangible property
under the [ITSP] act when tied to tangible property and when the
intangible property possesses some business value.”); United
States v. Brown, 925 F.2d 1301, 1308 n.14 (10th Cir. 1991)
(holding that even though § 2314 does not apply to theft of
intangible property through intangible means, § 2314 would
apply to the theft of a piece of paper bearing a chemical formula,
even if the paper’s intrinsic value were insignificant and the item’s
overall value was almost wholly derived from the intangible
intellectual property contained in the chemical formula) (citing
United States v. Stegora, 849 F.2d 291, 292 (8th Cir. 1988))
(dictum); United States v. Lyons, 992 F.2d 1029, 1033 (10th Cir.
1993) (holding that the defendant’s theft of “software in
conjunction with the theft of tangible hardware distinguishes this
case from Brown. Brown recognizes that the theft of intangible
intellectual property in conjunction with the theft of tangible
property falls within the ambit of § 2314.”); United States v.
Lester, 282 F.2d 750 (3d Cir. 1960) (holding that originals and
copies of geophysical maps made by defendants on the victim’s
own copying equipment, with the victim’s own supplies, are
covered under § 2314); United States v. Seagraves, 265 F.2d 876
(3d Cir. 1959) (facts similar to Lester ); United States v.
Greenwald, 479 F.2d 320 (6th Cir. 1973) (original documents
containing trade secrets about fire retardation processes); cf.
Hancock v. Decker, 379 F.2d 552, 553 (5th Cir. 1967) (holding
that state conviction for theft of 59 copies of a computer program
was supported by similar federal court rulings under § 2314)
(citing Seagraves, 265 F.2d at 876).
Courts are divided, however, on whether the ITSP Act applies to
a defendant who transfers intangible property through intangible
means, such as electronic data transmission or copying from one

piece of paper to another. One view is that it does not. In Brown,
the defendant was charged with transporting (by means
unknown) the source code of a computer program from Georgia
to New Mexico, but the government could not prove that the
defendant had copied the source code onto the victim’s diskettes
or that he possessed any of the victim’s tangible property. Brown,
925 F.2d at 1305-09. The Tenth Circuit held that 18
U.S.C. § 2314 did not cover “[p]urely intellectual property,” such
as the source code appropriated by the defendant: “It can be
represented physically, such as through writing on a page, but the
underlying, intellectual property itself, remains intangible” and
thus “cannot constitute goods, wares, merchandise, securities or
moneys which have been stolen, converted or taken within the
meaning of §§ 2314 or 2315.” Id. at 1307-08. In reaching its
decision, the court relied on Dowling v. United States, 473 U.S.
207 (1985), which held that property that is “stolen” only in the
sense that it is copyright infringing does not fall under the ITSP
Act. See also supra Chapter II.F. (discussing application of
Dowling to charging 18 U.S.C. § 2314 for intellectual property
crimes).
The Second Circuit reached the opposite result in United States
v. Bottone , 365 F.2d 389 (2d Cir. 1966), which pre-dates
Dowling. The defendants in Bottone removed papers describing
manufacturing processes from their place of employment and
made copies outside the office. They returned the originals and
then transported the copies in interstate commerce. In upholding
defendants’ convictions under 18 U.S.C. § 2314, Judge Friendly
stated that:
when the physical form of the stolen goods is secondary in
every respect to the matter recorded in them, the
transformation of the information in the stolen papers into a
tangible object never possessed by the original owner should
be deemed immaterial. It would offend common sense to hold
that these defendants fall outside the statute simply because,
in efforts to avoid detection, their confederates were at pains
to restore the original papers to [their employer] and
transport only copies or notes, although an oversight would
have brought them within it.
365 F.2d at 393-94.
More recent cases have adopted similar reasoning, notwithstanding
Dowling and Brown , approving of ITSP prosecutions for theft of

intangible property by intangible means. See, e.g., United States v. Kwan,
No. 02 CR.241 (DAB), 2003 WL 21180401, *3 (S.D.N.Y. 2003)
(denying the defendant's motion to dismiss, because in determining what
would be considered “goods, wares, or merchandise,” the Second Circuit
“long considered stolen items’ commercial nature to be more significant
than their tangibility.”); United States v. Farraj, 142 F. Supp. 2d 484, 488
(S.D.N.Y. 2001) (“The text of § 2314 makes no distinction between
tangible and intangible property, or between electronic and other manner
of transfer across state lines.”); United States v. Riggs, 739 F. Supp. 414,
420-21 (N.D. Ill. 1990) (rejecting defendant’s “disingenuous argument
that he merely transferred electronic impulses [albeit impulses containing
computerized text files belonging to Bell South] across state lines. This
court sees no reason to hold differently simply because [defendant] stored
the information inside computers instead of printing it out on paper. In
either case, the information is in a transferrable, accessible, even salable
form.”).
• State and local charges. Many states have laws that specifically
address the theft of information. If a state lacks a specific trade-
secret law, its general theft statutes may apply.

V.
Digital Millennium
Copyright Act—
17 U.S.C. §§ 1201-1205
V.A. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185

V.A.1. DMCA's Background and Purpose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
Circumvention vs. Trafficking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
V.A.2.a. Access Controls vs. Copy/Use Controls . . . . . . . 187
V.A.2.b. Circumvention vs. Trafficking in Circumvention
Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
Copyright Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
V.B. Elements of the Anti-Circumvention and Anti-Trafficking
Provisions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
V.B.1. Circumventing Access Controls— 17 U.S.C. §§ 1201(a)(1)
and 1204 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
V.B.1.b. Technological Measures That Effectively Control Access
(“Access Control”) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
V.B.1.c. To a Copyrighted Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
Prohibition to Apply . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
V.B.1.e. Regulatory Exemptions to Liability Under § 1201(a)(1)
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
Services—17 U.S.C. §§ 1201(a)(2) and 1204 . . . . . . 200
183
V.B.2.a. Trafficking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
V.B.2.c.1. Primarily Designed or Produced . . . . . . . . 203
Than Circumvention . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
V.B.2.c.3. Knowingly Marketed for Circumvention . . 204
V.B.3. Trafficking in Tools, Devices, and Services to Circumvent
Copy Controls—17 U.S.C. §§ 1201(b)(1) and 1204 . 205
V.B.3.b. Technological Measure That Effectively Protects a Right
of a Copyright Owner Under This Title (“Copy Control”) 206
V.B.4. Alternate § 1201(b) Action—Trafficking in Certain Analog
Videocassette Recorders and Camcorders . . . . . . . . . 208
V.B.5. Falsifying, Altering, or Removing Copyright Management
Information—17 U.S.C. § 1202 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
V.C. Defenses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
V.C.1. Statute of Limitations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
V.C.2. Librarian of Congress Regulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
V.C.3. Certain Nonprofit Entities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
V.C.4. Information Security Exemption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
Programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
V.C.6. Encryption Research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
V.C.7. Restricting Minors' Access to Internet . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
V.C.8. Protection of Personally Identifying Information . . . . 215
V.C.9. Security Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
V.C.10. Constitutionality of the DMCA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216

V.C.10.a. Congress's Constitutional Authority to Enact § 1201 of
the DMCA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
V.C.10.b. The First Amendment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
V.C.10.b.i. Facial Challenges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
V.C.10.b.ii. “As Applied” Challenges . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
V.C.10.c. Vagueness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
V.C.10.d. Fair Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
V.D. Penalties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
V.A. Introduction
V.A.1. DMCA's Background and Purpose
With the advent of digital media and the Internet as a means to
distribute such media, large-scale digital copying and distribution of
copyrighted material became easy and inexpensive. In response to this
development, and to prevent large-scale piracy of digital content over the
Internet, in 1997 the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO)
responded with two treaties, the Copyright Treaty, and the Performances
and Phonograms Treaty, to prohibit pirates from defeating the digital
locks that copyright owners use to protect their digital content from
unauthorized access or copying. Specifically, Article 11 of the WIPO
Copyright Treaty prescribes that contracting states
shall provide adequate legal protection and effective legal remedies
against the circumvention of effective technological measures that are
used by authors in connection with the exercise of their rights under
this Treaty or the Berne Convention and that restricts acts, in respect
of their works, which are not authorized by the authors concerned or
permitted by law.
See WIPO Copyright Treaty, Apr. 12, 1997, S. Treaty Doc. No. 105-17,
art. 11 (1997); WIPO Performances and Phonograms Treaty, Apr. 12,
1997, S. Treaty Doc. No. 105-17, art. 18 (1997) (same with respect to
performers or producers of phonograms). The United States signed these
treaties on April 12, 1997, and ratified them on October 21, 1998. See
144 Cong. Rec. 27,708 (1998) (Resolution of Ratification of Treaties).
To implement these treaties, Congress enacted Title I of the Digital
Millennium Copyright Act (DMCA) on October 28, 1998, with the twin
V. Digital Millennium Copyright Act 185

goals of protecting copyrighted works from piracy and promoting
electronic commerce. See H.R. Rep. No. 105-551 (II), at 23 (1998); S.
Rep. No. 105-190, at 8 (1998); see also Universal City Studios, Inc. v.
Corley, 273 F.3d 429, 454 (2d Cir. 2001); United States v. Elcom, Ltd.,
203 F. Supp. 2d 1111, 1129-30 (N.D. Cal. 2002). Congress accomplished
these goals by enacting prohibitions relating to the circumvention of
copyright protection systems as set forth in 17 U.S.C. § 1201, and the
integrity of copyright management information pursuant to 17 U.S.C.
§ 1202.
Criminal enforcement has largely focused on violations of the anti-
circumvention and anti-trafficking prohibitions in 17 U.S.C. § 1201, and
thus these are the main focus of this chapter. For a more complete
discussion of the provisions that protect the integrity of copyright
management information, as set forth in 17 U.S.C. § 1202, see Section
V.B.5. of this Chapter.

Circumvention vs. Trafficking
Section 1201 contains three prohibitions. First, it prohibits
“circumvent[ing] a technological measure that effectively controls access
to a work protected under this [copyright] title.” 17 U.S.C.
§ 1201(a)(1)(A). Second, it prohibits the manufacture of or trafficking in
products or technology designed to circumvent a technological measure
that controls access to a copyrighted work. 17 U.S.C. § 1201(a)(2). Third,
it prohibits the manufacture of or trafficking in products or technology
designed to circumvent measures that protect a copyright owner's rights
under the Copyright Act. 17 U.S.C. § 1201(b). As noted more fully in
Section V.C. of this Chapter, the DMCA provides several exceptions.
Title I of the DMCA creates a separate private right of action on
behalf of “[a]ny person injured by a violation of section 1201 or 1202” in
federal district court. 17 U.S.C. § 1203(a). These prohibitions are
criminally enforceable against any person who violates them “willfully and
for purposes of commercial advantage or private financial gain,” excluding
nonprofit libraries, archives, educational institutions, and public
broadcasting entities as defined by 17 U.S.C. § 118(f). 17 U.S.C.
§ 1204(a), (b). (At this writing, the reference to § 118(g) at § 1204(b) has
not been amended to indicate the provision's current location at § 118(f).)
Although civil actions do not require the claimant to establish that a
DMCA violation was “willful” or for “commercial advantage or private
financial gain,” the substantive law defining violations of §§ 1201 or 1202

is generally the same for both criminal and civil actions. Thus, published
decisions relating to whether a violation of these DMCA sections has
occurred in civil cases are instructive in criminal cases.
V.A.2.a. Access Controls vs. Copy/Use Controls

To understand the technical requirements of the DMCA's criminal
prohibitions, it is first important to understand what technology the
DMCA generally applies to, and what the DMCA outlaws. Congress
intended Title I of the DMCA to apply to copyrighted works that are in
digital format and thus could easily and inexpensively be accessed,
reproduced, and distributed over the Internet without the copyright
owner's authorization. The DMCA therefore applies to what one might
call a “digital lock”—a technological measure that copyright owners use
to control who may see, hear, or use copyrighted works stored in digital
form. These digital locks are commonly called either “access controls” or
“copy controls,” depending on what function the digital lock is designed
to control.
The DMCA states that a digital lock, or “technological measure” (as
the DMCA refers to such locks), constitutes an access control “if the
measure, in the ordinary course of its operation, requires the application
of information, or a process or a treatment, with the authority of the
copyright owner, to gain access to the work.” 17 U.S.C. § 1201(a)(3)(B).
Thus, as the name suggests, an access control prevents users from
accessing a copyrighted work without the author's permission. For
example, a technology that permits access to a newspaper article on an
Internet Web site only by those who pay a fee or have a password would
be considered an access control. See S. Rep. No. 105-190, at 11-12
(1998). In this example, the author (i.e., copyright owner) uses such fees
or password requirements as access controls that allow the author to
distinguish between those who have the author's permission to read the
online article from those who do not. If a user does not pay the fee or
enter the password, then the user cannot lawfully read the article or
otherwise access it.
The DMCA also prescribes that a digital lock constitutes a copy
control “if the measure, in the ordinary course of its operation, prevents,
restricts, or otherwise limits the exercise of a right of a copyright owner
under this title.” 17 U.S.C. § 1201(b)(2)(B). The rights of a copyright
owner include the exclusive rights to reproduce the copyrighted work, to
prepare derivative works based upon the copyrighted work, to distribute
copies by sale or otherwise, to perform the copyrighted work publicly, and
to display the copyrighted work publicly. 17 U.S.C. § 106. In other words,

such a digital lock prevents someone from making an infringing use of a
copyrighted work after the user has already accessed the work. See S. Rep.
No. 105-190, at 11-12 (1998); Universal City Studios, Inc. v. Corley, 273
F.3d 429, 441 (2d Cir. 2001). Although some courts will refer to such
digital locks as “usage controls” because such locks conceivably seek to
control all infringing uses, in practice, these digital locks typically control
unauthorized copying of the work—hence the name “copy control.”
To illustrate an example of a copy control, consider again the online
newspaper article referenced above. A technological measure on an
Internet Web site that permits a user to read (i.e., access) the online
article but prevents the viewer from making a copy of the article once it
is accessed would be a copy control. See S. Rep. No. 105-190, at 11-12
(1998). Thus, access and copy controls are different kinds of digital locks
that are each designed to perform different functions. Whereas an access
control blocks access to the copyrighted work—such as a device that
permits access to an article on an Internet Web site only by those who
pay a fee or have a password—a copy control protects the copyright
itself—such as a device on the same Web site that prevents the viewer
from copying the article once it is accessed.
Although the DMCA's distinction between an “access control” and a
“copy control” appears straightforward in principle, courts are not always
consistent in how they characterize a particular protection technology. For
example, in the 1990s, the DVD industry developed the Content
Scramble System (CSS)—an encryption scheme incorporated into DVDs
that employs an algorithm configured by a set of “keys” to encrypt a
DVD's contents. For a DVD player to display a movie on a DVD encoded
with CSS, the DVD player must have the “player keys” and the algorithm
from the copyright owner. The Second Circuit characterized this CSS
technology as an “access control” because a DVD player with the proper
player keys and algorithm from the copyright owner “can display the
movie on a television or a computer screen, but does not give a viewer the
ability to use the copy function of the computer to copy the movie or to
manipulate the digital content.” Corley, 273 F.3d at 437. A district court
in the Northern District of California, however, viewed the same
technology as both an access control and a copy control. 321 Studios v.
Metro Goldwyn Mayer Studios, Inc., 307 F. Supp. 2d 1085, 1095 (N.D.
Cal. 2004). Accordingly, prosecutors should be careful how they
characterize technological controls as access or copy controls, and in some
instances it may even be advisable for prosecutors to characterize a
particular copyright protection system as both.

V.A.2.b. Circumvention vs. Trafficking in Circumvention Tools
Section 1201(a) of the DMCA proscribes two kinds of conduct
regarding access controls: 1) circumvention of access controls, 17 U.S.C.
§ 1201(a)(1), and 2) trafficking in technology primarily designed to
facilitate circumvention of access controls, 17 U.S.C. § 1201(a)(2). Both
of these prohibitions relating to access controls are discussed more fully
in Sections V.B.1. and V.B.2. of this Chapter.
Unlike § 1201(a), however, Congress did not ban the act of
circumventing copy controls. Instead, § 1201(b) only prohibits trafficking
in technology primarily designed to facilitate the circumvention of copy
controls. 17 U.S.C. § 1201(b)(1). Congress expressly chose not to prohibit
the circumvention of copy controls in the DMCA because circumventing
a copy control is essentially an act of copyright infringement that is
already covered by copyright law. S. Rep. No. 105-190, at 12 (1998).
Thus, § 1201(a)(1) (the “anti-circumvention provision”) prohibits the
actual use of circumvention technology to obtain access to a copyrighted
work without the copyright owner's authority. In contrast, §§ 1201(a)(2)
and 1201(b)(1) (the “anti-trafficking provisions”) focus on the trafficking
in circumvention technology, regardless of whether such technology
ultimately leads a third party to circumvent an access or copy control. See
Davidson & Assocs. v. Jung, 422 F.3d 630, 640 (8th Cir. 2005); Corley,
273 F.3d at 440-41. And with respect to the anti-trafficking provisions,
“although both sections prohibit trafficking in a circumvention
technology, the focus of § 1201(a)(2) is circumvention of technologies
designed to prevent access to a work, and the focus of § 1201(b)(1) is
circumvention of technologies designed to permit access to a work but
prevent copying of the work or some other act that infringes a copyright.”
Davidson, 422 F.3d at 640 (emphasis in original).
The following chart illustrates the distinction:
Access Copy
Circumventing § 1201(a)(1) No DMCA violation, but

potential copyright violation:
17 U.S.C. § 506;
18 U.S.C. § 2319
Trafficking § 1201(a)(2) § 1201(b)(1)

Copyright Law
Whereas copyright law focuses on “direct” infringement of a
copyrighted work, the DMCA focuses largely on the facilitation of
infringement through circumvention tools and services primarily designed
or produced to circumvent an access or copy control. In other words, the
DMCA represents a shift in focus from infringement to the tools of
infringers.
Before the DMCA was enacted, copyright law had only a limited
application to the manufacture or trafficking of tools designed to facilitate
copyright infringement. In 1984, the Supreme Court held that “the sale
of copying equipment, like the sale of other articles of commerce, does not
constitute contributory infringement if the product is widely used for
legitimate, unobjectionable purposes. Indeed, it need merely be capable
of substantial noninfringing uses.” Sony v. Universal City Studios, 464
U.S. 417, 442 (1984). Under this standard, a copy control circumvention
tool would not violate copyright law if it were “widely used for
legitimate ... purposes” or were merely “capable of substantial
noninfringing uses.” Id.
The DMCA shifts the focus from determining whether the
downstream use of equipment will be used for infringement, to
determining whether it was primarily designed to circumvent an access or
copy control—even if such equipment were ultimately capable of
substantial noninfringing uses. See 17 U.S.C. § 1201(a)(2)(A), (b)(1)(A).
For example, with respect to software primarily designed to circumvent
copy controls on DVDs, courts have held “that legal downstream use of
the copyrighted material by customers is not a defense to the software
manufacturer's violation of the provisions of § 1201(b)(1).” 321 Studios
v. Metro Goldwyn Mayer Studios, Inc., 307 F. Supp. 2d 1085, 1097-98
(N.D. Cal. 2004). Thus, although trafficking in circumvention technology
that is capable of substantial noninfringing uses may not constitute
copyright infringement, it may still violate the DMCA if such technology
is primarily designed to circumvent access or copy controls. See
RealNetworks, Inc. v. Streambox, Inc., No. 2:99CV02070, 2000 WL
127311, at *7 (W.D. Wash. Jan. 18, 2000).
The DMCA also added a new prohibition against circumventing
access controls, even if such circumvention does not constitute copyright
infringement. 17 U.S.C. § 1201(a)(1)(A). Prior to the DMCA, “the
conduct of circumvention [of access controls] was never before made
unlawful.” S. Rep. No. 105-190, at 12 (1998); cf. Chamberlain Group,

Inc. v. Skylink Techs., Inc., 381 F.3d 1178, 1195-96 (Fed. Cir. 2004). By
the same token, the DMCA does not contain a parallel prohibition against
the use—infringing or otherwise—of copyrighted works once a user has
access to the work. United States v. Elcom, 203 F. Supp. 2d 1111, 1121
(N.D. Cal. 2002) (holding that “circumventing use restrictions is not
unlawful” under the DMCA); cf. S. Rep. No. 105-190, at 12 (1998)
(“The copyright law has long forbidden copyright infringements, so no
new prohibition was necessary.”).
Although the DMCA “targets the circumvention of digital walls
guarding copyrighted material (and trafficking in circumvention tools),
[it] does not concern itself with the use of those materials after
circumvention has occurred.” Universal City Studios, Inc. v. Corley, 273
F.3d 429, 443 (2d Cir. 2001); cf. 321 Studios, 307 F. Supp. 2d at 1097
(holding that “the downstream uses of the [circumvention] software by
the customers of 321 [the manufacturer], whether legal or illegal, are not
relevant to determining whether 321 itself is violating [the DMCA]”). At
the same time, the DMCA also cautions that “[n]othing in this section
shall affect rights, remedies, limitations, or defenses to copyright
infringement, including fair use, under this title.” 17 U.S.C. § 1201(c)(1);
Elcom , 203 F. Supp. 2d at 1120 (“Congress did not ban the act of
circumventing the use restrictions ... because it sought to preserve the fair
use rights of persons who had lawfully acquired a work”). Thus, a criminal
defendant who has violated the DMCA by circumventing an access
control has not necessarily infringed a copyrighted work under copyright
law. Accordingly, prosecutors must apply traditional copyright law instead
of the DMCA to prosecute infringing uses of copyrighted works, including
the circumvention of copy controls. By the same token, to demonstrate
a violation of the DMCA, prosecutors need not establish copyright
infringement, nor even an intent to infringe copyrights.
In addition, unlike in a civil copyright claim, a victim's failure to
register its copyrighted work is not a bar to a DMCA action. See Section
V.B.1.c. of this Chapter.

Of the DMCA's five titles, the only one that need concern prosecutors
is Title I, which was codified at 17 U.S.C. §§ 1201-1205. The remaining
four titles concern neither criminal prosecutions nor those provisions of
the WIPO treaties that the DMCA was originally designed to implement.
Title II concerns the liability of Internet service providers for copyright
infringement over their networks. It amended the copyright code by
enacting a new § 512, which gives Internet service providers some

immunity in return for certain business practices, and requires them to
obey certain civil subpoenas to identify subscribers alleged to have
committed infringement. Section 512 does not, however, authorize
criminal subpoenas for the same purpose.
Title III of the DMCA clarifies that a lawful owner or lessee of a
computer may authorize an unaffiliated service provider to activate the
computer to service its hardware components. Title IV of the DMCA
mandates a study of distance learning; permits libraries and archives to
use the latest technology to preserve deteriorating manuscripts and other
works; and permits transmitting organizations to engage in ephemeral
reproductions, even if they need to violate the newly-added anti-
circumvention features in the process. Finally, Title V of the DMCA
extends the scope of the Copyright Act's protection to boat hulls.
For purposes of this manual, all references to the DMCA concern
Title I unless the context demands otherwise.
V.B. Elements of the Anti-Circumvention

and Anti-Trafficking Provisions
V.B.1. Circumventing Access Controls—17 U.S.C. §§ 1201(a)(1)
and 1204
The DMCA prohibits “circumvent[ing] a technological measure that
effectively controls access to a work protected under this [copyright]
title.” 17 U.S.C. § 1201(a)(1)(A). To prove a violation of 17 U.S.C.
§§ 1201(a)(1) and 1204, the government must establish that the
defendant
1. willfully
2. circumvented
3. a technological measure that effectively controls access (i.e., an
access control)
4. to a copyrighted work
5. for commercial advantage or private financial gain.
For purposes of the DMCA, prosecutors may look to the law of copyright
infringement for guidance regarding the “willfully” element and the
“commercial advantage” element. See Chapter II of this Manual.

Two recent cases from the Federal Circuit have read an additional
element into § 1201(a) offenses, holding that the unauthorized access
must also infringe or facilitate infringing a right protected by the
Copyright Act to establish violations of 17 U.S.C. § 1201(a)(1) and
(a)(2). Storage Technology Corp. v. Custom Hardware Eng'g &
Consulting, Inc. (“StorageTek”), 421 F.3d 1307, 1318 (Fed. Cir. 2005)
(quoting Chamberlain Group, Inc. v. Skylink Techs., Inc., 381 F.3d 1178,
1203 (Fed. Cir. 2004)). Although the results in Chamberlain and
StorageTek are consistent with Congress's intent that § 1201(a) apply to
measures controlling access to copyrighted works in digital form (see
Section V.B.1.d. of this Chapter), the courts reached those results using
a flawed analysis. Neither the DMCA's plain language nor its legislative
history permits circumvention of access controls or trafficking in access or
copy control circumvention devices to enable a fair use, as opposed to an
infringing use. The government has consistently argued that the DMCA
prohibits the manufacture and trafficking in all circumvention tools, even
those designed to facilitate fair use. See Section V.C.10.d. of this Chapter.
Additionally, unlike the regional circuits, the Federal Circuit does not
have the authority to develop a body of case law on copyright law that is
independent of the regional circuits. StorageTek, 421 F.3d at 1311;
Chamberlain, 381 F.3d at 1181. Accordingly, until a regional circuit
adopts the StorageTek-Chamberlain position regarding the additional
element to a § 1201(a) offense, prosecutors should oppose any attempts
to cite these decisions as meaningful precedent. If a defendant does
attempt to rely on these decisions, prosecutors are encouraged to contact
CCIPS at (202) 514-1026 for sample briefs and other guidance to oppose
them.
V.B.1.a. Circumventing
To “circumvent” an access control “means to descramble a scrambled
work, to decrypt an encrypted work, or otherwise to avoid, bypass,
remove, deactivate, or impair a technological measure, without the
authority of the copyright owner.” 17 U.S.C. § 1201(a)(3)(A). Thus, to
establish this element, the government first must prove that the defendant
1) bypassed a technological measure, and 2) did so without the authority
of the copyright owner.
“Circumvention requires either descrambling, decrypting, avoiding,
bypassing, removing, deactivating or impairing a technological measure
qua technological measure.” I.M.S. Inquiry Mgmt. Sys., Ltd. v. Berkshire
Info. Sys., Inc., 307 F. Supp. 2d 521, 532 (S.D.N.Y. 2004); see also
Egilman v. Keller & Heckman, 401 F. Supp. 2d 105, 113 (D.D.C. 2005)
(same); Universal City Studios, Inc. v. Corley, 273 F.3d 429, 443 (2d Cir.

2001). In other words, circumvention of an access control occurs when
someone bypasses the technological measure's gatekeeping capacity,
thereby precluding the copyright owner from determining which users
have permission to access the digital copyrighted work and which do not.
I.M.S., 307 F. Supp. 2d at 532.
For example, in Corley, the Second Circuit characterized CSS, the
scheme for encrypting digital movies stored on DVDs, as an access control
similar to “a lock on a homeowner's door, a combination of a safe, or a
security device attached to a store's products.” Corley, 273 F.3d at 452-
53. A licensed DVD player would be, in this metaphor, the homeowner's
key to the door. Id. The court held that defendant's computer program,
called “DeCSS,” circumvented CSS because it decrypted the CSS
algorithm to enable “anyone to gain access to a DVD movie without using
a [licensed] DVD player.” Id. at 453. DeCSS functions “like a skeleton
key that can open a locked door, a combination that can open a safe, or
a device that can neutralize a security device attached to a store's
products.” Id. Thus, using DeCSS to play a DVD on an unlicensed player
circumvents an access control because it undermines the copyright owner's
ability to control who can access the DVD movie. Id.
Circumvention does not occur, however, by properly using the
technological measure's gatekeeping capacity without the copyright
owner's permission. Egilman, 401 F. Supp. 2d at 113 (holding that the
definition of circumvention is missing “any reference to 'use' of a
technological measure without the authority of the copyright owner”); see
also I.M.S., 307 F. Supp. 2d at 533 (“Whatever the impropriety of
defendant's conduct, the DMCA and the anti-circumvention provision at
issue do not target this sort of activity.”). Using CSS as an example, a
defendant does not circumvent a DVD's access control, CSS, by merely
borrowing another person's licensed DVD player to view the DVD, even
if the defendant did not receive permission from the owner of the licensed
DVD player to “borrow” the player. No circumvention has occurred
because the defendant would not have bypassed CSS. In fact, he would
have viewed the DVD exactly as the copyright owner had intended—by
using a licensed DVD player. Courts have similarly held that a defendant
who without authorization uses a valid password to access a password-
protected website containing copyrighted works does not engage in
circumvention because the defendant used an authorized password rather
than disabled the access control (here, the password protection
mechanism). See Egilman, 401 F. Supp. 2d at 113-14; I.M.S., 307 F.
Supp. 2d at 531-33. In this example, other charges might be available if
the defendant obtained information from a protected computer. I.M.S.,

307 F. Supp. 2d at 524-26 (discussing possible violation of the Computer
Fraud and Abuse Act, 18 U.S.C. § 1030(a)).
In addition, for there to be a circumvention pursuant to
§ 1201(a)(3)(A), the circumvention must occur “without the authority of
the copyright owner.” 17 U.S.C. § 1201(a)(3)(A). A defendant who
decrypts or avoids an access control measure with the copyright owner's
authority has not committed a “circumvention” within the meaning of the
statute.
The fact that a purchaser has the right to use a purchased product
does not mean that the copyright owner has authorized the purchaser to
circumvent the product's access controls. For instance, a purchaser of a
CSS-encrypted DVD movie clearly has the “authority of the copyright
owner” to view the DVD but does not necessarily have the authority to
view it on any platform capable of decrypting the DVD. 321 Studios v.
Cal. 2004) (holding “that the purchase of a DVD does not give to the
purchaser the authority of the copyright holder to decrypt CSS”). See also
Davidson & Assocs. v. Jung, 422 F.3d 630, 641 (8th Cir. 2005) (holding
that purchasers of interactive gaming software had permission to use the
game but lacked the copyright owner's permission to circumvent the
encryption measure controlling access to the game's interactive mode).
Thus, purchasers of products containing copyrighted works—by virtue of
that purchase alone—do not necessarily have the copyright owner's
permission to circumvent a technological measure controlling access to the
copyrighted work.
V.B.1.b. Technological Measures That Effectively Control

Access (“Access Control”)
As already noted, 17 U.S.C. § 1201(a) concerns technological
measures designed to prevent access to a copyrighted work—technology
typically referred to as “access controls.” A technological measure does not
constitute an access control under the DMCA unless it “effectively
controls access to a work.” 17 U.S.C. § 1201(a)(1)(A). “[A] technological
measure 'effectively controls access to a [copyrighted] work' if the
measure, in the ordinary course of its operation, requires the application
of information, or a process or a treatment, with the authority of the
copyright owner, to gain access to the work.” 17 U.S.C. § 1201(a)(3)(B).
An access control “effectively controls access to a work” if its ordinary
function and operation is to control access to a copyrighted work's
expression, regardless of whether or not the control is a strong means of
protection. See, e.g., 321 Studios, 307 F. Supp. 2d at 1095.

Significantly, courts have rejected the argument that the meaning of
the term “effectively” is based on how successful the technological
measure is in controlling access to a copyrighted work. See, e.g., id.
(holding that the fact that the CSS decryption keys permitting access to
DVDs were “widely available on the internet [sic]” did not affect whether
CSS was “effective” under the DMCA). For example, protection
“measures based on encryption or scrambling 'effectively control' access
to copyrighted works, although it is well known that what may be
encrypted or scrambled often may be decrypted or unscrambled.”
Universal City Studios, Inc. v. Reimerdes, 111 F. Supp. 2d 294, 318
(S.D.N.Y. 2000) (footnote omitted), aff'd sub nom. Universal City
Studios, Inc. v. Corley , 273 F.3d 429 (2d Cir. 2001). Equating
“effectively” with “successfully” “would limit the application of the statute
to access control measures that thwart circumvention, but withhold
protection for those measures that can be circumvented” and
consequently “offer protection where none is needed” while
“withhold[ing] protection precisely where protection is essential.” Id; see
also Lexmark Int'l, Inc. v. Static Control Components, Inc., 387 F.3d 522,
549 (6th Cir. 2004) (“A precondition for DMCA liability is not the
creation of an impervious shield to the copyrighted work .... Otherwise,
the DMCA would apply only when it is not needed.”) (internal citations
omitted).
Although the DMCA does not define “access,” at least one court has
held that controlling access to a copyrighted work means controlling
access to the expression (e.g., controlling the ability to see or to read the
actual text of a copyrighted computer program, hear a copyrighted song,
or watch a copyrighted movie) contained in a copyrighted work. Lexmark,
387 F.3d at 547 (holding that an authentication sequence that prevented
“access” to a copyrighted computer program on a printer cartridge chip by
preventing the printer from functioning and the program from executing
did not “control[] access” under the DMCA because the copyrighted
work's expression (the computer program) was nonetheless “freely
readable”). In the context of a computer program, the Sixth Circuit held
that an access control under the DMCA must control access to the
program's copyrighted expression—i.e., control the ability to see or to read
the program's code. Id. at 548. On the other hand, a technological
measure that controls only the function of a copyrighted computer
program but leaves the code freely readable is not an access control under
the DMCA. Compare id. (holding that there is no precedent deeming a
control measure as one that “effectively controls access” under the DMCA
“where the [purported] access-control measure left the literal code or text

of the computer program or data freely readable”) with Agfa Monotype
Corp. v. Adobe Sys., Inc., 404 F. Supp. 2d 1030, 1036 (N.D. Ill. 2005)
(holding that font embedding bits are not technological measures that
“effectively control access” because they “have been available for free
download from the Internet” and are “not secret or undisclosed.
Embedding bits are not encrypted, scrambled or authenticated, and
software applications ... need not enter a password or authorization
sequence to obtain access to the embedding bits or the specification for
the” font), and Davidson, 422 F.3d at 641 (holding that a technological
measure that controlled access to a computer program's expression that
otherwise “was not freely available” “without acts of reverse engineering”
constituted an “access control” under the DMCA).
V.B.1.c. To a Copyrighted Work

The access control also must have controlled access to a copyrighted
work. See 17 U.S.C. § 1201(a)(1)(A), (2)(A)-(C) (referring repeatedly to
“a work protected under this title [17]”). The protection of a copyrighted
work is an essential element. See S. Rep. No. 105-190, at 28-29 (1998).
The DMCA's anti-circumvention prohibition does not apply to someone
who circumvents access controls to a work in the public domain, like a
book of Shakespeare, because such a protection measure controls access
to a work that is not copyrighted. Cf. United States v. Elcom Ltd., 203 F.
Supp. 2d 1111, 1131-32 (N.D. Cal. 2002).
A victim's failure to register its copyrighted work is not a bar to a
DMCA action. See I.M.S. Inquiry Mgmt. Sys., Ltd. v. Berkshire Info.
Sys., Inc., 307 F. Supp. 2d 521, 531 n.9 (S.D.N.Y. 2004); Medical Broad.
Co. v. Flaiz, No. Civ.A. 02-8554, 2003 WL 22838094, at *3 (E.D. Pa.
Nov. 25, 2003) (finding that “[w]hile a copyright registration is a
prerequisite under 17 U.S.C. § 411(a) for an action for [civil] copyright
infringement, claims under the DMCA ... are simply not copyright
infringement claims and are separate and distinct from the latter”)
(citation omitted).

Prohibition to Apply
Courts have acknowledged that, on its face, § 1201(a)(1) prescribes
that one unlawfully circumvents an access control even where the ultimate
goal of such circumvention is fair use of a copyrighted work. See, e.g.,
Reimerdes , 111 F. Supp. 2d at 304 (holding that an unlawful
circumvention of a technological measure can occur even though
“[t]echnological access control measures have the capacity to prevent fair

uses of copyrighted works as well as foul”). Although Congress was
concerned that the DMCA's anti-circumvention prohibition could be
applied to prevent circumvention of access controls for legitimate fair
uses, Congress concluded that strong restrictions on circumvention of
access control measures were essential to encourage digital works because
otherwise such works could be pirated and distributed over the Internet
too easily. See Lexmark, 387 F.3d at 549.
For this reason, courts will strictly apply § 1201(a) to copyrighted
expression stored in a digital format whereby, for instance, executing
encrypted computer code containing the copyrighted expression actually
generates the visual and audio manifestation of protected expression.
Lexmark, 387 F.3d at 548 (holding that Congress intended § 1201(a) to
apply where executing “encoded data on CDs translates into music and
on DVDs into motion pictures, while the program commands in software
for video games or computers translate into some other visual and audio
manifestation”); see also 321 Studios, 307 F. Supp. 2d at 1095 (movies
on DVDs protected by an encryption algorithm (CSS) cannot be watched
without a DVD player that contains an access key decrypting CSS);
Davidson, 422 F.3d at 641 (encrypted algorithm on computer game
prevented unauthorized interactive use of computer game online); Pearl
Inv., LLC v. Standard I/O, Inc., 257 F. Supp. 2d 326, 349 (D. Me. 2003)
(“encrypted, password-protected virtual private network” prevented
unauthorized access to copyrighted computer software); Sony Computer
Entm't Am., Inc. v. Gamemasters, 87 F. Supp. 2d 976, 981 (N.D. Cal.
1999) (game console prevented unauthorized operation of video games);
RealNetworks , Civ. No. 2:99CV02070, 2000 WL 127311, at *3
(authentication sequence prevented unauthorized access to streaming
“copyrighted digital works” online).
On the other hand, Congress did not intend the DMCA to apply (and
courts are less likely to apply it) where executing a copyrighted computer
program creates no protectable expression (as it would for a work in
digital form), but instead results in an output that is purely functional.
See, e.g., Lexmark, 387 F.3d at 548 (holding that a computer chip on a
replacement printer cartridge that emulates an authentication sequence
executing a copyrighted code on a manufacturer's printer cartridge did not
violate § 1201(a) because executing the code merely controls printer
functions such as “paper feeding,” “paper movement,” and “motor
control” and therefore “is not a conduit to protectable expression”);
Chamberlain Group, Inc. v. Skylink Techs., Inc., 381 F.3d 1178, 1204
(Fed. Cir. 2004) (holding that use of a transmitter to emulate a
copyrighted computer code in a garage door opener did not violate

§ 1201(a) because executing the code merely performed the function of
opening the garage door).
Accordingly, prosecutors should bear in mind that courts are more
inclined to rule that a defendant violated § 1201(a) if his conduct
occurred in a context to which Congress intended the statute to
apply—i.e., when it involves an access control that protects access to
copyrighted expression stored in digital form. For questions on this often
technical point, prosecutors may wish to consult CCIPS at (202) 514-
1026.
V.B.1.e. Regulatory Exemptions to Liability Under

§ 1201(a)(1)
Before prosecuting a charge of unlawful access control circumvention,
§ 1201(a)(1)(A), prosecutors should confirm whether the defendant's
actions fall within the Librarian of Congress's latest regulatory
exemptions.
Because Congress was concerned that the DMCA's prohibitions
against circumventing access controls might affect citizens' noninfringing
uses of works in unforeseeable and adverse ways, Congress created a
recurring rulemaking proceeding to begin two years after the DMCA's
enactment and every three years thereafter. 17 U.S.C. § 1201(a)(1)(C),
(D). Specifically, the DMCA provides that its prohibition on access
circumvention itself, 17 U.S.C. § 1201(a)(1)(A), will not apply to users
control of certain types of works if, upon the recommendation of the
Register of Copyrights, the Librarian of Congress concludes that the
ability of those users “to make noninfringing uses of [a] particular class of
work[]” is “likely to be ... adversely affected” by the prohibition. 17
U.S.C. § 1201(a)(1)(B). The statute makes clear, however, that any
exceptions to § 1201(a)(1)(A) adopted by the Librarian of Congress are
not defenses to violations of the anti-trafficking provisions contained in
§§ 1201(a)(2) and 1201(b). See 17 U.S.C. § 1201(a)(1)(E).
The current exemptions, effective from October 28, 2003, until
October 27, 2006, are
• compilations containing lists of blocked Web sites intended to
prevent access to domains, Web sites, or portions of Web sites
(but not lists of Internet locations blocked by software designed
to protect against damage to computers, such as firewalls and
antivirus software, or software designed to prevent receipt of
unwanted e-mail, such as anti-spam software).

• computer programs protected by dongles—security or copy
protection devices for commercial microcomputer programs—that
prevent access due to malfunction or damage and which are
obsolete.
• “computer programs and video games distributed in formats that
have become obsolete and th[at] require[] original media or
hardware as a condition of access.”
• “literary works distributed in e-book format when all existing
e-book editions of the work (including digital text editions made
available by authorized entities) contain access controls that
prevent the enabling of the e-book's read-aloud function and that
prevent the enabling of screen readers to render the text into a
'specialized format.'”
See 37 C.F.R. § 201.40 (2003). The next rulemaking will occur in 2006.

Services—17 U.S.C. §§ 1201(a)(2) and 1204
In addition to prohibiting the circumvention of access controls, the
DMCA also prohibits the manufacture of, or trafficking in, any
technology that circumvents access controls without the copyright owner's
permission. 17 U.S.C. § 1201(a)(2). To prove a violation of 17 U.S.C.
§§ 1201(a)(2) and 1204, the government must establish that the
defendant
1. willfully
2. manufactured or trafficked in
3. a technology, product, service, or part thereof
4. that either:
a. is primarily designed or produced for the purpose of
b. “has only limited commercially significant purpose or use
other than” or
c. “is marketed by that person or another acting in concert with
that person with that person's knowledge for use in”
5. circumventing an access control without authorization from the
copyright owner
6. for commercial advantage or private financial gain.

For purposes of the DMCA, prosecutors may look to the law of
copyright infringement for guidance regarding the “willfully” element and
the “commercial advantage” element, discussed in Chapter II of this
Manual. For a complete discussion of establishing the element regarding
circumventing an access control, see Sections V.B.1.a.-e. of this Chapter.
The Federal Circuit's additional element for establishing a violation of
§ 1201(a)(2)—that the unauthorized access must also infringe or facilitate
infringing a right protected by the Copyright Act—is discussed in Section
V.B.1.
V.B.2.a. Trafficking
Section 1201(a)(2) states that “[n]o person shall manufacture,
import, offer to the public, provide, or otherwise traffic in” a technology
or service that unlawfully circumvents an access control. To “traffic” in
such technology means to engage either in dealings in that technology or
service or in conduct that necessarily involves awareness of the nature of
the subject of the trafficking. Universal City Studios, Inc. v. Reimerdes,
111 F. Supp. 2d 294, 325 (S.D.N.Y. 2000). To “provide” technology
means to make it available or to furnish it. Id. The phrase “or otherwise
traffic in” modifies and gives meaning to the words “offer” and “provide.”
Id. Thus, “the anti-trafficking provision of the DMCA is implicated where
one presents, holds out or makes a circumvention technology or device
available, knowing its nature, for the purpose of allowing others to acquire
it.” Id. This standard for “trafficking,” therefore, hinges on evaluating the
trafficker's purpose for making the circumvention technology available.
See id. at 341 n.257 (“In evaluating purpose, courts will look at all
relevant circumstances.”). Significantly, however, the government need
not prove “an intent to cause harm” to establish the trafficking element.
Cf. Universal City Studios, Inc. v. Corley, 273 F.3d 429, 457 (2d Cir.
2001).
This standard is particularly helpful for determining whether a
defendant has trafficked online in unlawful circumvention technology. For
example, courts may view a defendant's trafficking to include offering
circumvention technology for download over the Internet, or posting links
to Web sites that automatically download such technology when a user
is transferred by hyperlink, where the purpose of such linking is to allow
others to acquire the circumvention technology. See, e.g., Reimerdes, 111
F. Supp. 2d at 325, 341 n.257 (holding that offering and providing for
download a computer program to circumvent DVD access controls for the
purpose of disseminating the program satisfies trafficking element of
§ 1201(a)(2)). In addition, at least one court has found that posting a
hyperlink to web pages “that display nothing more than the

[circumventing] code or present the user only with the choice of
commencing a download of [the code] and no other content” also
constitutes “trafficking” under the DMCA because the defendant's express
purpose in linking to these web pages was to disseminate the
circumventing technology. Id. at 325.
In contrast, posting a link to a web page that happens to include,
among other content, a hyperlink for downloading (or transferring to a
page for downloading) a circumvention program would not, alone,
constitute “trafficking” in the program “regardless of purpose or the
manner in which the link was described.” Id.; see also id. at 341 n.257 (“A
site that deep links to a page containing only [the circumventing program]
located on a site that contains a broad range of other content, all other
things being equal, would more likely be found to have linked for the
purpose of disseminating [the program] than if it merely links to the
home page of the linked-to site.”). This result is consistent with the
general principle that a website owner cannot be held responsible for all
the content of the sites to which it provides links. Id. at 325 n.180
(quotation omitted). Thus, posting a link (or “linking”) to a
circumvention program could constitute “trafficking” if the person linking
to the program 1) knew that the program is on the linked-to site; 2) knew
that the program constituted unlawful circumvention technology; and 3)
posted the link for the purpose of disseminating that technology. See id.
at 325, 341.

Section 1201(a)(2) prohibits trafficking “in any technology, product,
service, device, component, or part thereof” that unlawfully circumvents
access controls. This language is “all-encompassing: it includes any tool,
no matter its form, that is primarily designed or produced to circumvent
technological protection.” United States v. Elcom, 203 F. Supp. 2d 1111,
1123 (N.D. Cal. 2002). This element is not limited to conventional
devices but instead includes “any technology,” including computer code
and other software, capable of unlawful circumvention. Reimerdes, 111
F. Supp. 2d at 317 & n.135. In addition, the government satisfies this
element even if only one “part” or feature of the defendant's technology
unlawfully circumvents access controls. See 321 Studios v. Metro
Goldwyn Mayer Studios, Inc., 307 F. Supp. 2d 1085, 1098 (N.D. Cal.
2004).

Section 1201(a)(2) prohibits trafficking in technology that unlawfully
circumvents access controls and either “is primarily designed or produced
for th[at] purpose,” “has only limited commercially significant purpose or
use other than” such purpose; or is knowingly marketed for such purpose.
17 U.S.C. § 1201(a)(2)(A)-(C). Thus, “only one of the[se] three
enumerated conditions must be met” to satisfy this element. See 321
Studios, 307 F. Supp. 2d at 1094. And, as noted elsewhere, the fact that
a particular circumvention technology is capable of substantial
noninfringing uses is not a defense to trafficking in technology that
circumvents access controls and violates one of the three conditions
enumerated in § 1201(a)(2)(A)-(C). See RealNetworks, Inc. v. Streambox,
Inc., No. 2:99CV02070, 2000 WL 127311, at *8 (W.D. Wash. Jan. 18,
2000).
V.B.2.c.1. Primarily Designed or Produced

Trafficking in circumvention technology violates § 1201(a)(2)(A)
where its “primary purpose” is to circumvent technological measures
controlling access to, for example, copyrighted video games (Davidson &
Assocs. v. Jung, 422 F.3d 630, 641 (8th Cir. 2005); Sony Computer
Entm't Am., Inc. v. Gamemasters, 87 F. Supp. 2d 976, 987 (N.D. Cal.
1999)), copyrighted streaming video or music content (Streambox, No.
2:99CV02070, 2000 WL 127311, at *7-*8), and copyrighted movies
encrypted onto DVDs (Universal City Studios, Inc. v. Reimerdes, 111 F.
Supp. 2d 294, 318-19 (S.D.N.Y. 2000); 321 Studios v. Metro Goldwyn
Mayer Studios, Inc., 307 F. Supp. 2d 1085, 1098 (N.D. Cal. 2004)).
Whether a technology's “primary purpose” is to circumvent an access
control is determined by the circumvention technology's primary function,
not the trafficker's subjective purpose. The defendant's subjective motive
may, however, affect whether his conduct falls within one of the DMCA's
statutory exceptions. See Section V.C. of this Chapter.
In Reimerdes, which concerned the CSS DVD-encryption scheme, the
court found that “(1) CSS is a technological means that effectively
controls access to plaintiffs' copyrighted works, (2) the one and only
function of [the defendant's program] is to circumvent CSS, and (3)
defendants offered and provided [the program] by posting it on their web
site.” Reimerdes, 111 F. Supp. 2d at 319. The court held that it was
“perfectly obvious” that the program “was designed primarily to
circumvent CSS.” Id. at 318. Defendants argued that their program was
not created for the “purpose” of pirating copyrighted movies, but rather
to allow purchasers of DVDs to play them on unlicensed DVD players

running the Linux operating system. Id. at 319. As the court held,
however, “whether the development of a Linux DVD player motivated
those who wrote [the program] is immaterial to the question” of whether
the defendants “violated the anti-trafficking provision[s] of the DMCA.”
Id. The trafficking “of the program is the prohibited conduct—and it is
prohibited irrespective of why the program was written.” Id.

Than Circumvention
Whether a technology has only limited commercially significant
purpose other than circumvention is a separate inquiry from whether its
primary purpose was to circumvent, and it requires a fact-specific inquiry
that often hinges on whether the circumvention technology is “free and
available.” Some courts, however, have ruled that a particular technology
“is primarily designed or produced for the purpose of circumventing”
access controls (§ 1201(a)(2)(A)) and also “has only limited commercially
significant purpose” other than such circumvention (§ 1201(a)(2)(B)).
See , e.g. , Davidson , 422 F. 3d at 641 (holding that defendant's
circumvention technology “had limited commercial purpose because its
sole purpose was ... circumventing [the] technological measures
controlling access to Battle.net and the [computer] games”); Streambox,
No. 2:99CV02070, 2000 WL 127311, at *8 (holding that defendant
violated §§ 1201(a)(2)(A) and (a)(2)(B) by trafficking in circumvention
technology that had “no significant commercial purpose other than to
enable users to access and record protected content”). However, at least
one court suggested that whether a defendant violates § 1201(a)(2)(B) “is
a question of fact for a jury to decide,” even where the court otherwise
finds that the defendant has violated § 1201(a)(2)(A). 321 Studios, 307
F. Supp. 2d at 1098.
V.B.2.c.3. Knowingly Marketed for Circumvention

When accused of having marketed technology for use in
circumventing access controls in violation of § 1201(a)(2)(C), defendants
have raised First Amendment defenses—particularly where only a part of
a product circumvents access controls—contending that marketing the
product may include dissemination of information about the product's
other, legal attributes. Although a more complete discussion analyzing the
DMCA's validity under the First Amendment is discussed in Section
V.C.10.b. of this Chapter, it is worth noting here that “the First
Amendment does not protect commercial speech that involves illegal
activity,” even if that commercial speech is merely instructions for

violating the law. 321 Studios, 307 F. Supp. 2d at 1098-99 (citing Florida
Bar v. Went For It, Inc., 515 U.S. 618, 623-24 (1995)); see also Corley,
273 F.3d at 447 (citing United States v. Raymond, 228 F.3d 804, 815
(7th Cir. 2000) (holding that “First Amendment does not protect
instructions for violating the tax laws”)). Thus, knowingly marketing
technology for use in circumventing access controls in violation of
§ 1201(a)(2)(C) constitutes illegal activity, and hence, unprotected
speech. 321 Studios, 307 F. Supp. 2d at 1099 (“[A]s 321 markets its
software for use in circumventing CSS, this Court finds that 321's DVD
copying software is in violation of the marketing provisions of
§§ 1201(a)(2) and (b)(1).”).
V.B.3. Trafficking in Tools, Devices, and Services to Circumvent

Copy Controls—17 U.S.C. §§ 1201(b)(1) and 1204
As noted above, the DMCA prohibits the manufacture or trafficking
in any technology that circumvents copy controls without the copyright
owner's permission. 17 U.S.C. § 1201(b)(1). To prove a violation of 17
U.S.C. §§ 1201(b)(1) and 1204, the government must establish that the
defendant
1. willfully
2. manufactured or trafficked in
3. a technology, product, service, or part thereof
4. that either:
a. “is primarily designed or produced for the purpose of”
b. “has only limited commercially significant purpose or use
other than” or
c. “is marketed by that person or another acting in concert with
that person with that person's knowledge for use in”
5. “circumventing”
6. “protection afforded by a technological measure that effectively
protects a right of a copyright owner under this title in a work or
a portion thereof”
7. “for commercial advantage or private financial gain.”
See 17 U.S.C. §§ 1201(a)(2)(A)-(C), 1204. For purposes of the DMCA,
prosecutors may look to the law of copyright infringement for guidance
regarding the “willfully” element and the “commercial advantage”
element. See Chapter II of this Manual. In addition, because the second,

third, and fourth elements of a § 1201(b) violation operate in the same
way as do the comparable elements of a § 1201(a) violation, a complete
discussion of those elements may be found in Sections V.B.1. and V.B.2.
of this Chapter.
To “circumvent protection afforded by a technological measure,” as
set forth in 17 U.S.C. § 1201(b), “means avoiding, bypassing, removing,
deactivating, or otherwise impairing a technological measure.” 17 U.S.C.
§ 1201(b)(2)(A). To establish this element, the government must show
that the defendant trafficked in technology allowing the end user to
bypass a copy or use control that “effectively protects the right of a
copyright owner.” 17 U.S.C. § 1201(b)(1), (b)(2)(B). Courts have found
that the following technologies circumvent copy controls: (1) a computer
program that removes user restrictions from an “ebook” to make such files
“readily copyable” and “easily distributed electronically,” United States
v. Elcom , 203 F. Supp. 2d 1111, 1118-19 (N.D. Cal. 2002);
(2) technology that bypasses copy controls intended to prevent the
copying of streaming copyrighted content, RealNetworks, Inc. v.
Streambox, Inc., No. 2:99CV02070, 2000 WL 127311, at *6-*8 (W.D.
Wash. Jan. 18, 2000); and (3) technology that bypasses a scheme
intended to “control copying of [encrypted] DVDs,” 321 Studios v.
Cal. 2004). Further, at least one court has held that an unlicensed DVD
player that can bypass a DVD's access and copy controls unlawfully
“avoids and bypasses” (i.e., circumvents) the DVD's copy control
pursuant to § 1201(b)(2)(A). Id. at 1098.
V.B.3.b. Technological Measure That Effectively Protects a

Right of a Copyright Owner Under This Title (“Copy Control”)
“[A] technological measure 'effectively protects a right of a copyright
owner under this title' if the measure, in the ordinary course of its
operation, prevents, restricts, or otherwise limits the exercise of a right of
a copyright owner under this title.” 17 U.S.C. § 1201(b)(2)(B). The
“rights of a copyright owner” include all the exclusive rights set forth in
17 U.S.C. § 106: the rights to reproduce the copyrighted work, to prepare
derivative works based upon the copyrighted work, to distribute copies by
sale or otherwise, to perform the copyrighted work publicly, and to
display the copyrighted work publicly. Elcom, 203 F. Supp. 2d at 1124.
Thus, a technological measure “effectively protects the right of a copyright
owner if, in the ordinary course of its operation, it prevents, limits or

otherwise restricts the exercise of any of the rights set forth in [§] 106.”
See id. at 1124; Agfa Monotype Corp. v. Adobe Sys., Inc., 404 F. Supp.
2d 1030, 1039 (N.D. Ill. 2005) (holding that computer font embedding
bits do not protect the rights of a copyright owner where “[s]uch
embedding bits do not prevent copying, and a computer program can
simply proceed to copy the ... [f]ont data regardless of the setting of the
bit”).
Notably, the government has successfully taken the position that
although fair use normally limits a copyright owner's right to claim
infringement, § 1201(b)(1) nonetheless prohibits trafficking in all tools
that circumvent copy controls, even if such tools circumvent copy
protections for the purpose of facilitating fair uses of a copyrighted work.
See, e.g., Elcom, 203 F. Supp. 2d at 1124 (“Nothing within the express
language would permit trafficking in devices designed to bypass use
restrictions in order to enable a fair use, as opposed to an infringing
use.”). Hence, § 1201(b)(1) bans trafficking in all tools that are primarily
designed or produced for the purpose of circumventing copy controls,
regardless of whether the downstream use of such tools is infringing or
not. See id. “It is the technology itself at issue, not the uses to which the
copyrighted material may be put.” 321 Studios, 307 F. Supp. 2d at 1097.
This is consistent with Congress's intent in enacting the DMCA:
“Congress did not ban the act of circumventing the use restrictions.
Instead, Congress banned only the trafficking in and marketing of devices
primarily designed to circumvent the use restriction protective
technologies. Congress did not prohibit the act of circumvention because
it sought to preserve the fair use rights of persons who had lawfully
acquired a work.” Elcom, 203 F. Supp. 2d at 1120 (emphasis omitted);
see also Universal City Studios, Inc. v. Corley, 273 F.3d 429, 443 (2d Cir.
2001) (“[T]he DMCA targets the circumvention of digital walls guarding
copyrighted material (and trafficking in circumvention tools), but does
not concern itself with the use of those materials after circumvention has
occurred.”) (emphasis and citations omitted).
Accordingly, while it is not unlawful to circumvent a copy or usage
control for the purpose of engaging in fair use, it is unlawful under
§ 1201(b)(1) to traffic in tools that allow fair use circumvention. Elcom,
203 F. Supp. 2d at 1125. Further, “legal downstream use of the
copyrighted material by customers is not a defense to the software
manufacturer's violation of the provisions of § 1201(b)(1).” 321 Studios,
307 F. Supp. 2d at 1097-98.

V.B.4. Alternate § 1201(b) Action—Trafficking in Certain Analog
Videocassette Recorders and Camcorders
Congress's decision to include a prohibition regarding analog
technology may be a non sequitur in an act entitled the “Digital
Millennium Copyright Act.” Nonetheless, § 1201(k)(5) of the DMCA
prescribes that any violation of 17 U.S.C. § 1201(k)(1) regarding copy
controls on certain analog recording devices “shall be treated as a violation
of” § 1201(b)(1). Section 1201(k)(1)(A) proscribes trafficking in any
VHS, Beta, or 8mm format analog video cassette recorder or 8mm analog
video cassette camcorder unless such recorder or camcorder “conforms to
the automatic gain control copy control technology.” 17 U.S.C.
§ 1201(k)(1)(A)(i)-(iv). The same prohibition applies to any “analog
video cassette recorder that records using an NTSC format video input.”
17 U.S.C. § 1201(k)(1)(A)(v). Section 1201(k)(1)(B) also prohibits
trafficking in any VHS or 8mm format analog video cassette recorder if
the recorder's design (previously conforming with § 1201(k)(1)(A)) was
modified to no longer conform with automatic gain control copy
technology. 17 U.S.C. § 1201(k)(1)(B)(i). Similarly, the DMCA prohibits
trafficking in such an analog video cassette recorder if it “previously
conformed to the four-line colorstripe copy control technology” but was
later modified so that it “no longer conforms to such technology.” 17
U.S.C. § 1201(k)(1)(B)(ii). In addition, the DMCA requires
“manufacturers that have not previously manufactured or sold VHS [or
8mm] format analog video cassette recorder[s] to conform to the four-line
colorstripe copy control technology.” Id.
Notably, § 1201(k) does not (1) require analog camcorders to
conform to the automatic gain control copy control technology for video
signals received through a camera lens; (2) apply to the manufacture or
trafficking in any “professional analog video cassette recorder;” or
(3) apply to transactions involving “any previously owned analog video
cassette recorder” that had been both legally manufactured and sold when
new and also not later modified to violate § 1201(k). 17 U.S.C.
§ 1201(k)(3)(A)-(C).
V.B.5. Falsifying, Altering, or Removing Copyright Management

Information—17 U.S.C. § 1202
Section 1202 prohibits anyone from knowingly falsifying, removing,
or altering “copyright management information”—such as a copyrighted
work's title, copyright notice, or author—with the intent to induce,
enable, facilitate, or conceal infringement. 17 U.S.C. § 1202(a)(1), (b)(1),

(c) (defining “copyright management information”). Section 1202 further
prohibits intentionally facilitating infringement by knowingly distributing
or importing for distribution (1) false copyright management information
or (2) copyright management information knowing that such information
has been removed or altered without authority. 17 U.S.C. § 1202(a)(2),
(b)(2). Finally, § 1202 prohibits anyone from intentionally facilitating
infringement by distributing, importing for distribution, or publicly
performing copyrighted works, copies of works, or phonorecords knowing
that their copyright management information has been removed or altered
without authority. 17 U.S.C. § 1202(b)(3).
Thus, while § 1201 primarily targets circumvention devices and
technology, “Section 1202 imposes liability for specified acts. It does not
address the question of liability for persons who manufacture devices or
provide services.” H.R. Rep. No. 105-551 (I), at 22 (1998). Like § 1201,
however, to establish a criminal violation of § 1202, the government must
prove two elements in addition to those in the statute itself—that the
defendant violated § 1202 both (1) willfully and (2) for purposes of
commercial advantage or private gain. 17 U.S.C. § 1204(a).
Criminal enforcement of § 1202 of the DMCA is rare, and
prosecutors are encouraged to contact CCIPS at (202) 514-1026 for
guidance when considering a charge under this provision.
V.C. Defenses
The DMCA provides for several statutory defenses, exceptions, and
even “exemptions” to the anti-circumventing and anti-trafficking
prohibitions set forth in 17 U.S.C. § 1201. As the following discussion
demonstrates, these defenses do not apply uniformly to the anti-
circumvention (§ 1201(a)(1)(A)) and anti-trafficking provisions
(§ 1201(a)(2), (b)).
V.C.1. Statute of Limitations

Section 1204(c) of the DMCA states that “[n]o criminal proceeding
shall be brought under this section unless such proceeding is commenced
within 5 years after the cause of action arose.” 17 U.S.C. § 1204(c).

V.C.2. Librarian of Congress Regulations
The Librarian of Congress promulgates regulatory exemptions every
three years that apply only to § 1201(a)(1)(A)'s prohibitions against
circumventing access controls. See Section V.B.1.e. of this Chapter.
V.C.3. Certain Nonprofit Entities

Section 1204(b) exempts from criminal prosecution all nonprofit
libraries, archives, educational institutions, or public broadcasting entities
as defined by 17 U.S.C. § 118(f). See also 17 U.S.C. § 1201(d) (listing
other entities). The exception set forth in § 1201(d) for nonprofit
libraries, archives, and educational institutions is not as broad as the
exemption from criminal prosecution for the same group of entities set
forth in § 1204(b), because the latter (1) also includes “public
broadcasting entities” and (2) precludes prosecution for the anti-
circumvention and the anti-trafficking violations of § 1201.
V.C.4. Information Security Exemption

“[A]ny lawfully authorized investigative, protective, information
security, or intelligence activity of an officer, agent, or employee” or
contractor of the federal government or a state government is exempt
from all three of § 1201's prohibitions for information security work on
“a government computer, computer system, or computer network.” 17
U.S.C. § 1201(e). Congress intended that the term “computer system”
would have the same meaning in § 1201(e) as it does in the Computer
Security Act. H.R. Conf. Rep. No. 105-796, at 66 (1998), reprinted in
1998 U.S.C.C.A.N. 639, 643.
This exemption is narrower than it might first appear. Congress
intended this exemption to permit law enforcement to lawfully disable
technological protection measures protecting copyrighted works (e.g.,
measures protecting access to copyrighted computer software) to probe
internal government computer systems to ensure that they are not
vulnerable to hacking. Id. at 65. Thus, “information security” consists of
“activities carried out in order to identify and address the vulnerabilities
of a government computer, computer system, or computer network.” 17
U.S.C. § 1201(e) (emphasis added); see also id. at 66.

Programs
Section 1201(f) contains three reverse engineering or
“interoperability” defenses for individuals using circumvention technology
“for the sole purpose of trying to achieve 'interoperability'” of computer
programs through reverse engineering. Davidson & Assocs. v. Jung, 422
F.3d 630, 641-42 (8th Cir. 2005). Note that at least one court has held
that reverse engineering can satisfy the statutory fair use exception.
Bowers v. Baystate Techs., Inc., 320 F.3d 1317, 1325 (Fed. Cir. 2003).
The key term for these defenses, “interoperability,” “means the ability
of computer programs to exchange information, and of such programs
mutually to use the information which has been exchanged.” 17 U.S.C.
§ 1201(f)(4). The scope of these exemptions is expressly limited to
“computer programs” and does not authorize circumvention of access
controls that protect other classes of copyrighted works, such as movies.
Universal City Studios, Inc. v. Reimerdes , 82 F. Supp. 2d 211, 218
(S.D.N.Y. 2000).
The first interoperability defense allows a person “who has lawfully
obtained the right to use a copy of a computer program ... for the sole
purpose of identifying and analyzing those elements of the program that
are necessary to achieve interoperability of an independently created
computer program with other programs, and that have not previously
been readily available to th[at] person” to circumvent an access control
without violating the DMCA's anti-circumvention prohibition set forth in
§ 1201(a)(1)(A). 17 U.S.C. § 1201(f)(1). By definition, this exemption
does not apply to one who obtains a copy of the computer program
illegally.
Second, § 1201(f)(2) exempts violations of the DMCA's anti-
trafficking provisions (§ 1201(a)(2), (b)) for those who “develop and
employ technological means” that are “necessary” to enable
interoperability. Despite the statute's express requirement that this
defense only applies “if such means are necessary to achieve such
interoperability,” 17 U.S.C. § 1201(f)(2), at least one court has held that
“the statute is silent about the degree to which the 'technological means'
must be necessary, if indeed they must be necessary at all, for
interoperability.” Lexmark Int'l, Inc. v. Static Control Components, Inc.,
387 F.3d 522, 551 (6th Cir. 2004).
Third, § 1201(f)(3) authorizes one who acquires information through
§ 1201(f)(1) to make this information and the technical means permitted
under § 1201(f)(2) available to others “solely for the purpose of enabling

interoperability of an independently created computer program with other
programs.” 17 U.S.C. § 1201(f)(3). Significantly, § 1201(f)(3) “permits
information acquired through reverse engineering to be made available to
others only by the person who acquired the information.” Universal City
Studios, Inc. v. Reimerdes, 111 F. Supp. 2d 294, 320 (S.D.N.Y. 2000)
(emphasis added). Consequently, one court disallowed this defense
because, inter alia, the defendants “did not do any reverse engineering
[themselves]. They simply took [the program] off someone else's web site
and posted it on their own.” Id.
None of these defenses apply if the defendant's conduct also
constituted copyright infringement or, in the case of the third defense,
otherwise “violate[d] applicable law.” See 17 U.S.C. § 1201(f)(1)-(3); see
also Lexmark, 387 F.3d at 551 (holding that defendant, which produced
a computer chip that allowed a remanufactured printer cartridge to
interoperate with another's originally manufactured printer, did not
commit infringement because the computer program that defendant had
copied from plaintiff was not copyrighted).
To establish a violation of the anti-trafficking provisions, prosecutors
need not establish that the defendant's motive for manufacturing or
trafficking in a circumvention tool was to infringe or to permit or
encourage others to infringe. See Reimerdes, 111 F. Supp. 2d at 319. In
contrast, to determine whether defendants meet the interoperability
exemption, prosecutors must determine whether the defendant's motive
for developing or trafficking the technological means for circumventing an
access or copy control was “solely for the purpose” of achieving or
enabling interoperability. Id. at 320.
Courts strictly apply the requirement that circumvention and
dissemination occur “solely for the purpose” of achieving interoperability
and not to facilitate copyright infringement. For example, one court has
held that circumventing a copyrighted computer game's access controls for
the purpose of developing and disseminating a copy or “emulator” that
was essentially identical to the original but lacked the original's access
control, “constituted more than enabling interoperability” under
§ 1201(f)(1) and “extended into the realm of copyright infringement.”
Davidson & Assoc. Inc. v. Internet Gateway, Inc., 334 F. Supp. 2d 1164,
1185-86 (E.D. Mo. 2004) (“The defendants' purpose in developing the
bnetd server was to avoid the anti-circumvention restrictions of the game
and to avoid the restricted access to Battle.net. Thus, the sole purpose of
the [] emulator was not to enable interoperability.”), aff'd, 422 F.3d at
642 (“Appellant's circumvention in this case constitutes infringement.”);

cf. Reimerdes, 111 F. Supp. 2d at 320 (holding that the purpose of [the
defendant's program] was simply to decrypt DVD access controls and not,
as defendants claimed, to achieve interoperability between computers
running Linux operating system because [the program] also could be used
to decrypt and play DVDs on unlicensed players running the Windows
operating system). In addition, where the development (or distribution to
the public) of circumvention technology itself constitutes copyright
infringement, the DMCA expressly precludes reliance on § 1201(f)(2) and
(3). See id. (holding that “[t]he right to make the information available
extends only to dissemination 'solely for the purpose' of achieving
interoperability as defined by the statute. It does not apply to public
dissemination of means of circumvention”) (footnote omitted).
Moreover, legislative history suggests that the “independently created
[computer] program” referenced in this exemption must not infringe the
original computer program and instead must be “a new and original
work.” H.R. Rep. No. 105-551 (II), at 42 (1998). Thus, if the defendant's
functionally equivalent computer program is “new and original” only
insofar as it lacks the original's access controls, then the defendant has not
created an “independently created computer program.” Davidson, 334 F.
Supp. 2d at 1185, aff'd, 422 F.3d at 642. If, on the other hand, the
defendant's program actually performs functions that the original program
did not, courts are more inclined to find that defendants have satisfied the
“independently created computer program” requirement. Lexmark, 387
F.3d at 550 (holding that even though remanufacturer's toner cartridge
chip contained “exact copies” of original manufacturer's computer
program, it was nonetheless an “independently created computer
program” because it “contain[s] other functional computer programs
beyond the copied” original program). The independent program need not
have already existed before the defendant reverse-engineered the original
program. Id. at 550-51 (holding that “nothing in the statute precludes
simultaneous creation of an interoperability device and another computer
program” so long as it is “'independently' created”).
V.C.6. Encryption Research

Certain encryption research is exempted from liability under
§ 1201(a) (but not from § 1201(b)). Reimerdes, 111 F. Supp. 2d at 321
n.154. For purposes of this exemption, “encryption research” consists of
“activities necessary to identify and analyze flaws and vulnerabilities of
encryption technologies applied to copyrighted works, if these activities
are conducted to advance the state of knowledge in the field of encryption
technology or to assist in the development of encryption products.” 17
U.S.C. § 1201(g)(1)(A). The phrase, “encryption technologies,” “means

the scrambling and descrambling of information using mathematical
formulas or algorithms.” 17 U.S.C. § 1201(g)(1)(B).
The first encryption research exemption is that it is not a violation of
the anti-circumvention provision (§ 1201(a)(1)(A)) where a defendant
“circumvent[s] a technological measure as applied to a copy, phonorecord,
performance, or display of a published work in the course of an act of
good faith encryption research if” four conditions are satisfied: (1) he
“lawfully obtained” the applicable encrypted published work; (2) the
circumvention “is necessary to conduct such encryption research;” (3) he
“made a good faith effort to obtain authorization before the
circumvention;” and (4) the circumvention does not constitute copyright
infringement “or a violation of applicable law,” including the Computer
Fraud Abuse Act of 1986, 18 U.S.C. § 1030. 17 U.S.C. § 1201(g)(2).
To determine whether a defendant qualifies for this exemption, courts
consider the following non-exclusive factors: (1) whether the results of the
putative encryption research are disseminated in a manner designed to
advance the state of knowledge of encryption technology versus
facilitation of copyright infringement; (2) whether the person in question
is engaged in legitimate study of or work in encryption; and (3) whether
the results of the research are communicated in a timely fashion to the
copyright owner. 17 U.S.C. § 1201(g)(3).
The second encryption research exemption is that a defendant does
not violate the access control anti-trafficking provision (§ 1201(a)(2)) for
developing and distributing tools, such as software, that are needed to
conduct permissible encryption research as described in the first
encryption research exemption in § 1201(g)(2). 17 U.S.C. § 1201(g)(4);
H.R. Rep. No. 105-551 (II), at 44 (1998). This exemption essentially
frees an encryption researcher to cooperate with other researchers, and it
also allows one researcher to provide the technological means for such
research to another to verify the research results. Id.
It is not a violation of § 1201(a)(2) for a person to (1) “develop and
employ technological means to circumvent a technological measure for the
sole purpose of that person performing the acts of good faith encryption
research described in” § 1201(g)(2) and (2) “provide the technological
means to another person with whom he is or she is working
collaboratively” for the purpose of either conducting good faith
encryption research or having another person verify such research as
described in § 1201(g)(2). 17 U.S.C. § 1201(g)(4).

This exemption is quite complex and has been relied upon
infrequently in reported decisions. For a report on the early effects of this
exemption (or lack thereof) on encryption research and on protection of
content owners against unauthorized access of their encrypted
copyrighted works, see the “Report to Congress: Joint Study of Section
1201(g) of The Digital Millennium Copyright Act” prepared by the U.S.
Copyright Office and the National Telecommunications and Information
Administration of the Department of Commerce pursuant to
§ 1201(g)(5), available at http://www.copyright.gov/reports/studies/
dmca_report.html.
V.C.7. Restricting Minors' Access to the Internet

Section 1201(h) creates a discretionary exception, giving the court
discretion to waive violations of §§ 1201(a)(1)(A) and 1201(a)(2) so that
those prohibitions are not applied in a way that “inadvertently make[s]
it unlawful for parents to protect their children from pornography and
other inappropriate material available on the Internet, or have unintended
legal consequences for manufacturers of products designed solely to
enable parents to protect their children.” H.R. Rep. No. 105-551 (II), at
45 (1998). Specifically, § 1201(h) authorizes the court to “consider the
necessity for its intended and actual incorporation in a technology,
product, service, or device, which (1) does not itself violate the provisions
of this title; and (2) has the sole purpose to prevent the access of minors
to material on the Internet.” 17 U.S.C. § 1201(h). Congress was
concerned that if Internet filtering tools are developed in the future that
incorporate a part or component that circumvent access controls to a
copyrighted work “solely in order to provide a parent with the
information necessary to ascertain whether that material is appropriate for
his or her child, this provision authorizes a court to take into
consideration the necessity for incorporating such part or component in
a suit alleging a violation of section 1201(a).” S. Rep. No. 105-190, at 14
(1998).
To date, no reported case has applied this discretionary exception.
V.C.8. Protection of Personally Identifying Information

Section 1201(i)(1) states that it is not a violation of § 1201(a)(1)(A)
to circumvent an access control for the purpose of disabling files that
collect personally identifiable information like “'cookie files'—which are
automatically deposited on hard drives of computers of users who visit
World Wide Web sites.” Id. at 18. However, if a copyright owner
conspicuously discloses that its access control also contains personal data

gathering capability, and if the consumer is given the ability to effectively
prohibit that gathering or dissemination of personal information, then this
exception does not apply and no circumvention is permitted. H.R. Rep.
No. 105-551 (II), at 45 (1998). Further, if the copyright owner
conspicuously discloses that neither the access control nor the work it
protects collect personally identifying information, then no circumvention
is permitted. 17 U.S.C. § 1201(i)(2). Note that this exception does not
apply to the anti-trafficking prohibitions.
V.C.9. Security Testing

A person who engages in good faith “security testing” does not violate
§ 1201(a). 17 U.S.C. § 1201(j). “Security testing” consists of “accessing
a computer, computer system, or computer network, solely for the
purpose of good faith testing, investigating, or correcting, a security flaw
or vulnerability, with the authorization of the owner or operator of such
computer, computer system, or computer network.” 17 U.S.C.
§ 1201(j)(1). Without such authorization, a defendant cannot qualify for
this exemption. Reimerdes, 111 F. Supp. 2d at 321. A defendant engaging
in security testing does not violate § 1201(a)(1)(A) so long as such testing
does not constitute copyright infringement nor a violation of other
applicable law such as the Computer Fraud and Abuse Act of 1986. 17
U.S.C. § 1201(j)(2). In evaluating this exemption, the DMCA requires a
court to consider whether the information derived from the security
testing (1) “was used solely to promote the security of the owner or
operator of [or shared directly with the developer of] such computer,
computer system or computer network, or” (2) “was used or maintained
in a manner that does not facilitate copyright infringement” or a violation
of other applicable law. 17 U.S.C. § 1201(j)(3).
Likewise, a defendant does not violate § 1201(a)(2) for trafficking in
a “technological means for the sole purpose of performing the acts of
security testing” if the testing does not “otherwise violate section (a)(2).”
17 U.S.C. § 1201(j)(4).
V.C.10. Constitutionality of the DMCA

Civil and criminal defendants have repeatedly challenged the
constitutionality of Title I of the DMCA, particularly 17 U.S.C.
§§ 1201(a)(2) and 1201(b). Defendants have repeatedly challenged
Congress's authority, for example, to enact the DMCA pursuant to the
Commerce Clause and Intellectual Property Clause. None of these
challenges has yet prevailed.

V.C.10.a. Congress's Constitutional Authority to Enact § 1201
of the DMCA
Congress enacted § 1201 pursuant to its authority under the
Commerce Clause. See U.S. Const., art. I, § 8, cl. 3; H.R. Rep. No. 105-
551 (II), at 22, 35 (1998). Federal courts have uniformly upheld this
authority. See, e.g., United States v. Elcom, 203 F. Supp. 2d 1111, 1138
(N.D. Cal. 2002) (“Congress plainly has the power to enact the DMCA
under the Commerce Clause.”); 321 Studios v. Metro Goldwyn Mayer
Studios, Inc., 307 F. Supp. 2d 1085, 1103 (N.D. Cal. 2004) (same).
Article I, Section 8, Clause 3 of the Constitution delegates to Congress
the power “[t]o regulate Commerce with foreign Nations, and among the
several States, and with the Indian Tribes.” Congress does not exceed its
Commerce Clause authority where a rational basis exists “for concluding
that a regulated activity sufficiently affected interstate commerce.” United
States v. Lopez, 514 U.S. 549, 558 (1995) (citations omitted). The
DMCA prohibits circumventing access controls and the trafficking in
technology that facilitates circumvention of access or copy controls—the
type of conduct that has a substantial effect on commerce between the
states and commerce with foreign nations. See 321 Studios, 307 F. Supp.
2d at 1103. Congress created the DMCA's anti-trafficking prohibitions to
directly regulate specific items moving in commerce (circumvention
technology) and to protect channels of interstate commerce, including
electronic commerce. H.R. Rep. No. 105-551(II), at 22 (1998). Most
significantly, to the extent that circumvention devices enable criminals to
engage in piracy by unlawfully copying and distributing copyrighted
works, the sale of such devices has a direct effect on suppressing the
market for legitimate copies of the works. See 321 Studios, 307 F. Supp.
2d at 1103. Accordingly, Congress had a rational basis for concluding that
§ 1201 regulates activity that substantially affects interstate commerce
and therefore acted within its authority under the Commerce Clause. See
Elcom, 203 F. Supp. 2d at 1138.
Courts have similarly rejected the argument that the DMCA violates
the Intellectual Property Clause. The Commerce Clause authorizes
Congress to enact legislation that protects intellectual property rights,
even where the Intellectual Property Clause alone does not provide
sufficient authority for such legislation. Federal courts have long
recognized that while each of the powers of Congress is alternative to all
of the others, “what cannot be done under one of them may very well be
doable under another.” United States v. Moghadam, 175 F.3d 1269,
1277 (11th Cir. 1999). Congress may thus use the Commerce Clause as
a basis for legislating within a context contemplated by another section of
the Constitution (like the Intellectual Property Clause) so long as

Congress does not override an otherwise existing Constitutional
limitation. Id. (holding the criminal anti-bootlegging statute, 18 U.S.C.
§ 2319A, valid under the Commerce Clause even if it is beyond Congress's
authority under the Intellectual Property Clause); compare Heart of
Atlanta Motel v. United States, 379 U.S. 241 (1964) (upholding public
accommodation provisions of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 as valid under
the Commerce Clause despite the fact that the Act may have reached
beyond Congress's authority under the Fourteenth Amendment) and
South Dakota v. Dole, 483 U.S. 203, 207 (1987) (holding that Congress
could rely on the Spending Clause to impose restrictions that would
otherwise exceed Congress's power) with Railway Labor Executives' Ass'n
v. Gibbons, 455 U.S. 457 (1982) (striking down act by Congress under
Commerce Clause that violated Bankruptcy Clause's uniformity
requirement). Further, the Intellectual Property Clause “itself is stated in
positive terms, and does not imply any negative pregnant” that would
suggest “a ceiling on Congress's ability to legislate pursuant to other
grants.” Moghadam, 175 F.3d at 1280 (discussing constitutionality of the
criminal anti-bootlegging statute, 18 U.S.C. § 2319A). Moreover,
“[e]xtending quasi-copyright protection also furthers the purpose of the
Copyright Clause to promote the progress of the useful arts.” Id.
The DMCA's enactment pursuant to the Commerce Clause was valid
because it “is not fundamentally inconsistent with” the purpose of the
Intellectual Property Clause. Elcom, 203 F. Supp. 2d at 1139-41. Indeed,
“Congress viewed the DMCA as 'paracopyright' legislation that could be
enacted under the Commerce Clause.” Id. at 1140. Moreover, protecting
copyright owners' rights against unlawful piracy by preventing trafficking
in tools that would enable widespread piracy and unlawful infringement
(i.e., circumvention tools) is consistent with the Intellectual Property
Clause's grant to Congress of the power to “'promote the useful arts and
sciences' by granting exclusive rights to authors in their writings.” Id.
Specifically, courts have rejected the common argument that the
DMCA's ban on the sale of circumvention tools violates the Intellectual
Property Clause's “limited Times” prohibition. That argument is based on
the false premise that the DMCA has the effect of allowing publishers to
claim copyright-like protection in copyrighted works, even after they pass
into the public domain. Prosecutors should vigorously oppose this flawed
argument. Nothing in the DMCA permits a copyright owner to prevent
his work from entering the public domain, despite the expiration of the
copyright. Id. at 1141. As discussed in the copyright chapter, the essence
of copyright is the legally enforceable exclusive right to reproduce and
distribute copies of an original work of authorship, to make derivative

works, and to perform the work publicly for a limited time. See supra
Chapter II; see also Elcom, 203 F. Supp. 2d at 1141; 17 U.S.C. §§ 106,
302, 303. When a copyright expires, so does any protectable intellectual
property right in a work's expression. Elcom, 203 F. Supp. 2d at 1141.
Upon expiration, the user may copy, quote, or republish the expression
without any legally enforceable restriction on the use of the expression. Id.
“Nothing within the DMCA grants any rights to anyone in any public
domain work. A public domain work remains in the public domain[,] and
any person may make use of the public domain work for any purpose.”
321 Studios, 307 F. Supp. 2d at 1104 (internal quotation marks and
citation omitted). Accordingly, the DMCA does not extend any copyright
protections beyond the statutory copyright term merely by prohibiting the
trafficking in or marketing of circumvention technology. Id.
V.C.10.b. The First Amendment

Criminal and civil DMCA defendants have raised both facial and “as
applied” First Amendment challenges. Although federal courts have
uniformly rejected such challenges, defendants continue to raise them in
part because the overbreadth and “as applied” First Amendment tests
each can include a fact-dependent component.
V.C.10.b.i. Facial Challenges

Facial First Amendment challenges to § 1201—typically alleging that
the statute is unconstitutionally overbroad—fail for at least two reasons.
First, the DMCA does not expressly proscribe spoken words or patently
expressive or communicative conduct. See Roulette v. City of Seattle, 97
F.3d 300, 303 (9th Cir. 1996). “[A] facial freedom of speech attack must
fail unless, at a minimum, the challenged statute is directed narrowly and
specifically at expression or conduct commonly associated with
expression.” Id. at 305 (citations, and internal quotation marks omitted);
see also Virginia v. Hicks, 539 U.S. 113, 123 (2003).
Section 1201 of the DMCA, “[b]y its terms,” is not directed at
expression or conduct associated with expression. Elcom, 203 F. Supp. 2d
at 1133. Instead, § 1201 is a law of general application focused on the
circumvention of access controls and the trafficking in circumvention
tools; § 1201's prohibitions are not focused on speech. Id.; see also
Anderson v. Nidorf, 26 F.3d 100, 103-04 (9th Cir. 1994) (holding that
California's anti-piracy statute is not subject to facial challenge because,
inter alia , the statute focused upon infringement for commercial
advantage or private financial gain). Accordingly, on this basis alone, “an

overbreadth facial challenge [to § 1201] is not available.” Elcom, 203 F.
Supp. 2d at 1133.
Second, even were the DMCA directed at spoken words or expressive
conduct—which no court has yet held—such a finding would be
insufficient to establish overbreadth as a matter of law. The defendant
would still have to independently establish that the DMCA is written so
broadly that it infringes unacceptably on the First Amendment rights of
third parties. City Council v. Taxpayers for Vincent, 466 U.S. 789, 798-
99 (1984). The overbreadth doctrine “is, manifestly, strong medicine,” to
be employed “sparingly and only as a last resort.” Broadrick v. Oklahoma,
413 U.S. 601, 613 (1973). For this reason, a statute will be declared
facially unconstitutional for overbreadth only if the court finds a realistic
danger that the statute itself will significantly compromise recognized
First Amendment protections of parties not before the court. See New
York State Club Ass'n, Inc. v. City of New York, 487 U.S. 1, 11 (1988).
The DMCA neither compromises a recognized First Amendment
protection of third parties, nor is there a realistic danger that such a
compromise would occur. Moreover, § 1201's “plainly legitimate sweep”
targets circumvention of access controls and the manufacture or
trafficking in circumvention technology, not speech. Thus, it is highly
unlikely that defendants could establish the facts necessary to claim that
§ 1201 is overbroad. See Elcom, 203 F. Supp. 2d at 1133.
V.C.10.b.ii. “As Applied” Challenges

First Amendment “as applied” challenges to § 1201 necessarily vary
according to the technology at issue in each defendant's particular case.
DMCA defendants have often alleged that the DMCA violates the First
Amendment when applied to circumvention technology in the form of
computer code. Although it is arguable whether computer object code
constitutes speech, every federal court that has held that computer code
is speech has nonetheless ruled that the anti-trafficking provisions do not
violate the First Amendment under an intermediate scrutiny standard
because the DMCA (1) is content-neutral; (2) furthers important
governmental interests in promoting electronic commerce and protecting
the rights of copyright owners; and (3) is sufficiently tailored to achieve
these objectives without unduly burdening free speech. See, e.g., Elcom,
203 F. Supp. 2d at 1126-28 (applying United States v. O'Brien, 391 U.S.
367, 376 (1968) (“When 'speech' and 'nonspeech' elements are combined
in the same course of conduct, a sufficiently important governmental

interest in regulating the nonspeech element can justify incidental
limitations on First Amendment freedoms.”)).
The DMCA's anti-trafficking provisions are content neutral. See
Universal City Studios, Inc. v. Corley, 273 F.3d 429, 454 (2d Cir. 2001)
(§ 1201(a)(2)); 321 Studios, 307 F. Supp. 2d at 1100 (§§ 1201(a)(2) and
1201(b)); Elcom, 203 F. Supp. 2d at 1128-29 (§ 1201(b)). The principal
inquiry in determining whether a statute is content neutral is whether the
government has adopted a regulation of speech because of agreement or
disagreement with the message it conveys. Turner Broad. Sys., Inc. v.
FCC , 512 U.S. 622, 642 (1994). The government's purpose is the
controlling measure. Ward v. Rock Against Racism, 491 U.S. 781, 791
(1989).
By this measure, the DMCA's anti-trafficking provisions are clearly
content-neutral. Congress intended the DMCA to target the non-speech,
functional components of circumvention technology, Corley, 273 F.3d at
454, not to “stifle[] speech on account of its message.” Turner, 512 U.S.
at 641. The DMCA is not a content-based statute that would require
strict scrutiny under the First Amendment. See 321 Studios, 307 F. Supp.
2d at 1100. In fact, “[t]he reason that Congress enacted the anti-
trafficking provision of the DMCA had nothing to do with suppressing
particular ideas of computer programmers and everything to do with
functionality.” Universal City Studios, Inc. v. Reimerdes, 111 F. Supp. 2d
294, 329 (S.D.N.Y. 2000).
Ultimately, the DMCA is not concerned with whatever capacity
circumvention technology might have for conveying information to a
person, and that capacity is what arguably creates the speech component
of, for example, decrypting computer code. See Corley, 273 F.3d at 454.
The DMCA would apply to such code solely because of its capacity to
decrypt, for instance, an access control. Id. “That functional capability is
not speech within the meaning of the First Amendment.” Id.
A statute that is content neutral is subject to intermediate scrutiny
and hence satisfies the First Amendment “if it furthers an important or
substantial government interest; if the government interest is unrelated to
the suppression of free expression; and if the incidental restriction on
alleged First Amendment freedoms is no greater than is essential to the
furtherance of that interest.” Turner, 512 U.S. at 662 (quotation and
citation omitted). The government's interest in preventing unauthorized
copying of copyrighted works and promoting electronic commerce are
unquestionably substantial. See H.R. Rep. No. 105-551 (II), at 23
(1998); Elcom, 203 F. Supp. 2d at 1129-30; Corley, 273 F.3d at 454.
Congress enacted the DMCA after evaluating a great deal of evidence

establishing that copyright and intellectual property piracy are endemic,
especially digital piracy. See S. Rep. No. 105-190, at 8 (1998). Thus, by
prohibiting circumvention of access controls and the trafficking in
circumvention technology, “the DMCA does not burden substantially
more speech than is necessary to achieve the government's asserted goals
of promoting electronic commerce, protecting copyrights, and preventing
electronic piracy.” See 321 Studios, 307 F. Supp. 2d at 1103 (internal
quotation marks and citation omitted).
Finally, courts have uniformly found that the DMCA's anti-trafficking
provisions meet the Supreme Court's narrow tailoring requirement that a
content-neutral regulation of speech promote a substantial government
interest that would be achieved less effectively absent the regulation. See
id. at 1101. The DMCA's numerous exceptions (see Section V.C. of this
Chapter) further demonstrate that Congress narrowly tailored the statute
to balance, for instance, the needs of law enforcement, computer
programmers, encryption researchers, and computer security specialists
against the problems created by circumvention technology. See 17 U.S.C.
§§ 1201(e)-(g), (j); Elcom, 203 F. Supp. 2d at 1130-31.
V.C.10.c. Vagueness
Courts have also rejected challenges to the DMCA under the Fifth
Amendment on vagueness grounds. Vagueness may invalidate a statute if
the statute either (1) fails to provide the kind of notice that will enable
ordinary people to understand what conduct it prohibits, or (2) authorizes
or encourages arbitrary and discriminatory enforcement. City of Chicago
v. Morales, 527 U.S. 41, 56 (1999). Defendants typically argue that the
DMCA is vague or otherwise infirm because it bans only those
circumvention tools that are primarily designed to circumvent access or
copy controls to enable copyright infringement, not those enabling fair
uses. See, e.g., Elcom, 203 F. Supp. 2d at 1122. This issue has arisen with
respect to § 1201(b), which prohibits trafficking in any copy control
circumvention technology. Id. at 1124.
Courts have held, however, that the DMCA is not unconstitutionally
vague, because it imposes a blanket ban on all circumvention tools
regardless of whether the ultimate purpose for their use is fair or
infringing. Id. “Congress thus recognized that most uses of tools to
circumvent copy restrictions would be for unlawful infringement purposes
rather than for fair use purposes and sought to ban all circumvention tools
that 'can be used' to bypass or avoid copy restrictions.” Id. at 1125
(quoting S. Rep. No. 105-190, at 29-30). Moreover, Congress's intent to

preserve fair use, see § 1201(c), is not inconsistent with a ban on
trafficking in circumvention technologies, even those that could be used
for fair use purposes rather than infringement. Id. Although the DMCA
may make certain fair uses in digital works more difficult, the DMCA
does not eliminate fair use and in fact expressly permits it. See id.; 17
U.S.C. § 1201(c)(1). “Thus, while it is not unlawful to circumvent for the
purpose of engaging in fair use, it is unlawful to traffic in tools that allow
fair use circumvention.” Elcom, 203 F. Supp. 2d at 1125. Further, because
the DMCA prohibits the trafficking of all circumvention tools, Congress
need not expressly tie the use of the tool to an unlawful purpose (as may
be required, for instance, in a multi-use device context). Id. Accordingly,
the DMCA, “as written, allows a person to conform his or her conduct to
a comprehensible standard and is thus not unconstitutionally vague.” Id.
(citation omitted).
V.C.10.d. Fair Use

For a more detailed explanation of the fair use doctrine, see Section
II.C.5. of this Manual.
Defendants typically style their fair use defense to a DMCA violation
as an “as applied” First Amendment challenge. For example, traffickers
have raised fair use challenges “as applied” to the First Amendment rights
of third-party purchasers of the trafficker's circumvention tools. This type
of fair use defense fails for at least three reasons. First, the challengers
usually lack standing. “[A] person to whom a statute may constitutionally
be applied will not be heard to challenge that statute on the ground that
it may conceivably be applied unconstitutionally to others, in other
situations not before the Court.” Broadrick v. Oklahoma, 413 U.S. 601,
610 (1973). Those who traffic in circumvention tools that they do not use
cannot assert a fair use defense because they are not engaging in any
use—fair or infringing—of a copyrighted work. Simply put, traffickers lack
standing to challenge the DMCA's constitutionality based on its
application to the traffickers' customers.
Second, even a purchaser who could have standing because he did use
a copyrighted work cannot rely on the fair use defense, because the
DMCA does not present an issue of infringement. Fair use is an
affirmative defense to copyright infringement, something that the user can
accomplish only after he has first circumvented a work's copy controls.
See, e.g., Elcom, 203 F. Supp. 2d at 1121. The DMCA “targets the
circumvention of digital walls guarding copyrighted material (and
trafficking in circumvention tools), [it] does not concern itself with the
use of those materials after circumvention has occurred.” Corley, 273 F.3d

at 443. Thus, the DMCA's anti-trafficking provisions are not concerned
with purchasers' downstream use of circumvention tools. See Corley, 273
F.3d at 442; 321 Studios, 307 F. Supp. 2d at 1097-98.
Third, no court has held that the fair use doctrine is a categorical
constitutional requirement. Corley, 273 F.3d at 458 (“[T]he Supreme
Court has never held that fair use is constitutionally required.”). Fair use
is a judicially-created doctrine. Reimerdes, 111 F. Supp. 2d at 321. Fair
use existed only at common law until Congress codified it in the 1976
Copyright Act at 17 U.S.C. § 107, in order to maintain the common-law
status quo. See H.R. Rep. No. 94-1476, at 66 (1976), reprinted in 1976
U.S.C.C.A.N. 5659, 5680.
The fact that the fair use doctrine accommodates First Amendment
protections—i.e., that certain fair uses may also be protected under the
First Amendment, cf. Eldred v. Ashcroft, 537 U.S. 186, 218-20 (2003);
Harper & Row Publishers, Inc. v. Nation Enters., 471 U.S. 539, 560
(1985)—does not make the fair use doctrine and the First Amendment
categorically coextensive. See Elcom, 203 F. Supp. 2d at 1134 n.4 (“There
is no direct authority for the proposition that the doctrine of fair use is
coextensive with the First Amendment, such that 'fair use' is a First
Amendment right”).
Most significantly, courts have rejected “the proposition that fair use,
as protected by the Copyright Act, much less the Constitution, guarantees
copying by the optimum method or in the identical format of the
original.” Corley, 273 F.3d at 459. Fair use of copyrighted digital works
is still possible under the DMCA, even though copying of such works may
prove more difficult. 321 Studios, 307 F. Supp. 2d at 1102.
In addition, the DMCA does not place an impermissible financial
burden on fair users' First Amendment rights. Courts have found that this
“financial burden” argument “is both an overstatement of the extent of
the fair use doctrine and a misstatement of First Amendment law.” Id. A
statute's financial burden on a speaker renders the statute
unconstitutional only if such burden was placed on the speaker because
of the speech's content, not because of the speaker's desire to make the
speech. Id. (citations omitted). Section 1201 of the DMCA does not
eliminate fair use nor prevent anyone from engaging in traditional
methods of fair use such as “quoting from a work or comparing texts for
the purpose of study or criticism.” Elcom, 203 F. Supp. 2d at 1134.
Finally, courts have rejected the argument that the DMCA impairs an
alleged First Amendment fair use right to access non-copyrighted works

in the public domain, because the DMCA permits authors to use access
and copy controls to protect non-copyrighted works and copyrighted
works alike. See, e.g., 321 Studios, 307 F. Supp. 2d at 1102; Elcom, 203
F. Supp. 2d at 1134. Neither the DMCA nor the presence of access or
copy controls affect whether or not a work is in the public domain. 321
Studios, 307 F. Supp. 2d at 1102.
V.D. Penalties
For the first criminal violation of Title I of the DMCA (§§ 1201,
1202), the maximum penalty is five years' imprisonment, a $500,000 fine,
or both. 17 U.S.C. § 1204. For subsequent offenses, each of those
punishments can be doubled. Id. For a more complete discussion of
sentencing issues, see Chapter VIII of this Manual.

VI.
Counterfeit and Illicit Labels,
Counterfeit Documentation and
VI.A. Distinguished from Trademark and Copyright Statutes . . 228

VI.B. Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
VI.B.1. The Defendant Acted “Knowingly” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
VI.B.2. The Defendant Trafficked . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
VI.B.3. Trafficking in Labels Affixed to, Enclosing, or Accompanying
(or Designed to be Affixed to, Enclose, or Accompany) a
Phonorecord, Computer Program, Motion Picture or Other
Audiovisual Work, Literary, Pictorial, Graphic, or Sculptural
Work, or Work of Visual Art, or Documentation or
Packaging for Such Works (i.e., Trafficked Either in
Documentation or Packaging for
Such Works Itself, or in Labels for Such Documentation
or Packaging) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
Counterfeit or Illicit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
VI.B.5. Federal Jurisdiction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
VI.B.6. Venue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
VI.C. Defenses: Statute of Limitations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
VI.D. Special Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
VI.D.1. Electronic Copies of Labels, Documentation, or
Packaging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
VI.D.2. Advantages of Charging a § 2318 Offense . . . . . . . . 239
VI.E. Penalties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
VI.E.1. Fines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
VI.E.2. Imprisonment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
227
VI.E.3. Restitution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
VI.E.4. Forfeiture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
VI.E.5. Sentencing Guidelines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
Labels, Documentation, and Packaging . . . . . . . . . . . 240
VI.E.5.b. Number of Infringing Copyrighted Goods vs.
Number of Labels, Documents, or Packaging Items . . 242
VI.F. Other Charges to Consider . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
VI.A. Distinguished from Trademark and

Copyright Statutes
Creative works can be protected by criminal laws other than the
Copyright Act. The most important of these is 18 U.S.C. § 2318, which
criminalizes knowingly trafficking in counterfeit or illicit labels and
counterfeit documentation and packaging for copyrighted works.
Although § 2318 regulates items that accompany copyrighted works, it is
not a pure copyright statute, and its protections differ in scope from those
afforded by the Copyright Act.
Section 2318 also differs from civil and criminal trademark law.
Although counterfeit and illicit labels, documentation, and packaging
often bear counterfeit trademarks, the use of a counterfeit trademark is
not necessarily an element of a § 2318 charge. And although the
counterfeit marks statute, 18 U.S.C. § 2320, criminalizes the use of
counterfeit labels that bear counterfeit trademarks, § 2320 covers
counterfeit labels that accompany any kind of trademarked product or
service, and not just the types of copyrighted works covered by § 2318.
Several important amendments to § 2318 went into effect on
December 23, 2004 and March 16, 2006. See Sections VI.B.2, VI.B.3,
and VI.E.5.a. of this Chapter. As a result of the 2004 amendments,
§ 2318 now covers counterfeit labels not only for movies, music, and
software, but for other types of copyrighted works as well, namely, copies
of literary, pictorial, graphic, or sculptural works, works of visual art, and
documentation and packaging for any of the enumerated classes of
copyrighted works. 18 U.S.C. § 2318(a)(1). The 2004 amendments also
expanded § 2318 to cover counterfeit documentation and packaging itself
for the newly-added classes of works. 18 U.S.C. § 2318(a)(2). The section

also now covers the new category of illicit labels, which are “genuine
certificate[s], licensing document[s], registration card[s], or similar
labeling component[s]” that the copyright owner would normally use to
verify that a work is noninfringing (that is, legitimate), but which are
distributed or intended for distribution without the owner’s permission,
presumably to facilitate infringement. 18 U.S.C. § 2318(b)(4). The 2006
amendments expanded the definition of “traffic” to include a wider
variety of profit-oriented conduct, and directed the Sentencing
Commission to study the guidelines concerning labels, with guideline
amendments expected later in 2006. See Sections VI.B.2. and VI.E.5.a.
of this Chapter.
Sample indictments and jury instructions are provided in Appendix
F of this Manual.
VI.B. Elements
To obtain a conviction under 18 U.S.C. § 2318, the government must
prove five elements:
1. The defendant acted knowingly
2. The defendant trafficked
3. In labels affixed to, enclosing, or accompanying (or designed to be
affixed to, enclose, or accompany) a phonorecord, computer
program, motion picture or other audiovisual work, literary,
pictorial, graphic, or sculptural work, or work of visual art, or
documentation or packaging for such works (i.e., trafficked either
in documentation or packaging for such works itself, or in labels
for such documentation or packaging)
4. The documentation or packaging were counterfeit, or the labels
were counterfeit or illicit
5. Federal jurisdiction is satisfied because:
a. the offense occurred in special maritime territories or other
areas of special jurisdiction of the United States;
b. the offense used or intended to use the mail or a facility of
interstate or foreign commerce;
c. the counterfeit or illicit labels were affixed to, enclosed, or
accompanied copyrighted materials (or were designed to); or
VI. Counterfeit Labels, Documentation, Packaging 229

d. the documentation or packaging is copyrighted.
These elements are reviewed in detail in the following Sections.
VI.B.1. The Defendant Acted “Knowingly”

Section 2318 is a general intent crime. The government must prove
first that the defendant acted “knowingly.” This is less difficult than
proving that the defendant acted willfully, as with criminal copyright
cases, in which the government often must prove that the defendant knew
that he acted illegally (see the discussion of the “willful” standard in
criminal copyright infringement cases in Chapter II of this Manual).
Proving knowledge under § 2318 only requires proof that the defendant
knew that he was taking the actions described in the statute. See Bryan
v. United States , 524 U.S. 184, 193 (1998) (firearms offense)
(“‘[K]nowingly’ merely requires proof of knowledge of the facts that
constitute the offense.”).
The government need not prove that the defendant acted with
fraudulent intent in § 2318 cases involving counterfeit labels. Congress
eliminated that element in 1982, believing that such proof was
“superfluous” because the government must already prove that the
defendant knew his labels were counterfeit. S. Rep. No. 97-274, at 9
(1981), reprinted in 1982 U.S.C.C.A.N. 127, 135 (“In other words, it
would be difficult to conceive of a situation in which one could traffic in
articles knowing that they are counterfeit without intending to defraud
the purchaser.”) It is less clear whether, and to what extent, a requirement
of fraudulent intent may be assumed in cases involving illicit labels, but
the statute does not expressly require such proof.
What, then, must the government prove that the defendant knew?
Clearly, the government must prove the defendant knowingly trafficked
in labels, documentation, or packaging, but this will generally be easy to
show.
The crux is to prove that the defendant knew that the labels,
documentation, or packaging in which he trafficked were counterfeit or
illicit, as the case may be. See, e.g., United States v. Dixon, No. 84-5287,
1985 U.S. App. LEXIS 27076, at *9 (4th Cir. Aug. 12, 1985).
It may also suffice to prove that the defendant was willfully blind to
the fact that the items trafficked were counterfeit or illicit. Although no
published cases specify that the government may satisfy § 2318 through
proof of willful blindness (also known as “conscious avoidance” or
deliberate ignorance), courts have held that proving willful blindness
generally suffices to prove knowledge in criminal cases. See United States

v. Jewell, 532 F.2d 697, 699-705 (9th Cir.) (discussing the history and use
of “deliberate ignorance” instructions); see also Deborah Sprenger,
Propriety of Instruction of Jury on “Conscious Avoidance” of Knowledge
of Nature of Substance or Transaction in Prosecution for Possession or
Distribution of Drugs , 109 A.L.R. Fed. 710 § 2[a] (2005). “The
knowledge element of a crime such as the one charged here may be
satisfied upon a showing beyond a reasonable doubt that a defendant had
actual knowledge or deliberately closed his eyes to what otherwise would
have been obvious to him concerning the fact in question.” See United
States v. Brodie, 403 F.3d 123, 148 (3d Cir. 2005) (internal quotation
marks and citation omitted) (Trading with the Enemy Act of 1917 and
Cuban Assets Control Regulations violations). Willful blindness goes
beyond negligence: the defendant himself must have been “objectively
aware of the high probability of the fact in question, and not merely that
a reasonable man would have been aware of the probability.” Id. (internal
quotation marks and citation omitted).
The government need not prove that the defendant knew that the
jurisdictional elements listed in § 2318(c) fit his conduct, such as that the
computer program to which he had affixed his counterfeit labels was
copyrighted. See Section VI.B.5. of this Chapter.
VI.B.2. The Defendant Trafficked

In the second element of a § 2318 offense, the government must
prove that the defendant trafficked in labels, documentation, or
packaging. This element was significantly changed on March 16, 2006 by
the Protecting American Goods and Services Act of 2005, Pub. L. No.
109-181, § 2, 120 Stat. 285, 288 (March 16, 2006).
Before the March 16, 2006 amendments, “traffic” was statutorily
defined within § 2318 to mean “to transport, transfer or otherwise dispose
of, to another, as consideration for anything of value or to make or obtain
control of with intent to so transport, transfer or dispose of.” 18 U.S.C.
§ 2318(b)(2). Congress defined “traffic” specifically to exclude individuals
who knowingly acquire counterfeit labels or other articles solely for
personal use. See S. Rep. No. 97-274, at 9 (1981), reprinted in 1982
U.S.C.C.A.N. 127, 135. This definition was identical to the definition of
“traffic” in 18 U.S.C. § 2320(e)(2) (“Trafficking in counterfeit goods or
services”)—before that definition was also changed in the 2006 act—with
the same issues concerning what qualified as “consideration” and what did
not, as well as the issues concerning possession with intent to traffic.
See Section III.B.3.b. of this Manual.

The March 16, 2006 amendments made the parallels between the two
statutes’ definition of “traffic” more explicit. For cases arising from
conduct on or after that date, the definition of “traffic” in § 2318(b)(2)
has been amended to read, “the term ‘traffic’ has the same meaning as in
section 2320(e) of this title [18].” Protecting American Goods and
Services Act of 2005, § 2(c)(2), 120 Stat. at 288 (amending 18 U.S.C.
§ 2318(b)(2)). As is discussed in Section III.B.3.b. of this Manual, these
amendments deal with the issues concerning consideration and possession
with intent to traffic.
Prosecutors should therefore consult Section III.B.3.b., which covers
the counterfeit marks crime in 18 U.S.C. § 2320, for a discussion of how
the traffic element operated before and after the March 16, 2006
amendments. The only differences to be noted are that § 2320 punishes
attempts whereas § 2318 does not, and therefore any discussion of
attempted trafficking with regard to § 2320 may not apply to § 2318. On
the other hand, the definition of “traffic” in both statutes now includes
so many acts that are preparatory to distributing contraband—such as
making it, obtaining it, and possessing it with intent to traffic—that the
omission of an attempt provision in § 2318 should not prevent the
government from otherwise pursuing deserving cases. Thus, labels seized
during the search of a counterfeiting operation may constitute part of the
indicted conduct, whether or not the labels had yet been affixed to the
works or transferred to distributors or customers.
VI.B.3. Trafficking in Labels Affixed to, Enclosing, or

Accompanying (or Designed to be Affixed to, Enclose, or
Accompany) a Phonorecord, Computer Program, Motion
Picture or Other Audiovisual Work, Literary, Pictorial,
Graphic, or Sculptural Work, or Work of Visual Art, or
Documentation or Packaging for Such Works (i.e.,
Trafficked Either in Documentation or Packaging for Such
Works Itself, or in Labels for Such Documentation or
Packaging)
Before 2004, § 2318 prohibited trafficking in counterfeit labels
designed to be affixed to phonorecords, copies of computer programs,
motion pictures and audiovisual works, and counterfeit documentation
and packaging for computer programs. In 2004, Congress extended
§ 2318 substantially as part of the Intellectual Property Protection and
Courts Amendment Act of 2004, Pub. L. No. 108-482, 118 Stat. 3912
(Dec. 23, 2004).

In the third element of a § 2318 offense, the government must prove
that the labels in which the defendant trafficked were affixed to,
enclosing, or accompanying—or designed to be affixed to, enclose, or
accompany—phonorecords, motion pictures or other audiovisual works,
computer software, literary, pictorial, graphic, or sculptural works, or
works of visual art. See 18 U.S.C. § 2318(a)(1), (b)(3) (defining the
classes of copyrighted works); 17 U.S.C. §§ 101, 102 (same).
Alternatively, the government may show that the defendant trafficked in
documentation or packaging for one of the enumerated class of works, or
labels affixed or designed to be affixed to copyrighted documentation and
packaging. See 18 U.S.C. § 2318(a)(1)-(2), (b)(5).
The types of copyrighted works covered by the statute has expanded
significantly over the past several years. Before 2004, 18 U.S.C. § 2318
applied only to labels for movies, music, and software, and to
documentation and packaging only for computer software. The provisions
governing computer software had only been added in 1996. Amendments
in 2004 now expressly include labels, documentation, and packaging for
phonorecords, motion pictures or other audiovisual works, computer
software, literary, pictorial, graphic, or sculptural works, and works of
visual art. See 18 U.S.C. § 2318(a)(1), (b)(5).
The 2004 amendments also changed slightly the actual or intended
physical proximity of the labels and the copyrighted works for which they
are intended. Before the 2004 amendments, § 2318 covered labels that
had been “affixed or designed to be affixed to” certain works. 18 U.S.C.
§ 2318(a) (2003). “[D]esigned to be affixed” was included to cover
counterfeit labels that had not actually been attached to a work: it was
added to the statute to close a “loophole” in which some counterfeiters
had shipped only unattached labels. See S. Rep. No. 97-274, at 9 (1981),
reprinted in 1982 U.S.C.C.A.N. 127, 135. The physical nexus grew even
broader with the 2004 amendments, which expanded “affixed or designed
to be affixed” to “affixed to, enclosing, or accompanying, or designed to
be affixed to, enclose, or accompany.” 18 U.S.C. § 2318(a)(1). Despite
this expansion, some physical nexus between the labels and copyrighted
works—whether actual or intended—is still required.
Documentation and packaging still need only be “for” the enumerated
classes of copyrighted works. 18 U.S.C. § 2318(b)(5). Given the context,
the word “for” appears to have roughly the same meaning for
documentation and packaging that “affixed to, enclosing, or
accompanying, or designed to be affixed to, enclose, or accompany” has
for labels. Thus, some physical nexus with copyrighted works—whether
actual or intended—is required for documentation and packaging as well.

For a discussion of whether § 2318 applies to labels, documentation,
and packaging in electronic form, see Section VI.D.1. of this Chapter.

Counterfeit or Illicit
In the fourth element, the government must prove that the packaging
or documentation are “counterfeit” or that the labels are “counterfeit” or
“illicit.” See 18 U.S.C. § 2318(a)(1)-(2).
“Counterfeit” is defined as something “that appears to be genuine, but
is not.” 18 U.S.C. § 2318(b)(1), (b)(6). Counterfeit is distinct from
“bootlegged” or “pirated”: counterfeits are unauthorized copies of works
that are made to appear legitimate, whereas bootlegged recordings or
pirated items do not pretend to be legitimate. See United States v. Shultz,
482 F.2d 1179, 1180 (6th Cir. 1973) (“Counterfeit tapes are tapes which
are represented to be genuine articles of particular record companies
when, in truth, they are not. The process includes reproducing the tape
itself and also the recognized label of another record company. A bootleg
tape is a reproduction of someone else's recording or recordings marketed
under a different label.”). See also 18 U.S.C. § 2319A (addressing the
unauthorized recording and trafficking of live musical performances, also
known as “bootlegging”), and Chapter II of this Manual.
Counterfeit labels include those made when “counterfeiters have
simulated ‘genuine’ labels that have not previously existed,” insofar as
these simulated labels share the same basic criminal purpose as any
counterfeit product—to defraud the consumer, the manufacturer, and
society by trading off the product’s apparent authenticity. See S. Rep. No.
97-274, at 9 (1981), reprinted in 1982 U.S.C.C.A.N. 127, 135. “For
example, cases have arisen where a counterfeiter has produced packages
and distributed videotapes of a film which have never been released in
that form to the public. The term ‘counterfeit label’ includes such
simulated labels.” Id. Except for the Shultz case, supra, the extent to
which such simulated labels are counterfeit for purposes of § 2318 has
rarely been addressed in the courts. Prosecutors handling cases involving
simulated labels may find it helpful to consult with the Computer Crime
and Intellectual Property Section at (202) 514-1026.
An “illicit” label, generally speaking, is a “genuine certificate, licensing
document, registration card, or similar labeling component” intended for
use with one of the enumerated classes of copyrighted works, that a
defendant distributed or used without the work it was intended to
accompany or falsely altered to indicate broader rights than originally
intended. 18 U.S.C. § 2318(b)(4). Although § 2318 was amended to

cover “illicit” labels on December 23, 2004, as of this writing there are no
reported cases that involve illicit labels. For now, therefore, we must rely
solely on the statute. Specifically, an “illicit” label is one that is:
(A) used by the copyright owner to verify that [a copyrighted work of
the type enumerated above] is not counterfeit or infringing of any
copyright; and
(B) that is, without the authorization of the copyright owner [either]
(i) distributed or intended for distribution not in connection with
the copy, phonorecord, or work of visual art to which such
labeling component was intended to be affixed by the respective
copyright owner; or
(ii) in connection with a genuine certificate or licensing
document, knowingly falsified in order to designate a higher
number of licensed users or copies than authorized by the
copyright owner, unless that certificate or document is used by
the copyright owner solely for the purpose of monitoring or
tracking the copyright owner's distribution channel and not for
the purpose of verifying that a copy or phonorecord is
noninfringing.
18 U.S.C. § 2318(b)(4). Under subsection (A), an illicit label may include
any of a broad category of labeling components, such as most types of
identifying labels, particularly those that include trademarks, seals,
holograms, watermarks, or other marks intended to show that a product
is genuine. Although it is not clear from the statute’s text and legislative
history, presumably the definition does not include generic labels, such as
packing slips, that merely identify a particular work, but which the
copyright holder did not intend to certify the work’s authenticity.
Subsection (B) identifies two situations in which a labeling
component is “illicit.” First, a labeling component is illicit when it is
distributed, without the copyright holder’s permission, apart from the
original copyrighted item that the copyright owner intended the labeling
component to accompany. For example, individual “licensing packs” for
software that contain various labels, certificates of authenticity, and
documentation and packaging would be deemed illicit if they were sold
without the original media they were intended to accompany, or were sold
with a pirated copy of the media.
Second, a genuine labeling component is illicit when a genuine
certificate of authenticity or similar licensing document has been
knowingly falsified to indicate a higher number of authorized users or

copies. For example, business software often comes in multi-user license
packs that contain a single copy of the software itself on CD-ROM and
a license that permits the software to be run for a certain number of users.
If the licensing document for a ten-user license pack were knowingly
falsified to indicate authorization for 100 users, the falsified licensing
document would be illicit.
VI.B.5. Federal Jurisdiction

The final element of § 2318 requires the government to establish
federal jurisdiction over the offense by proving any one of the following
circumstances:
• The offense occurred in a special maritime, territorial, or aircraft
jurisdiction of the United States, § 2318(c)(1)
• Use of or intent to use the mail or facilities of interstate or foreign
commerce in the commission of the offense, § 2318(c)(2)
• In the case of a counterfeit or illicit label, the label was affixed,
enclosed or accompanying or designed to be affixed, enclosed or
to accompany certain copyrighted works or a copy of these works:
a phonorecord of a copyrighted sound recording or musical work;
a computer program; a literary work; a pictorial, graphic or
sculptural work; a work of visual a r t ; o r copyrighted
documentation or packaging, § 2318(c)(3)
• In the case of counterfeit documentation or packaging, the
documentation or packaging itself was copyrighted, § 2318(c)(4)
In practice, the most likely basis for jurisdiction will be copyright.
However, even when the works are copyrighted, prosecutors may
nevertheless find it easier to establish another basis for jurisdiction: a
copyright may be more burdensome to prove or an alternative basis may
be relatively clear. See Chapter II of this Manual, which discusses how to
prove the existence of a copyright.
The jurisdictional element in § 2318(c)(3) for counterfeit or illicit
labels that accompany certain classes of works is worded unusually. It
allows jurisdiction if the labels were affixed or designed to be affixed to
copies of sound recordings, musical works, computer programs, motion
pictures, audiovisual works, or documentation and packaging, if those
items were “copyrighted.” It also allows jurisdiction if the labels were
affixed or designed to be affixed to literary works, pictorial, graphic or
sculptural works, or works or visual art, but does not indicate that these
items must have been “copyrighted.” Compare § 2318(c)(3)(A)-(C), (G),

with § 2318(c)(3)(D)-(F). However, these latter classes of works are
subject to copyright protection, and § 2318 intends these terms to have
the same meaning as in the copyright code. See 17 U.S.C. § 102; 18
U.S.C. § 2318(b)(3). Therefore, Congress’s omission of the word
“copyrighted” from § 2318(c)(3)(D)-(F) was probably unintended, and
copyright should be read as an element of these jurisdictional bases.
The government need not prove the defendant knew that his actions
fell within the federal jurisdiction elements set forth in 18 U.S.C.
§ 2318(c). Thus, it is unnecessary to prove, for example, that the
defendant knew that the copy of the computer program to which his
counterfeit labels were affixed was copyrighted (see Section VI.B.1. of this
Chapter). Cf. United States v. Feola, 420 U.S. 671, 676 n.9 (1975)
(“[T]he existence of the fact that confers federal jurisdiction need not be
one in the mind of the actor at the time he perpetrates the act made
criminal by the federal statute.”); United States v. X-Citement Video,
Inc., 513 U.S. 64, 73 n.3 (1994) (affirming Feola as applied to strictly
jurisdictional facts); United States v. Yermain, 468 U.S. 63, 68-70 (1984)
(holding that the plain language of 18 U.S.C. § 1001, which is worded
similarly to § 2318(a), indicates that Congress did not intend “knowingly
and willingly” to apply to jurisdictional element).
VI.B.6. Venue
The proper venue for a § 2318 prosecution is addressed by general
principles governing venue in criminal cases. Particular attention should
be paid to offenses that involve the use of the mail or transportation in
interstate or foreign commerce, which will occur in most § 2318 offenses.
VI.C. Defenses: Statute of Limitations

Because § 2318 does not contain a specific statute of limitations, the
general five-year statute of limitations for non-capital offenses applies. See
18 U.S.C. § 3282.

VI.D. Special Issues
VI.D.1. Electronic Copies of Labels, Documentation, or
Packaging
Although a typical case under § 2318 generally involves labels,
documentation, or packaging in some sort of physical form, such as an
adhesive decal, a cardboard box, or a manual printed on paper, § 2318
might also be applied in certain cases when either the “original” or
“legitimate” items, or the “counterfeit” or “illicit” copies, or both, are in
electronic or digital form. However, such circumstances are limited.
Section 2318(b)(5) defines documentation and packaging as items which
are “in physical form,” which would not prohibit trafficking in
unauthorized copies of electronic documentation or manuals, when the
original or legitimate versions are only available in electronic form, e.g.,
for download over the Internet. It is unclear whether the term “in physical
form” would include a digitally-formatted manual tangibly embodied on
a CD-ROM. Conduct involving unauthorized electronic copies of a
physical version of a documentation or packaging (such as image files
scanned from a paper manual or box), or of documentation that is
legitimately distributed on a CD-ROM, nevertheless may implicate
§ 2318, either as evidence of a substantive violation of the trafficking
provision, or as an act that aids or abets such trafficking or furthers a
conspiracy to traffic.
The House Report to the 2004 amendments also makes clear that
§ 2318’s criminal provisions do not apply to “electronic transmission” of
“genuine” licensing components, documentation, or packaging. See H.R.
Rep. No. 108-600, at 4 (2004) (stating that the amendments “shall not
be construed to apply ... in any case, to the electronic transmission of a
genuine certificate, licensing document, registration card, similar labeling
component, or documentation or packaging.”). This language suggests
that the unauthorized electronic distribution of labeling components that
are purely electronic in their original or legitimate form, such as electronic
signatures or watermarks, does not constitute criminal trafficking under
§ 2318 (although such conduct may violate other criminal statutes).
However, the statute is silent as to whether § 2318 applies to the
electronic transmission of labeling components that are not “genuine,”
suggesting that it would be a criminal violation of § 2318 to traffic in
electronic files that contain unauthorized copies of labeling components,
where the original or legitimate labeling components were in physical form
(e.g., trafficking in digital image files that contain a convincing
reproduction of label decals or product packaging, such as would be

suitable for printing additional counterfeit copies of the labels or
packaging). Nevertheless, as of this writing, there is little case law in this
area, and the extent to which § 2318 may be applied in situations
involving electronic labeling components remains somewhat unclear.
VI.D.2. Advantages of Charging a § 2318 Offense

A § 2318 charge may be an appropriate adjunct or alternative charge
when the situation involves copyright or trademark infringement. In many
cases, the § 2318 charge may even be preferable. The mens rea
(knowledge) and minimum threshold of illegal conduct (none) are both
lower than the mens rea required in criminal copyright charges
(willfulness) and the monetary and numerical thresholds for many
criminal copyright charges. See Chapter II of this Manual. The standard
of proof may also be lower than for criminal trademark charges, which
require proof that any trademarks used on the counterfeit or illicit
labeling are identical to or substantially indistinguishable from one
registered with the U.S. Patent and Trademark Office. See Chapter III.
VI.E. Penalties
Section 2318(a) provides for a fine or imprisonment or both, as well
as forfeiture. Restitution is also available.
VI.E.1. Fines
Under § 2318(a), a defendant may be “fined under this title [18],”
which is an indirect reference to 18 U.S.C. § 3571 (“Sentence of fine”).
Under 18 U.S.C. § 3571, an individual can be fined up to $250,000 and
an organization can be fined up to $500,000, or either can be fined twice
the offense’s pecuniary gain or loss, without limit. 18 U.S.C. § 3571(a)-
(d).
VI.E.2. Imprisonment
The maximum term of imprisonment is five years. 18 U.S.C.
§ 2318(a).
VI.E.3. Restitution
Although § 2318 does not mention restitution, 18 U.S.C. § 3663A
provides for mandatory restitution to victims of certain crimes, including
crimes against property in Title 18, of which § 2318 is one. 18 U.S.C.

§ 3663A(c)(1)(A)(ii). Section 5E1.1 of the U.S. Sentencing Guidelines
Manual also provides for restitution in cases where there is an identifiable
victim and restitution is authorized under 18 U.S.C. § 3663A. Courts
have affirmed restitution orders for convictions under § 2318. See United
States v. Chay, 281 F.3d 682, 686 (7th Cir. 2002) (holding that an 18
U.S.C. § 2318(a) offense is “a crime against property covered by the
Mandatory Victim Restitution Act (MVRA), 18 U.S.C. § 3663A” and
affirming an order of $49,941.02 in restitution); United States v. Elouri,
62 Fed. Appx. 556 (5th Cir. 2003) (affirming an order on procedural
grounds of $136,050 in restitution for a violation of § 2318). For more on
restitution, see Chapter VIII of this Manual.
VI.E.4. Forfeiture
When a person is convicted under § 2318, the court must order the
forfeiture and destruction or other disposition of all counterfeit or illicit
labels, any items that these labels were affixed to or intended to be affixed
to, and any equipment, device, or material used to create these labels. See
18 U.S.C. § 2318(d). For more on forfeiture, see Chapter VIII of this
Manual.
VI.E.5. Sentencing Guidelines

Section 2B5.3 is the applicable sentencing guideline. See Chapter VIII
of this Manual. Section 2318 offenses in particular often raise issues
about how to evaluate the retail value and the number of infringing items
on which to base the infringement amount.

Labels, Documentation, and Packaging
The retail value may depend on whether the defendant’s labels,
documentation, and packaging were enclosed, affixed to, or accompanied
the materials for which they were intended. If so, the infringement
amount is calculated as usual, based on the retail value of the infringed
(genuine) or infringing (counterfeit) copyrighted material as Application
Note 2 to U.S.S.G. § 2B5.2 directs. See Chapter VIII of this Manual. If
not, then determining an infringement amount for unattached labels,
packaging, or documentation—standing alone—may be more complicated.
On March 16, 2006, the Stop Counterfeiting in Manufactured Goods
Act directed the Sentencing Commission to address how the infringement
amount should be calculated for offenses involving labels, documentation,
and packaging, such as 18 U.S.C. § 2318, that are not attached to or
accompanying copyrighted works. See Pub. L. No. 109-181, § 1, 120 Stat.

285 (March 16, 2006). Guideline clarifications pursuant to this directive
are expected later in 2006, after this Manual goes to print.
Until the guidelines are clarified, at least one past decision indicates
that unattached labels, documentation, and packaging be based on the
retail value of the labels, documentation, or packaging themselves. In
United States v. Bao , 189 F.3d 860, 862-63 (9th Cir. 1999), the
government seized 5,000 counterfeit manuals for software and counterfeit
packaging materials such as CD-ROM inserts and product registration
cards in Bao’s print shop. After Bao’s conviction under § 2318 for
trafficking in counterfeit software manuals, the district court sentenced
him based on a retail value of $50 per manual, the black market value of
the software plus a manual. The court’s theory was that the manual had
no value apart from the software. Id. at 862-63, 867. The Ninth Circuit
vacated the sentence, holding that the manuals’ retail value should have
been $12 apiece, the retail value of other comparable genuine manuals the
victim sold separate from software. Id. at 866-67. In other words, the
appropriate retail value was that of the counterfeit documentation, not
the thing the documentation was to accompany.
The court might have used the $50 value of the software plus a
manual had there been evidence that Bao understood the conspiracy to
extend beyond counterfeit manuals to counterfeit software. Id. at 867 n.3.
This logic may therefore apply in future cases when the counterfeit or
illicit labels, documentation, or packaging have no retail value separate
from the infringing copyrighted material, such as labels of Microsoft
trademark that could be applied to Microsoft software. Cf. U.S. v. Guerra,
293 F.3d 1279, 1292 (11th Cir. 2002) (§ 2320 case holding that “[t]he
value of the bands and labels is inextricably intertwined with that of the
completed product, as the value of the counterfeit cigars derives primarily
from the degree to which the bands and labels bear marks that are
indistinguishable from the genuine marks. Thus, the district court did not
err by considering ‘infringing items’ to be cigars rather than labels.”).
The December 2004 amendments to § 2318 prohibiting traffic in
“illicit” labels may also present some novel sentencing issues. Because
“illicit” labels are genuine labels that are used beyond the authorized
scope of the copyright holder, it may be difficult to determine the
infringement value of illicit labels that have not actually been affixed to,
enclosed with, or accompanied the copyrighted material. Since illicit labels
are genuine and not counterfeit, should the retail value of the genuine
label always be used to determine the infringement amount for sentencing
purposes? It is not clear, particularly because there are no reported cases
addressing trafficking in illicit labels. But the addition of illicit labels to

§ 2318 does blur the distinction between infringing (fake) and infringed
(genuine) retail value for sentencing purposes.
VI.E.5.b. Number of Infringing Copyrighted Goods vs. Number

of Labels, Documents, or Packaging Items
Just as the retail value might depend on how many products the
defendant had completed or could have completed readily, so might the
number of infringing items. Two appellate courts have ruled that “the
number of infringing items should correspond to the number of completed
or nearly completed counterfeit goods.” U.S. v. Guerra, 293 F.3d 1279,
1293 (11th Cir. 2002) (citing United States v. Sung, 51 F.3d 92 (7th Cir.
1995), appeal after remand, 87 F.3d 194 (7th Cir. 1996), on remand to,
940 F. Supp. 172 (N.D. Ill. 1996), rev’g trial court on other grounds, 114
F.3d 1192 (1997)). In both these cases, the number of infringing items
was held to be not the number of infringing labels or packaging items, but
rather the lower number of goods to which the labels or packaging had
been or could readily have been attached. See id. However, both these
cases concerned sentencing under the counterfeit trademark crime, 18
U.S.C. § 2320, not the counterfeit label crime in § 2318. It is difficult to
predict how these issues will be resolved in § 2318 prosecutions, in which
the focus is not the completed counterfeit product—as in § 2320
cases—but rather the counterfeit label, documentation, or packaging.
VI.F. Other Charges to Consider

When confronted with a case that implicates counterfeit or illicit
labels or counterfeit documentation or packaging, prosecutors may want
to consider the following crimes for charges in addition to 18 U.S.C.
§ 2318 or in lieu of such charges if § 2318's elements cannot be met:
• Copyright infringement, 17 U.S.C. § 506, 18 U.S.C. § 2319, for
any infringement of the underlying copyrighted goods. See, e.g.,
United States v. Cohen, 946 F.2d 430, 433-34 (6th Cir. 1991)
(affirming conviction under 18 U.S.C. §§ 2318-2319 for
duplicating and distributing copyrighted movies). A conspiracy or
aiding-and-abetting theory will sometimes be necessary. See
Chapter II of this Manual.
• Trademark counterfeiting, 18 U.S.C. § 2320, because labels,
documentation, and packaging for copyrighted works often carry
counterfeit reproductions of federally registered trademarks. See,
e.g., United States v. Hernandez, 952 F.2d 1110, 1113-14 (9th

Cir. 1991) (affirming conviction under 18 U.S.C. §§ 2318-2320
for counterfeit audio cassettes and audio cassette labels). See
Chapter III of this Manual.
• Mail or wire fraud, 18 U.S.C. §§ 1341, 1343, for schemes that
involve the use of the mails or wire, as long as there is a scheme
to defraud. Cf. United States v. Shultz, 482 F.2d 1179, 1180
(6th Cir. 1973) (upholding convictions for mail fraud and
counterfeit labels under an earlier version of § 2318, for causing
the transportation of a counterfeit stereo tape cartridge recording
in interstate commerce with forged or counterfeit label). The
theory of fraud cannot be merely that the media was copyrighted,
but rather that the defendant must have intended to defraud
either his immediate purchaser or other downstream purchasers.
See Section II.F. of this Manual.
• Racketeer Influenced and Corrupt Organizations (RICO), 18
U.S.C. §§ 1961-1968, because § 2318 violations serve as RICO
predicate acts. See § 1961(1)(B). RICO charges must be approved
by the Department’s Organized Crime and Racketeering Section,
which can be reached at (202) 514-3594.
• Bootleg sound recordings and music videos of live musical
performances, 18 U.S.C. § 2319A. See Section II.F. of this
Manual.

VII.
Patent
VII.A. Overview of Patent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
VII.B. Forgery of Letters Patent—18 U.S.C. § 497 . . . . . . . . . . . 247
VII.C. False Marking of Patent—35 U.S.C. § 292 . . . . . . . . . . . 247
VII.D. No Prosecution for Interstate Transportation or Receipt of Stolen
Property—18 U.S.C. §§ 2314, 2315 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
VII.A. Overview of Patent

Unlike copyright and trademark infringement, there are no criminal
penalties for committing patent infringement. Dowling v. United States,
473 U.S. 207, 227 (1985) (noting that "[d]espite its undoubted power to
do so," Congress has not provided criminal penalties for patent
infringement). Congress instead has relied on provisions affording owners
a civil cause of action for patent infringement. Id. at 227 n.19. As set
forth more fully below, however, Congress has provided for two criminal
provisions relating to patents: forgery of letters patent, and false marking
of patents.
As a threshold matter, it is worth revisiting the differences between
patents and copyrights. Patent rights are available to anyone who invents
"any new and useful process, machine, manufacture, or composition of
matter, or any new or useful improvement thereof." 35 U.S.C. § 101. A
patent grants an inventor the right to exclude others from making, using,
offering for sale, or selling devices that embody the patented invention.
See 35 U.S.C. § 271(a); Eldred v. Ashcroft, 537 U.S. 190, 216 (2003).
The federal government's authority to grant patents stems from U.S.
Const. art. I, § 8, known as the Intellectual Property or Copyright and
Patent Clause, which authorizes Congress to enact statutes that "promote
the Progress of Science and useful Arts, by securing for limited Times to
Authors and Inventors the exclusive Right to their respective Writings and
Discoveries." Congress first exercised this authority to grant patents in
1790, when Congress empowered the federal government to issue letters
patent. Act of Apr. 10, 1790, ch. 7, § 1, 1 Stat. 109. Like their modern
counterparts, "letters patent" contain a short title of the invention and a
"grant" to the patent owner ("patentee"), and his or her heirs or assigns, of
the right to exclude others from making, using, offering for sale, or selling
245
the invention throughout the United States or importing the invention
into the United States. See Eldred , 537 U.S. at 216; 35 U.S.C.
§ 154(a)(1). Currently, a patent grant lasts for a term beginning on the
date the U.S. Patent and Trademark Office issues the patent and ending
20 years from the date on which the patentee filed his or her application
for a patent grant. 35 U.S.C. § 154(a)(2).
Although patents and copyrights share a common constitutional
source (and the concomitant requirement that these exclusive rights are
for "limited times"), they differ in several meaningful respects. First,
copyrights grant an author the right to exclude certain uses of the author's
expression of an idea contained in an "original work of authorship,"
whereas patents grant an author the right to exclude others from making,
using, and selling devices or processes that embody the claimed invention.
Second, in exchange for granting the patentee this right to exclude, the
patentee must publicly disclose the invention. Eldred, 537 U.S. at 216.
"For the author seeking copyright protection, in contrast, disclosure is the
desired objective, not something exacted from the author in exchange for
the copyright." Id. at 216. Third, a copyright gives the holder no
monopoly on any knowledge or idea; a reader of an author's writing may
make full use of any fact or idea acquired by reading the writing. See 17
U.S.C. § 102(b). A patent, on the other hand, gives the patentee a
monopoly on his invention to prevent the full use by others of the
knowledge embodied in the patent. Eldred, 537 U.S. at 217.
It is also worth considering the difference between a patent and a
trade secret. The first difference is naturally that trade secret information
is protected only if it is secret (see Section IV.B.3.a.v. of this Manual),
whereas a patent is protected even after disclosure. During the patent
process, a trade secret contained in a patent application may lose its trade-
secret protection through disclosure only to gain patent protection. (See
Section IV.B.3.a.vi. of this Manual). Second, a patent gives its owner an
exclusive right to his invention, even against another who discovered the
patented invention independently, whereas a trade secret, like a copyright,
gives its owner no protection against independent discovery. Confold Pac.,
Inc. v. Polaris Indus., 433 F.3d 952, 958-59 (7th Cir. 2006) (Posner, J.).

VII.B. Forgery of Letters Patent—
18 U.S.C. § 497
18 U.S.C. § 497 prohibits forging "letters patent" (described above),
as well as knowingly passing off counterfeit letters patent:
Whoever falsely makes, forges, counterfeits, or alters any letters
patent granted or purporting to have been granted by the President
of the United States; or Whoever passes, utters, or publishes, or
attempts to pass, utter, or publish as genuine, any such letters patent,
knowing the same to be forged, counterfeited or falsely altered—Shall
be fined under this title or imprisoned not more than ten years, or
both.
As of this writing, no published opinions reported an applicable
offense under this provision.
VII.C. False Marking of Patent—

35 U.S.C. § 292
To protect patent holders and the public, Congress enacted the false
marking provision, 35 U.S.C. § 292, which provides for both criminal and
civil actions against a defendant for false marking. Section 292 creates a
financial punishment for three types of improper marking: (1)
representing that an article is patented when the patent is in fact held by
another; (2) marking as patented an article that is not patented; and (3)
falsely claiming that a patent application has been made or is pending.
Congress prohibits false marking in part because a properly marked
patented article provides the public with "a ready means of discerning the
status of intellectual property embodied in an article of manufacture or
design." Bonito Boats, Inc. v. Adkins, 489 U.S. 141, 162 (1989). This is
consistent with federal patent policy, which recognizes an "important
public interest in permitting full and free competition in the use of ideas
which are in reality a part of the public domain." Lear, Inc. v. Adkins, 395
U.S. 653, 670 (1969). False marking harms that public interest because
it "misleads the public into believing that a patentee controls the article
in question (as well as like articles), externalizes the risk of error in the
determination, placing it on the public rather than the manufacturer or
seller of the article, and increases the cost to the public of ascertaining
whether a patentee in fact controls the intellectual property embodied in
VII. Patent 247

an article." Clontech Labs., Inc. v. Invitrogen Corp., 406 F.3d 1347, 1356-
57 (Fed. Cir. 2005) (footnote omitted).
Section 292(a)'s first prohibition protects patent holders by
prohibiting an individual, without a patent holder's consent, from marking
or using in advertising for a product:
the words "patent," "patentee," or the like, with the intent of
counterfeiting or imitating the mark of the patentee, or of deceiving
the public and inducing them to believe that the thing was made,
offered for sale, sold, or imported into the United States by or with
the consent of the patentee.
35 U.S.C. § 292(a).
Section 292(a)'s second and third paragraphs protect the public from
false or misleading patent claims. The second paragraph prohibits
individuals from marking or using in advertising the word "patent" in
connection with any "unpatented article" for the purpose of deceiving the
public. Clontech, 406 F.3d at 1352. For § 292 to apply, the mismarked
article must "actually exist" and "be completed." Lang v. Pacific Marine &
Supply Co., 895 F.2d 761, 765 (Fed. Cir. 1990). Although not defined in
the statute, courts have held that the phrase "unpatented article" means
that "the article in question is not covered by at least one claim of each
patent with which the article is marked. Thus, in order to determine if an
article is 'unpatented' for purposes of section 292, it must be first
determined whether the claims of a patent cover the article in question."
Clontech, 406 F.3d at 1352. Furthermore, "the omission of 'applicable
patents' from a label listing patents purporting to cover the contents of a
box of course cannot, in itself, be a violation of the false marking statute."
Arcadia Mach. & Tool v. Sturm, Ruger & Co., 786 F.2d 1124, 1125 (Fed.
Cir. 1986) (emphasis in original); cf. Genlyte Thomas Group LLC v.
National Servs. Indus., 262 F. Supp. 2d 753, 756 (W.D. Ky. 2003)
(noting that courts consistently find no violation of § 292 "by a patentee
who marks patented articles with more patents than actually cover the
item") (internal citations and quotations omitted).
In the same vein as § 292(a)'s second paragraph, the third paragraph
prohibits individuals from marking or using in advertising the words
"patent applied for" or "patent pending" for the purpose of deceiving the
public when a patent application has neither been made nor is pending.
35 U.S.C. § 292(a).
Section 292(a) imposes a fine of not more than $500 for every
criminal offense. 35 U.S.C. § 292(a). Because it is a criminal fine for an
infraction, that fine is increased by 18 U.S.C. § 3571 to a maximum of

$5,000 for individuals ($10,000 for corporations) or twice the monetary
gain or loss. See 18 U.S.C. § 3571(b)(2), (b)(7), (c)(2), (c)(7), (d).
Section 292(b) also provides for a civil qui tam remedy, which enables
any person to sue for the statutory penalty and retain one-half of the
recovery, leaving the other half "to the use of the United States." 35
U.S.C. § 292(b); Boyd v. Schildkraudt Giftware Corp., 936 F.2d 76, 79
(2d Cir. 1991); Filmon Process Corp. v. Spell-Right Corp., 404 F.2d
1351, 1355 (D.C. Cir. 1968) (holding that "§ 292(b), while penal, is not
a criminal statute"). "The patentee is given this remedy to protect his
patent position, and as a practical matter, the patentee is the only likely
enforcer of it, as recovery requires proof that the statements were made
without his consent." Filmon, 404 F.2d at 1355.
Although criminal prosecutions pursuant to § 292 are rare, several
reported private enforcement actions provide helpful authority for
interpreting the false marking statute in criminal cases. Consistent with
the express language of the statute, courts have held that 35 U.S.C.
§ 292(a) requires the government to prove that the defendant intended
to deceive or counterfeit. See Arcadia, 786 F.2d at 1125 (affirming
holding that false marking statute was not violated where there was no
evidence of intent to deceive). Thus, accidental or unintentional
mismarking is not a violation. London v. Everett H. Dunbar Corp., 179
F. 506, 510 (1st Cir. 1910) (holding that interpreting patent claims is not
an exact science, and hence where one "has an honest, though mistaken,
belief that upon a proper construction of the patent it covers the article
which he marks," the requisite intent to deceive would not be shown);
Brose v. Sears, Roebuck & Co., 455 F.2d 763, 768-69 (5th Cir. 1972)
(same).
By the same token, a defendant's "mere assertion" that he did not
intend to deceive will not allow him to escape statutory liability when he
knew of falsehood. Clontech, 406 F.3d at 1352, 1353 n.2 (noting that
"the inference of intent to deceive cannot be defeated with blind
assertions of good faith where the patentee has knowledge of
mismarking"). "Intent to deceive is a state of mind arising when a party
acts with sufficient knowledge that what it is saying is not so and
consequently that the recipient of its saying will be misled into thinking
that the statement is true." Id. at 1352 (citing Seven Cases v. United
States, 239 U.S. 510, 517-18 (1916)). Using "objective standards," the
prosecution may establish the requisite intent to deceive where the
government proves both (1) the fact of misrepresentation and that (2) the
party making it had knowledge of its falsity. See id. (citing Norton v.
Curtiss, 433 F.2d 779, 795-96 (C.C.P.A. 1970)). "Where the article
VII. Patent 249

marked is obviously very remote from the patent referred to in
justification of the marking, this difference alone may be sufficient to
show an intention to deceive; but where the difference is slight, and the
question of the breadth of the invention or of the claims is so close as to
permit of an honest difference of opinion," then proof of such intent is
more difficult. London, 179 F. at 510. Hence, to show knowledge of the
misrepresentation, the government must show beyond a reasonable doubt
that the articles in question were in fact mismarked, and that defendant
did not have a reasonable belief that the articles were properly marked
(i.e., covered by a patent or patent application). Cf. Clontech, 406 F.3d
at 1352-53.
VII.D. No Prosecution for Interstate

Transportation or Receipt of Stolen
Property—18 U.S.C. §§ 2314, 2315
The interstate transportation of stolen property statute, 18 U.S.C.
§ 2314, does not allow prosecution of a person for the interstate
distribution of patent-infringing goods when the only theory for the
property's being stolen is that it infringes a patent. See Dowling v. United
States, 473 U.S. 207, 227 (1985) (dicta). The same dicta would likely
apply to the interstate receipt of stolen property (18 U.S.C. § 2315).

VIII.
Penalties, Restitution,
and Forfeiture
VIII.A. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254

VIII.B. Statutory Penalties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254
VIII.C. Sentencing Guidelines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254
VIII.C.1. Offenses Involving Copyright (Including Bootleg Music,
Camcorded Movies, and the Unauthorized Use of
S a t e l l i t e , R adio, and Cable Communications ) ,
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
VIII.C.1.a. Applicable Guideline is § 2B5.3 . . . . . . . . . . . 255
VIII.C.1.b. Base Offense Level . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
“Infringement Amount”—U.S.S.G. § 2B5.3(b)(1) . . . 257
VIII.C.1.c.i. Formula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
VIII.C.1.c.ii. Number of Infringing Items . . . . . . . . . 258
VIII.C.1.c.iii. Retail Value . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
VIII.C.1.c.iv. Determining Amounts and Values—Reasonable
Estimates Allowed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
VIII.C.1.c.v. Cross-Reference to Loss Table in
U.S.S.G. § 2B1.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264
VIII.C.1.d. Pre-release Piracy Increases the Offense Level
by 2—U.S.S.G. § 2B5.3(b)(2) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
VIII.C.1.e. Manufacturing, Importing, or Uploading Infringing
Items Increases the Offense Level by 2—
U.S.S.G. § 2B5.3(b)(3) [before October 24, 2005:
§ 2B5.3(b)(2)] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
251
VIII.C.1.f. Offense Not Committed for Commercial Advantage or
Private Financial Gain Reduces the Offense Level by
2—U.S.S.G. § 2B5.3(b)(4) [before October 24, 2005:
§ 2B5.3(b)(3)] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
VIII.C.1.g. Offense Involving Risk of Serious Bodily Injury or
Possession of a Dangerous Weapon Increases the Offense
Level by 2—U.S.S.G. § 2B5.3(b)(5) [before October 24,
2005: § 2B5.3(b)(4)] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
Increases the Offense Level—U.S.S.G. § 3B1.3 . . . . . 268
VIII.C.1.i. Upward Adjustment for Harm to Copyright or Mark-
Owner's Reputation, Connection with Organized Crime, or
Other Unspecified Grounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
VIII.C.1.j. Vulnerable Victims—U.S.S.G. § 3A1.1(b) . . . 269
Participation in Prosecution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
VIII.C.2. Offenses Involving the Economic Espionage Act . 270
VIII.C.2.a. Applicable Guideline is § 2B1.1, Except for Attempts
and Conspiracies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270
VIII.C.2.b. Base Offense Level—U.S.S.G. § 2B1.1(a) . . . 270
VIII.C.2.c. Loss—U.S.S.G. § 2B1.1(b)(1) . . . . . . . . . . . . 270
VIII.C.2.c.i. Use Greater of Actual or Intended Loss . 271
VIII.C.2.c.ii. Reasonable Estimates Acceptable . . . . . 271
VIII.C.2.c.iii. Methods of Calculating Loss . . . . . . . . 271
Instrumentality, or Agent—U.S.S.G. § 2B1.1(b)(5) . . 277
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
VIII.C.2.f. Upward Departure Considerations— U.S.S.G. § 2B1.1
cmt. n.19(A) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278
U.S.S.G. § 2B1.1 cmt. n.19(C) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278

VIII.C.2.i. Use of Special Skill—U.S.S.G. § 3B1.3 . . . . . . 279
VIII.C.2.j. No Downward Departure for Victim's Participation in
Developing the Case . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
VIII.D. Restitution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
Intellectual Property Prosecutions . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
Consumers Who Were Defrauded . . . . . . . . . . . . 284
VIII.D.3. Determining a Restitution Figure . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
VIII.E. Forfeiture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293
VIII.E.1. Property Subject to Forfeiture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293
VIII.E.2. Overview of Forfeiture Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . 294
VIII.E.2.a. Administrative Forfeiture Proceedings . . . . . . 294
VIII.E.2.b. Civil and Criminal Proceedings . . . . . . . . . . . 295
VIII.E.2.c. Table of Forfeiture Provisions Arranged by
Criminal IP Statute . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
VIII.E.3. Choosing a Forfeiture Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299
VIII.E.4. Civil Forfeiture in IP Matters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300
VIII.E.4.a. Proceeds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300
VIII.E.4.b. Infringing Items, Other Contraband, and Facilitating
Property . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
VIII.E.4.c. Innocent Owner Defense . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302
VIII.E.4.d. Victims' Ability to Forfeit Property . . . . . . . . 302
VIII.E.5. Criminal Forfeiture in IP Matters . . . . . . . . . . . . 303
VIII.E.5.a. Proceeds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304
VIII.E.5.b. Infringing Items, Other Contraband, and Facilitating
Property . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
VIII. Penalties, Restitution, and Forfeiture 253

VIII.A. Introduction
This Chapter discusses the penalties for intellectual property crime,
concentrating on the sentencing guidelines, restitution, and forfeiture.
This Chapter does not address the sentencing issues raised by former
Attorney General John Ashcroft's September 23, 2003 Memorandum on
Department Policies and Procedures Concerning Charging Criminal
Offenses, Disposition of Charges, and Sentencing , available at
http://www.usdoj.gov/opa/pr/2003/September/03_ag_516.htm, which
instructs that “federal prosecutors must charge and pursue the most
serious, readily provable offense or offenses that are supported by the
facts of the case, except as authorized by an Assistant Attorney General,
United States Attorney, or designated supervisory attorney in the limited
circumstances described below.” For more on charging decisions,
prosecutors should consult the Attorney General's Memorandum, and also
Chapter IX of this Manual, which specifically addresses charging decisions
in intellectual property cases.
VIII.B. Statutory Penalties

The maximum statutory penalties for intellectual property crimes are
addressed in the chapters on the respective substantive laws and are
summarized in Appendix I.
VIII.C. Sentencing Guidelines

This subsection addresses the interpretation and application of the
United States Sentencing Guidelines (“U.S.S.G.”) in intellectual property
prosecutions, primarily § 2B1.1 for Economic Espionage Act cases,
§ 2B5.3 for all other intellectual property offenses, and § 3B1.3 for crimes
in which the defendant abused a position of trust or used a special skill.
This subsection should be read in conjunction with the sections covering
penalties in the chapters that present the substantive offenses, as well as
with the chapter on victims' rights.
This Manual does not address the issues raised by United States v.
Booker, 543 U.S. 220 (2005), in which the Supreme Court held that the
United States Sentencing Guidelines must be considered at sentencing
but are only advisory. As with other crimes, prosecutors should generally
continue to seek sentences within the guidelines range in intellectual

property prosecutions because they are presumptively reasonable.
Memorandum from Assistant Attorney General Christopher A. Wray,
Guidance Regarding the Application of United States v. Booker and
United States v. Fanfan, 2005 WL 50108 (Jan. 12, 2005), to Pending
Cases, at 5 (Jan. 19, 2005). The intellectual property guidelines have been
intricately fashioned through amendment and re-amendment, often
incorporating and reacting to court decisions. For general guidance on this
issue, prosecutors should consult Deputy Attorney General James B.
Comey's January 28th, 2005 Memorandum on Department Policies and
Procedures Concerning Sentencing, which directs that“federal prosecutors
must actively seek sentences within the range established by the
Sentencing Guidelines in all but extraordinary cases.”
For assistance with any sentencing issues specific to intellectual
property crimes, please call CCIPS at (202) 514-1026 for assistance.
VIII.C.1. Offenses Involving Copyright (Including Bootleg Music,

Camcorded Movies, and the Unauthorized Use of
Satellite, Radio, and Cable Comm unic at io ns ) ,
VIII.C.1.a. Applicable Guideline is § 2B5.3
U.S.S.G. § 2B5.3 governs sentencing for the following offenses:
• Criminal copyright infringement, 17 U.S.C. § 506, 18 U.S.C.
§ 2319
• Criminal violations of the Digital Millennium Copyright Act, 17
U.S.C. § 1204
• Trafficking in counterfeit labels, illicit labels, and counterfeit
documentation or packaging, 18 U.S.C. § 2318
• Trafficking bootleg audio and video recordings of live musical
performances, 18 U.S.C. § 2319A
• Unauthorized recording of motion pictures in a movie theater, 18
U.S.C. § 2319B
• Trafficking in counterfeit trademarked, service-marked, or
certification-marked goods, services, and labels, documentation,
and packaging for goods and services, 18 U.S.C. § 2320
• Unauthorized reception of cable and satellite service, 47 U.S.C.
§§ 553(b)(2), 605 and 18 U.S.C. § 2511

The guidelines' Statutory Index, U.S.S.G. App. A, refers these statutes to
U.S.S.G. § 2B5.3.
The one exception is the Digital Millennium Copyright Act, which is
not listed in the guidelines' index at all. A statute not listed in this index
should be sentenced under “the most analogous guideline.” U.S.S.G.
§§ 1B1.2(a), 2X5.1. In DMCA cases, the most analogous guideline is
§ 2B5.3. The DMCA was intended to safeguard the copyright protections
for copyrighted works, and copyright crimes are sentenced under § 2B5.3.
Moreover, § 2B5.3 implicitly refers to the DMCA in an application note
that requires an adjustment for use of a special skill under U.S.S.G.
§ 3B1.3 “[i]f the defendant de-encrypted or otherwise circumvented a
technological security measure to gain initial access to an infringed item.”
U.S.S.G. § 2B5.3 cmt. n.3 (2005). Although the DMCA and U.S.S.G.
§ 2B5.3 are not a perfect fit, they are the best match under the current
guidelines.
Section 2B5.3 has been amended a number of times. It was amended
on May 1, 2000, to “ensure that the applicable guideline range for a
defendant convicted of a crime against intellectual property” would be
“sufficiently stringent to deter such a crime and to adequately reflect”
consideration of “the retail value and quantity of the items with respect
to which the crime against intellectual property was committed.” No
Electronic Theft (NET) Act of 1997, Pub. L. No. 105-147, § 2(g), 111
Stat. 2678 (1997). Among other things, the May 2000 amendments
increased the applicable base offense level from 6 to 8 and increased the
number and type of special offense characteristics to include not only the
infringement amount, but also characteristics for manufacturing,
uploading, or importing infringing items; for infringement not committed
for commercial advantage or private financial gain; and for risk of serious
bodily injury or possession of a dangerous weapon in connection with the
offense. See U.S.S.G. App. C (Amendments 590, 593). Section 2B5.3 was
amended again effective October 24, 2005, adding a new specific offense
characteristic (2) addressing infringement of pre-release works,
renumbering offense characteristics (2)-(4) as offense characteristics (3)-
(5), clarifying the definition of uploading for technical purposes, and
clarifying that the court can estimate the infringement amount using any
relevant information. See U.S.S.G. App. C (Amendment 675).
As of this writing, U.S.S.G. § 2B5.3 is likely to be amended again
during 2006 pursuant to the Stop Counterfeiting in Manufactured Goods
Act, Pub. L. No. 109-181, § 1, 120 Stat. 285, 287-88 (Mar. 16, 2006). It
asks the Sentencing Commission to explore how the guideline should
account for items that facilitate infringement such as counterfeit labels

and DMCA circumvention devices. See also Section III.E.5. of this
Manual.
As is discussed in Section VIII.C.2. of this Chapter, the Economic
Espionage Act is sentenced under U.S.S.G. § 2B1.1.
VIII.C.1.b. Base Offense Level

U.S.S.G. § 2B5.3's base offense level is currently 8, up from a base
offense level of 6 for offenses committed before May 1, 2000. See
U.S.S.G. App. C (Amendments 590, 593). The base offense level was
raised from 6 to 8 to reflect that “the vast majority” of intellectual
property offenses involve more than minimal planning. Id.

“Infringement Amount”—U.S.S.G. § 2B5.3(b)(1)
Under U.S.S.G. § 2B5.3(b)(1), the base offense level is then adjusted
according to the “infringement amount,” an estimate of the magnitude of
infringement. “Similar to the sentences for theft and fraud offenses, the
sentences for defendants convicted of intellectual property offenses should
reflect the nature and magnitude of the pecuniary harm caused by their
crimes. Accordingly, similar to the loss enhancement in the theft and
fraud guideline, the infringement amount in subsection (b)(1) serves as
a principal factor in determining the offense level for intellectual property
offenses.” U.S.S.G. § 2B5.3 cmt. backg'd. The mechanics of calculating
the infringement amount are covered in U.S.S.G. § 2B5.3 cmt. n.2.
VIII.C.1.c.i. Formula
The infringement amount is generally calculated by multiplying the
number of infringing goods by the goods' retail value. See U.S.S.G.
§ 2B5.3 cmt. n.2(A),(B).
If the defendant infringed a variety of items, the infringement amount
is the sum of the individual infringement amounts for each type of item.
Id. cmt. n.2(D). The infringement amount for each type of item is
calculated independently of the others, including whether the retail value
should be that of an infringing (counterfeit) item or an infringed
(legitimate) item. Id. See Section VIII.C.1.c.iii. of this Chapter. The
individual infringement amounts are then aggregated into a total
infringement amount, which is then plugged into the loss table in
U.S.S.G. § 2B1.1. See Section VIII.C.1.c.v. of this Chapter.

VIII.C.1.c.ii. Number of Infringing Items
The number of infringing items can be easy to calculate. Victims or
their representatives can often help verify the number when the number
depends on whether an item's copyright or trademark has been registered.
For a list of industry associations that represent victims, consult Appendix
G of this Manual. When the number of infringing items is difficult or
impossible to calculate, however, reasonable estimates are allowed. See
Section VIII.C.1.c.iv. of this Chapter.
In determining the number of infringing items, the biggest questions
are often whether or to what extent to include items that are incomplete,
such as items in the process of production, or that merely facilitate
infringement, such as labels and packaging. These questions are discussed
at length in Sections III.E.5. (sentencing issues concerning counterfeit
marks) and VI.E.5. (sentencing issues concerning counterfeit and illicit
labels, documentation, and packaging for copyrighted works) of this
Manual. They are also likely to be addressed in upcoming guideline
amendments that will be considered after this Manual is published mid-
2006.
A recurring question is whether the infringement amount should
include all the infringing items that the defendant acquired or only those
that he provided to another, such as a customer or co-conspirator. If
trafficking is an element of the crime, then the infringement amount
should include all items the defendant acquired because the intellectual
property crimes define trafficking to include obtaining control over the
infringing product with the intent to transport, transfer, or dispose of it.
See United States v. DeFreitas, No. 98 CR. 1004(RWS), 2000 WL
763850, at *1 (S.D.N.Y. June 13, 2000) (trademark case), aff'd on other
grounds, 8 Fed. Appx. 58 (2d Cir. 2001). The infringement amount
should also include all the items the defendant acquired if he is convicted
of an attempt, id., or conspiracy. In such cases, the infringement amount
should include all infringing items in the defendant's inventory, plus all
infringing items that had been transferred out of inventory.
Determining the number of infringing items in a DMCA case can be
a challenge because a defendant can violate the DMCA without engaging
in any infringement. See Chapter V of this Manual. The guideline and its
commentary give no help. Because these issues are complex and are also
likely to be addressed in guidelines amendments that will be considered
after this Manual is published in 2006, prosecutors are encouraged to
consult CCIPS for guidance at (202) 514-1026.

VIII.C.1.c.iii. Retail Value
The major issues with determining the retail value are what to do
when the items have not been fully manufactured, how to value items that
facilitate infringement, which market should be used for reference, and
whether to use the value of a counterfeit or a legitimate item. These
questions are addressed below.
• Incompletely Manufactured Items
How to value items whose manufacture is incomplete is treated in
Sections III.E.5. and VI.E.5. of this Manual.
• Items that Facilitate Infringement Such as Labels and DMCA
Circumvention Devices
How to value items that do not infringe but instead enable
infringement—such as counterfeit labels, packaging, and documentation,
as well as DMCA-violating circumvention devices—raises complex issues.
These issues include whether to use the value of the item that facilitates
infringement (such as the label or circumvention device) or the item that
would be infringed, and how to value items that could facilitate the
infringement of a variety of items that have disparate prices (such as
clothing labels that could be attached to low-priced children's clothing or
high-priced men's suits or ladies' dresses). These issues are discussed
briefly in Sections III.E.5. and VI.E.5. of this Manual, and are also likely
to be addressed in upcoming guideline amendments that will be
considered after this Manual is published in 2006.
• Choosing the Correct Market
“[T]he 'retail value' of an infringed item or an infringing item is the
retail price of that item in the market in which it is sold.” U.S.S.G.
§ 2B5.3 cmt. n.2(C). To define the relevant market in which the items are
sold, the government should focus on the market's geographic location,
whether it exists on the Internet or in real-world storefronts, and whether
it is sold in a legitimate market or a black market.
• Infringing/Counterfeit vs. Infringed/Authentic Retail Values
Infringing items often trade for much less than authentic items. Using
the retail value of one rather than the other can easily mean the difference
between months and years in prison, if not between prison and probation.
Consequently, whether to use the retail value of counterfeits or authentic
items is often the predominant issue at sentencing.
The general rule of fitting the punishment to the harm applies to
selecting the retail value. Intellectual property crimes create four basic

types of harm: (1) the fraud on consumers who were tricked into buying
something inauthentic (at the defendant's prices), (2) the legitimate
income that rights-holders lost (at legitimate prices) when consumers
mistakenly bought the defendant's items, (3) the rights-holders' inability
to control the use of their property, whether consumers were defrauded
or not, and (4) the defendant's unjust enrichment (at the defendant's
prices) by using the rights-holder's intellectual property unlawfully.
To value these harms, the law simplified the inquiry into whether the
defendant caused or was likely to have caused the victim to lose sales or
not. If so, the maximum measure of harm is the victim's lost sales, which
are valued at the victim's own prices. If not, the maximum measure of
harm is the defendant's gain, which is valued at what the defendant took
in, at his own prices. And if the counterfeit price was hard to determine,
then the harm should be computed at the legitimate item's price for ease
of calculation.
The guidelines, however, originally directed courts to account for
these harms by using only the retail value of infringing (counterfeit) items.
See U.S.S.G. § 2B5.3(b)(1) & cmt. n.1 & backg'd (1998). But this
presented some difficulties when the counterfeit items had been
distributed for free, such as pirated software and music that was freely
available over the Internet, which would have resulted in an infringement
amount of $0. Nor did the Guidelines explain how to calculate the retail
value of the infringing items when that value was difficult to determine:
whereas the retail value of legitimate items is easily measured, the retail
value of counterfeit items is not always obvious.
Notwithstanding the original guidelines' silence as to a legitimate
item's retail value, the courts recognized its relevance in a variety of
circumstances. The Second Circuit clarified that high-quality fakes should
be valued at the retail price and lower-quality fakes should be valued at
the counterfeit price. See United States v. Larracuente, 952 F.2d 672,
674-75 (2d Cir. 1992). Other courts recognized that a genuine item's
price could help determine a counterfeit item's retail value when it
otherwise was difficult to determine. See United States v. Slater, 348 F.3d
666, 670 (7th Cir. 2003) (refusing to assess zero value to free software
distributed over the Internet because courts “need only make a reasonable
estimate of the loss, given the available information”); United States v.
Bao, 189 F.3d 860, 866-67 (9th Cir. 1999) (stating that the retail value
of genuine merchandise is relevant as a ceiling for the retail value of
infringing items); United States v. Cho, 136 F.3d 982, 985 (5th Cir.
1998) (stating that it is “not clear error for the district court to rely on the
retail value of genuine items [to assess] the retail value of the [counterfeit]

items,” particularly when it is difficult to calculate the counterfeits' price);
United States v. Kim, 963 F.2d 65, 69 (5th Cir. 1992) (holding that
evidence of genuine items' retail value was relevant to the retail value for
the counterfeits in absence of other evidence of counterfeits' value);
United States v. DeFreitas, No. 98 CR. 1004 (RWS), 2000 WL 763850,
at *2 (S.D.N.Y. June 13, 2000). In fact, the Slater, Bao , Kim and
DeFreitas courts ultimately relied on the retail price of the infringed
(legitimate) goods, even though the former guideline's plain language
referred only to the retail value of the infringing (counterfeit)
merchandise.
On May 1, 2000, the sentencing guidelines caught up to the case-law
by concentrating on the harm the defendant caused, whether he displaced
the victim's legitimate sales, and how hard it is to calculate the
counterfeit's value. See U.S.S.G. App. C (Amendments 590, 593).
Application Note 2(A) to U.S.S.G. § 2B5.3 now instructs the court to use
the retail value of an authentic item if any one of the following situations
applies:
• The infringing item “is, or appears to a reasonably informed
purchaser to be, identical or substantially equivalent to the
infringed item,” U.S.S.G. cmt. n.2(A)(i)(I)
Differences in appearance and quality therefore matter if they could
be ascertained by “a reasonably informed purchaser.” An infringing item
that could fool only an uninformed purchaser would be valued at the
counterfeit retail value.
• The infringing item is a digital or electronic reproduction, id.
cmt. n.2(A)(i)(II)
For digital or electronic reproductions, use the retail value of an
authentic item regardless of whether they appear authentic to a
reasonably informed purchaser or not. A counterfeit movie DVD with an
obviously counterfeit label would be valued at the authentic item's retail
value, even though nobody would be confused into mistaking the
counterfeit for an authentic DVD. The Commission's theory is likely that
a digital or electronic reproduction is a perfect substitute for the real
thing, whether its outer trappings look legitimate or not. The guideline
does not distinguish between types of digital reproduction, such as when
the digital or electronic reproduction is not a perfect substitute because
its quality was degraded, as with a camcorded movie or a musical song
that has been reproduced at a lower sampling rate than CD quality.

• The counterfeit was sold at 75% or more of the authentic
item's retail price, id. cmt. n.2(A)(ii)
Again, the Commission likely reasoned that counterfeits sold at less
than 75% of the authentic item's retail price are unlikely to fool
consumers, or that consumers who would pay less than 75% of the
authentic retail price would be unlikely to pay full price even if given the
chance to do so.
• The counterfeit's retail value “is difficult or impossible to
determine without unduly complicating or prolonging the
sentencing proceeding,” id. cmt. n.2(A)(iii)
As is discussed in Section VIII.C.1.c.iv. of this Chapter, reasonable
estimates of the counterfeit and authentic retail prices are acceptable, but
speculative guesses or overly time-consuming calculations are not.
• The offense involved illegal interception of satellite cable
signals in violation of 18 U.S.C. § 2511, where “the 'retail value
of the infringed item' is the price the user of the transmission
would have paid to lawfully receive that transmission, and the
'infringed item' is the satellite transmission rather than the
intercepting device,” id. cmt. n.2(A)(iv)
Presumably this rule would also apply to the illegal interception of
cable and satellite service under statutes other than 18 U.S.C. § 2511,
such as 47 U.S.C. §§ 553(b)(2), 605 and 17 U.S.C. § 1204.
• The retail value of the authentic good is a better approximation
of the harm than the value of the counterfeit, id. cmt.
n.2(A)(v); or
• “The offense involves the display, performance, publication,
reproduction, or distribution of a work being prepared for
commercial distribution. In a case involving such an offense,
the 'retail value of the infringed [authentic] item' is the value of
that item upon its initial commercial distribution,” id. cmt.
n.2(A)(vi)
This is part of the Sentencing Commission's solution to the so-called
“pre-release problem”—that is, how to value an infringing copyrighted
work whose infringement occurred before the rights-holder put the
authentic work on the market itself. Confronted with widely diverging
estimates of the harm caused by pre-release piracy, the Commission
determined that a pre-release work's retail value should equal its
anticipated legitimate retail value, but that a 2-point upward adjustment
should be added for all pre-release offenses. See U.S.S.G. § 2B5.3(b)(2).

See also Section VIII.C.1.d. of this Chapter. Both these provisions were
added on October 24, 2005. U.S.S.G. App. C (Amendment 675).
If any one of the above situations applies, the retail value is that of
the infringed (legitimate) item.
If none of these situations apply, the retail value is that of the
(infringing) counterfeit item. See U.S.S.G. § 2B5.3 cmt. n.2(B) & backg'd;
id. App. C (Amendment 593). This includes cases involving the unlawful
recording of a musical performance in violation of 18 U.S.C. § 2319A.
U.S.S.G. § 2B5.3 cmt. n.2(B).
VIII.C.1.c.iv. Determining Amounts and Values—Reasonable

Estimates Allowed
How to determine the infringing or infringed item's retail value? Any
relevant source of information is appropriate. Actual prices are preferable,
such as prices determined from the defendant's price list, prices charged
during undercover buys, or actual retail prices for specific items in the
legitimate manufacturer's catalogue. Approximations may be necessary,
however, and they may include estimations of the average counterfeit
prices in the market or region as determined by experts, or the average
retail price for a product line in the manufacturer's catalogue.
The same rule goes for determining the number of infringing items:
actual counts are preferable, but approximations are appropriate.
The courts allowed approximations of the infringement amount even
before the guidelines did so explicitly. See United States v. Foote, 413
F.3d 1240, 1251 (10th Cir. 2005) (allowing analysis of defendant's bank
records to aid in determining infringement amount); United States v.
Slater, 348 F.3d 666, 670 (7th Cir. 2003) (confirming that district courts
have “considerable leeway in assessing the retail value of the infringing
items” and that courts “need only make a reasonable estimate of the loss,
given the available information,” citing the former U.S.S.G. § 2F1.1, now
replaced by § 2B1.1); United States v. Kim, 963 F.2d 65, 69-70 (5th Cir.
1992) (analogizing to fraud guideline for principle that reasonable
estimates are acceptable).
Now, however, U.S.S.G. § 2B5.3 explicitly states that reasonable
estimates are acceptable. On October 24, 2005, Application Note 2(E) to
U.S.S.G. § 2B5.3 clarified as follows:
(E) Indeterminate Number of Infringing Items.—In a case in
which the court cannot determine the number of infringing items,
the court need only make a reasonable estimate of the

infringement amount using any relevant information, including
financial records.
See U.S.S.G. App. C (Amendment 675). The reference to financial
records is likely an incorporation of the holding in Foote.
Although statistical precision is preferable, it is not necessary. For
example, in a case that turned on whether the 3,947 infringing pieces of
computer software on a server were functioning or nonfunctioning, the
FBI tested 71 programs and found that 94% were functioning. United
States v. Rothberg, No. 00 CR 85, 2002 WL 171963, at *4 (N.D. Ill. Feb.
4, 2002), aff'd on other grounds, 348 F.3d 666 (7th Cir. 2003). To
calculate the total number of functioning programs, the court multiplied
the percentage from the sample (94%) by the total number of programs
(3,947). Id. The court acknowledged that “the selection of the 71
programs was not random,” but found that the selection was nevertheless
“a reasonable basis for determining an estimate.” Id.
Whatever estimates the parties offer, however, the parties must
explain how their estimate was calculated and why. In Rothberg, supra,
the government first estimated the number of functioning programs based
on a mathematical function it claimed derived from “information
regarding [data] transmission error rates [the government] obtained from
companies that maintain telephone lines.” Id. at *3. The court rejected
this estimate because the government had not explained how it “had
derived the calculation or why it should be considered a reasonable basis
for estimating the number of functioning programs.” Id.
Although U.S.S.G. § 2B5.3 speaks only of estimating the number of
infringing items, there is no reason to believe that it abrogates earlier law
allowing the estimation of retail values. E.g., Slater, supra; United States
v. Foote, No. C.R.A. 00-20091-01-KHV, 2003 WL 22466158, at *6 (D.
Kan. July 31, 2003) (estimating infringement amount from trademark
counterfeiting by subtracting legitimate income from bank deposits, and
further discounting by the percentage of sales attributable to non-
infringing items), aff'd, 413 F.3d 1240, 1251-52 (10th Cir. 2005).
VIII.C.1.c.v. Cross-Reference to Loss Table in U.S.S.G. § 2B1.1

Once calculated, the infringement amount sets the scope of the
enhancement in U.S.S.G. § 2B5.3(b)(1):
• An infringement amount below or up to $2,000 results in no
increase;

• An infringement amount above $2,000 and up to $5,000 results
in a 1-level increase; and
• An infringement amount above $5,000 increases the offense level
according to the loss table in U.S.S.G. § 2B1.1(b)(1) (Theft,
Embezzlement, Receipt of Stolen Property, Property Destruction,
and Offenses Involving Fraud or Deceit).
When consulting U.S.S.G. § 2B1.1, look only to the loss table in
subsection (b)(1); other portions of that guideline—including the base
offense level, other offense enhancements, and the commentary—are
inapplicable. See U.S.S.G. § 1B1.5(b)(2). Moreover, U.S.S.G.
§ 2B5.3(b)(1)'s citation to the loss table in U.S.S.G. § 2B1.1 does not
mean that the infringement amount should equal the victim's loss. Rather,
the infringement amount approximates the victim's loss, but need not
equal it. See U.S. v. Cho, 136 F.3d 982 (5th Cir. 1998); see also U.S.S.G.
App. C (Amendments 590, 593) (discussing infringement amount as
similar to loss and an approximation of harm). On this technical point,
United States v. Sung, 51 F.3d 92, 95 (7th Cir. 1995) is technically
incorrect when it confuses the infringement amount with the loss
incurred. Although the infringement amount is often characterized as
describing the “loss” to the victim, it is not necessary for the government
to show that the copyright owner suffered any actual pecuniary loss. See
U.S. v. Powell, 139 Fed. Appx. 545 (4th Cir. July 19, 2005) (applying
2003 Guidelines, finding enhancement under § 2B1.1 table based on
infringement amount of more than $250,000 was proper even though the
victim suffered no pecuniary loss; sentence vacated and remanded on
other grounds) (unpublished opinion).
VIII.C.1.d. Pre-release Piracy Increases the Offense Level

by 2—U.S.S.G. § 2B5.3(b)(2)
Distribution of a copyrighted item before it is legally available to the
consumer is more serious than the distribution of already available items.
U.S.S.G. App. C (Amendment 675). Consequently, effective October 24,
2005, the Sentencing Commission added a 2-level enhancement for
offenses that involve the display, performance, publication, reproduction,
or distribution of a work being prepared for commercial distribution. See
U.S.S.G. § 2B5.3(b)(2). A “work being prepared for commercial
distribution” has the meaning given in 17 U.S.C.§ 506(a)(3). U.S.S.G.
§ 2B5.3 cmt. n.1. See also Chapter II of this Manual.
The 2-level increase for pre-release piracy applies not only to the
online pre-release offense set forth in 17 U.S.C. § 506(a)(1)(C) (which by
definition involves pre-release piracy over publicly-accessible computer

networks), but also to any copyright crimes under § 506(a)(1)(A) or (B)
that involve pre-release piracy done through any other medium, such as
a § 506(a)(1)(A) conviction for selling pirated pre-release movie DVDs.
VIII.C.1.e. Manufacturing, Importing, or Uploading Infringing

Items Increases the Offense Level by 2—U.S.S.G.
§ 2B5.3(b)(3) [before October 24, 2005: § 2B5.3(b)(2)]
The offense level is increased by 2 levels if the offense involves the
“manufacture, importation, or uploading of infringing items.” U.S.S.G.
§ 2B5.3(b)(3). (Before the October 24, 2005 amendments, this provision
was numbered § 2B5.3(b)(2). See U.S.S.G. App. C (Amendment 675).)
If, after applying § 2B5.3(a), (b)(1), (b)(2), and the 2-level increase in
(b)(3), the offense level is less than 12, then it must be increased to 12.
U.S.S.G. § 2B5.3(b)(3).
This upward adjustment reflects the need to punish those who
introduce infringing goods into the stream of commerce. U.S.S.G. App.
C (Amendments 590, 593).
Uploading is particularly troublesome because it not only introduces
infringing items into the stream of commerce, but also enables further
infringement of the works. U.S.S.G. App. C (Amendments 590, 593).
“'Uploading' means making an infringing item available on the Internet or
a similar electronic bulletin board with the intent to enable other persons
to (A) download or otherwise copy the infringing item; or (B) have access
to the infringing item, including by storing the infringing item in an
openly shared file.” U.S.S.G. § 2B5.3 cmt. n.1 (Oct. 24, 2005). Uploading
does not include merely downloading or installing an infringing item on
a hard drive on a defendant's personal computer, unless the defendant
places the infringing item in an openly shared file. Id. (Before the October
24, 2005 amendments, “uploading” was defined in § 2B5.3's first and
third application notes. The 2005 amendments consolidated the
definition into the first application note and clarified the circumstances
in which loading a file onto a computer hard drive constitutes uploading.
The amendment made no substantive change, however. See U.S.S.G. App.
C (Amendment 675).)
Manufacturing and importing infringing items are also singled out for
a 2-level increase because those actions introduce infringing items into the
stream of commerce. U.S.S.G. § 2B5.3 App. C (Amendments 590, 593).
Although the guidelines do not define “manufacturing,” the important
distinction is between manufacturing (which gets the 2-level increase) and
mere distribution and trafficking (which do not unless they involved

importation or uploading). In the case of counterfeit trademarked goods,
manufacturing should include not only producing the item, but also
applying a counterfeit label to it, since an item does not become
counterfeit until a counterfeit label is used in conjunction with it.
Manufacturing should encompass not only the production of
counterfeit trademarked hard goods, but also the performance of
counterfeit service-marked services and the production and reproduction
of pirated copyrighted works under 17 U.S.C. § 506; counterfeit labels
under 18 U.S.C. § 2318; bootleg music recordings under 17 U.S.C.
§ 2319A; camcorded movies under 18 U.S.C. § 2319B; and illegal
circumvention devices under 17 U.S.C. § 1204.
If a defendant conspired with or aided and abetted another person
who manufactured, uploaded, or imported infringing items, the defendant
can qualify for this 2-level increase even if he did none of these things
himself. The increase is triggered by whether the offense involved
manufacturing, importation, or uploading, not whether the defendant
performed these tasks. See U.S.S.G. § 2B5.3(b)(3) (“If the offense
involved the manufacture, importation, or uploading ...”) (emphasis
added); U.S.S.G. § Ch. 2 (Introductory Commentary) (“Chapter Two
pertains to offense conduct.”).
VIII.C.1.f. Offense Not Committed for Commercial

Advantage or Private Financial Gain Reduces the Offense
Level by 2—U.S.S.G. § 2B5.3(b)(4)
[before October 24, 2005: § 2B5.3(b)(3)]
The fourth offense characteristic, located in guideline § 2B5.3(b)(4),
decreases the offense level by 2 levels if the offense was not committed for
commercial advantage or private financial gain, but the resulting offense
level cannot be less than 8. (This characteristic was renumbered from
§ 2B5.3(b)(3) to 2B5.3(b)(4) in the October 24, 2005 amendments. See
U.S.S.G. App. C (Amendments 590, 593, 675).)
The defendant bears the burden of proving that he is entitled to this
offense characteristic, because it is structured as a decrease rather than an
increase. See generally United States v. Ameline, 409 F.3d 1073, 1086
(9th Cir. 2005) (en banc); United States v. Dinges, 917 F.2d 1133, 1135
(8th Cir. 1990); United States v. Kirk, 894 F.2d 1162, 1164 (10th Cir.
1990); United States v. Urrego-Linares, 879 F.2d 1234, 1238-39 (4th Cir.
1989).
For a complete discussion of what qualifies as conduct done for the
purposes of commercial advantage or private financial gain, see Section

II.B.4. of this Manual (copyright). The interpretation of commercial
advantage and private financial gain in copyright cases applies equally to
U.S.S.G. § 2B5.3 for any type of intellectual property crime because the
statutory and guidelines definitions are nearly identical. Compare
U.S.S.G. § 2B5.3 cmt. n.1 (defining terms) with 17 U.S.C. § 101 (same).
VIII.C.1.g. Offense Involving Risk of Serious Bodily Injury or

Possession of a Dangerous Weapon Increases the Offense Level
by 2—U.S.S.G. § 2B5.3(b)(5) [before October 24, 2005:
§ 2B5.3(b)(4)]
If the offense involved conscious or reckless risk of serious bodily
injury or possession of a dangerous weapon, the offense level is increased
by 2. U.S.S.G. § 2B5.3(b)(5). If the resulting offense level is less than 13,
then it must be increased to level 13. See, e.g., United States v. Maloney,
85 Fed. Appx. 252 (2d Cir. 2004) (applying 2-level enhancement for
possession of a dangerous weapon in connection with conviction under 18
U.S.C. § 2318(a),(c)(3) and § 2, even though defendant was acquitted at
trial of a felon-in-possession of a firearm charge).
This enhancement was partially motivated by the health and safety
risks from counterfeit consumer products such as counterfeit batteries,
airplane parts, and pharmaceuticals. See U.S.S.G. App. C (Amendments
590, 593). The October 24, 2005 amendments renumbered this
enhancement from U.S.S.G. § 2B5.3(b)(4) to § 2B5.3(b)(5). Id.
(Amendment 675).

Increases the Offense Level—U.S.S.G. § 3B1.3
The 2-level enhancement for use of a special skill under U.S.S.G.
§ 3B1.3 “shall apply” if the defendant decrypted or circumvented access
controls. U.S.S.G. § 2B5.3 cmt. n.3 (emphasis added) (formerly n.4,
before the Oct. 24, 2005 amendments, see U.S.S.G. App. C (Amendment
675)).
Because the note quoted above refers only to the circumvention of
access controls, it is unclear whether the special skill enhancement must
also apply to decrypting or circumventing copy controls. There is no
policy-related reason to treat access and copy controls differently at
sentencing. In fact, U.S.S.G. § 3B1.3 applies to any defendant who
commits an intellectual property crime while using a special skill. See
Section VIII.C.2.i. of this Chapter for a more detailed description of what
constitutes a special skill.

This enhancement may not be assessed for use of a special skill if the
adjustment under U.S.S.G. § 3B1.1 (Aggravating Role) is also assessed.
See U.S.S.G. § 3B1.3.
VIII.C.1.i. Upward Adjustment for Harm to Copyright or

Mark-Owner's Reputation, Connection with Organized Crime,
or Other Unspecified Grounds
The fourth application note for § 2B5.3 (formerly application note 5,
before the October 24, 2005 amendments) states that an upward
departure may be warranted if the offense level determined under § 2B5.3
“substantially understates the seriousness of the offense,” such as when
the offense substantially harmed the victim's reputation in a way that is
otherwise unaccounted for, including in calculating the infringement
amount, and when the offense was in connection with or in furtherance
of a national or international organized criminal enterprise. U.S.S.G.
§ 2B5.3 cmt. n.4; id. App. C (Amendments 590, 593).These two examples
are not, however, exclusive.
VIII.C.1.j. Vulnerable Victims—U.S.S.G. § 3A1.1(b)

Intellectual property crime defendants are likely to qualify for an
upward adjustment under U.S.S.G. § 3A1.1(b) if they knew or should
have known that they were selling counterfeit products to vulnerable
victims. A prime example of this would be selling counterfeit
pharmaceuticals that are distributed or redistributed to sick patients. See
United States v. Milstein, 401 F.3d 53, 74 (2d Cir. 2005) (affirming
vulnerable victim adjustment for distributing counterfeit and misbranded
drugs “to doctors, pharmacists, and pharmaceutical wholesalers, knowing
that those customers would distribute the drugs to women with fertility
problems and to Parkinson's disease patients”).

Participation in Prosecution
The court may not depart downward on the ground that the victim
participated in the prosecution. In United States v. Yang, 281 F.3d 534
(6th Cir. 2002), cert. denied, 537 U.S. 1170 (2003), on appeal after new
sentencing hearing, 144 Fed. Appx. 521 (6th Cir. 2005), a prosecution for
theft of trade secret, mail fraud, wire fraud, and money laundering, the
trial court departed downward 14 levels on the ground that the victim
participated too much in the prosecution, specifically in calculating the
loss it suffered. The 6th Circuit reversed, concluding that “the victim's
participation in the prosecution is wholly irrelevant to either the

defendant's guilt or the nature or extent of his sentence,” and is therefore
not a permissible basis for a downward departure. Yang, 281 F.3d at 545,
546.
VIII.C.2. Offenses Involving the Economic Espionage Act

VIII.C.2.a. Applicable Guideline is § 2B1.1, Except for
Attempts and Conspiracies
Unlike most other intellectual property offenses, which are sentenced
under U.S.S.G. § 2B5.3, completed EEA offenses (both § 1831 and
§ 1832) are sentenced under U.S.S.G. § 2B1.1. See U.S.S.G. App. A. The
choice of U.S.S.G. § 2B1.1 instead of U.S.S.G. § 2B5.3 likely reflects the
idea that EEA offenses are primarily about stolen property rather than
infringement. The superficial difference between stealing and infringement
is that one physically dispossesses the victim of his property and the latter
does not. However, the EEA punishes those who steal trade secrets
without dispossessing the victim of his trade secret, and even after a trade
secret is physically stolen, the victim may still use the information itself.
The overlap between misappropriation and infringement therefore makes
U.S.S.G. § 2B1.1 an interesting fit for the EEA.
An EEA attempt or conspiracy is sentenced under U.S.S.G. § 2X1.1
(Conspiracies, Attempts, and Solicitations), which uses the offense level
calculated under U.S.S.G. § 2B1.1 and decreases the base offense level 3
levels “unless the defendant completed all the acts the defendant believed
necessary for successful completion of the substantive offense or the
circumstances demonstrate that the defendant was about to complete all
such acts but for apprehension or interruption by some similar event
beyond the defendant's control.” U.S.S.G. § 2X1.1(b)(1),(2). The 3-point
reduction will rarely apply in EEA attempt cases resulting from
undercover stings because in those operations the defendant has generally
completed all necessary acts short of the actual receipt of what the
defendant believed was a trade secret.
VIII.C.2.b. Base Offense Level—U.S.S.G. § 2B1.1(a)

The base offense level for a completed EEA crime is 6. U.S.S.G.
§ 2B1.1(a)(2).
VIII.C.2.c. Loss—U.S.S.G. § 2B1.1(b)(1)

The defendant's sentence is driven largely by the value of the
misappropriated property. Under U.S.S.G. § 2B1.1(b)(1), the offense level
increases according to the amount of the loss.

VIII.C.2.c.i. Use Greater of Actual or Intended Loss
This loss figure is “the greater of actual loss or intended loss.”
U.S.S.G. § 2B1.1 cmt. n.3(A). “Actual loss” is “the reasonably foreseeable
pecuniary harm that resulted from the offense,” whereas “intended loss (I)
means the pecuniary harm that was intended to result from the offense;
and (II) includes intended pecuniary harm that would have been
impossible or unlikely to occur (e.g., as in a government sting operation,
or an insurance fraud in which the claim exceeded the insured value).” Id.
cmt. n.3(A)(i-ii).
VIII.C.2.c.ii. Reasonable Estimates Acceptable

Whatever method is chosen to calculate loss, the government's
calculation need not be absolutely certain or precise. “The court need only
make a reasonable estimate of the loss.” U.S.S.G. § 2B1.1 cmt. n.3(C).
VIII.C.2.c.iii. Methods of Calculating Loss

Guideline § 2B1.1's application notes outline a number of general
methods for calculating the loss, many of which are included as methods
to estimate the loss:
• “[T]he reasonably foreseeable pecuniary harm that resulted from
the offense,” U.S.S.G. § 2B1.1 cmt. n.3(A)(i)
• “The fair market value of the property unlawfully taken or
destroyed or, if the fair market value is impractible to determine
or inadequately measures the harm, the cost to the victim of
replacing that property,” n.3(C)(i)
• “The cost of repairs to damaged property,” n.3(C)(ii)
• “The approximate number of victims multiplied by the average
loss to each victim,” n.3(C)(iii)
• “The reduction that resulted from the offense in the value of
equity securities or other corporate assets,” n.3(C)(iv)
• “More general factors, such as the scope and duration of the
offense and revenues generated by similar operations,” n.3(C)(v)
• “[T]he gain that resulted from the offense as an alternative
measure of loss[,] only if there is a loss but it reasonably cannot
be determined,” n.3(B)

In a trade secrets case, calculating the loss can be complicated. First,
consider the situations under which the defendant can be convicted: (a)
merely conspiring to misappropriate a trade secret that the victim has not
fully exploited to create a product; (b) receiving a trade secret, but not
using the trade secret; (c) stealing a trade secret at no cost; (d) stealing a
trade secret for an agreed-upon bribe; (e) receiving a trade secret and
using it to create a product that has not been completed; (f) receiving a
trade secret, using it to create a product, introducing the product, but not
yet selling it; (g) receiving a trade secret, using it to create a product, and
selling the product at a loss; (h) receiving the trade secret, using it, and
selling the product at a profit, while the victim continues to profit from
its own sales; and (i) receiving the trade secret, using it, and selling a
product that displaces the victim's sales. These situations do not exhaust
the possibilities. They illustrate, however, several complicating factors:
• whether the defendant paid anything for the secret
• whether the defendant was paid anything for the secret
• whether the defendant used the secret
• whether the defendant used the secret and made money from its
use and
• whether the victim's sales decreased, increased, or increased at a
lower rate than they would have had the misappropriation not
occurred
The final complicating factor is that trade secrets are, by definition, not
traded in an open market that allows the easy calculation of a trade
secret's price or value.
The variety of misappropriation scenarios, the variety of evidence
available, and the broad principles of valuing trade secrets in criminal and
civil law lead to one clear recommendation: prosecutors, agents, and
courts should consider the variety of methods by which a trade secret can
be valued, develop whatever evidence is reasonably available, and then be
pragmatic about choosing which method to use, as long as it is equitable,
appropriately punitive, and supported by the evidence. The cases bear this
out.
• Criminal Cases
Few reported federal criminal decisions describe how to value trade
secrets, but those that do tend to focus on the trade secret's research and
development costs. In United States v. Wilson, 900 F.2d 1350 (9th Cir.
1990), a mail fraud case, a research associate offered to sell financial and

research data from his employer, a biotechnology and pharmaceutical
firm, to a competitor. The defendant argued that the documents were
worth their fair market value: the $100,000 to $200,000 that the
competitor said it would have paid for them—the competitor worked with
law enforcement to set up a sting—or the $200,000 that the defendant
had said that he would sell them for. Id. at 1356. The Ninth Circuit,
however, noted its “refus[al] to require a strict market value approach in
determining the value of stolen goods,” because that approach “measures
only the gain to the defendant while virtually ignoring the harm suffered
by the victim.” Id. (citations omitted). Although the court acknowledged
that the buyer's and seller's prices were relevant, it held that the trial court
was entitled to value the documents at the victim's research and
development costs for the information contained in the documents,
especially because those costs indicate the intended loss to the victim. Id.
Those costs totaled $4 million, although the trial court generously
reduced the total by 75 percent, to $1 million, to give the defendant the
benefit of every doubt. Id. at 1355.
Similarly, in United States v. Ameri, 412 F.3d 893, 900 (8th Cir.
2005), an employee stole his employer's proprietary software, which the
evidence showed was at the heart of a $10 million contract, had no
verifiable fair market value because it was not available separately,
alternatively had a fair market value of $1 million per copy, and was
developed for about $700,000. Faced with these figures, the Eighth
Circuit affirmed the trial court's loss estimate of $1.4 million, which
appears to be the $700,000 in development costs times 2, the number of
copies the defendant made. Id. at 900-01.
Finally, United States v. Kwan, No. 02 CR. 241(DAB), 2003 WL
22973515 (S.D.N.Y. Dec. 17, 2003), considered whether “proprietary
hotel contact lists, hotel rate sheets, travel consortium contact lists, travel
consortium rate sheets, and cruise operator rate sheets”—all useful in the
travel industry—met the jurisdictional threshold for interstate
transportation of stolen property under 18 U.S.C. § 2314 by being worth
more than $5,000. Id. at *1. The court found most persuasive an
argument for a value over $5,000 based on the documents' cost of
production, which it estimated by noting the salary of people who created
the documents and the amount of time they would have spent gathering
the information and creating the documents. Id. at *9 & n.12. In all these
cases, the loss or market value was defined largely by development costs.
Some civil trade secret cases have measured the replacement cost
using the victim's research and development costs. See Salsbury Labs., Inc.
v. Merieux Labs., Inc., 908 F.2d 706, 714-15 (11th Cir. 1990) (holding

that research and development costs for misappropriated vaccine were a
proper factor to determine damages); cf. University Computing Co. v.
Lykes-Youngstown Corp., 504 F.2d 518, 538 (5th Cir. 1974) (holding
that development costs should be taken into consideration with a number
o f f a c t o r s , i n c l u d i n g “ t h e c o m m e r c i a l c o nte x t in w h i c h t h e
misappropriation occurred”). But see Softel, Inc. v. Dragon Med. &
Scientific Communications, Inc., 118 F.3d 955, 969 (2d Cir. 1997)
(holding that it is usually appropriate to measure damages based on
development costs and importance of secret to plaintiff only after a
defendant completely destroys the value of the trade secret).
An interesting exception to using development costs to value trade
secrets is United States v. Pemberton, 904 F.2d 515 (9th Cir. 1990), in
which a legitimate buyer's price was selected. After the defendant was
convicted for receiving stolen property, namely technical landscape and
irrigation design drawings for a 450-acre commercial development, the
trial court had to select among valuation methods, including valuing the
drawings at what the drawings were purportedly worth to
defendant—zero; the $1,200 cost of the materials on which they were
drawn; the $65,000 cost of replacing the drawings in full; and the
$118,400 contract price for the drawings (80 percent of the full contract
price, given that the drawings were 80 percent complete when stolen). Id.
at 516 & n.1, 517. Without a price from an open market, since the
drawings were unique, the appellate court affirmed the trial court's choice
of the $118,400 contract price.
Why use the buyer's price in Pemberton rather than the development
costs, as had been done in the Wilson, Ameri, and Kwan cases? There
appear to be three differences. First, in Pemberton the buyer's price came
from a legitimate market transaction rather than a black-market
transaction that would have undervalued the property. Second, in
Pemberton, the buyer's price was apparently higher than the development
costs. Third, and this is related to the second point, in Pemberton the
drawings that were stolen likely could have been used for one project only,
the real estate development by the legitimate buyer, whereas the trade
secrets in Wilson, Ameri, and Kwan included general information that
could have been used over and over again by illegitimate buyers. Research
and development costs for a one-off project are likely to be less than the
legitimate buyer's price (since this is the only opportunity the trade-secret
holder can recover his overhead), whereas research and development costs
for a replicable product or service will likely exceed a legitimate buyer's
price (since the trade-secret holder can recover his overhead through
repeated sales). It may also be that the criminal cases are largely
consistent with civil cases' tendency when there is evidence for more than

one measure to “award that amount which is most beneficial to the
injured party.” 1 Richard Raysman & Peter Brown, Computer Law:
Drafting and Negotiating Forms § 6.03A (2005).
• Civil Cases
Prosecutors should also be aware of how civil cases measure losses
from trade secret misappropriation. See supra; cf. United States v. Olis,
429 F.3d 540, 546 (5th Cir. 2005) (holding that “[t]he loss guideline [in
U.S.S.G. § 2B1.1] is skeletal because it covers dozens of federal property
crimes,” and therefore “[t]he civil damage measure [for securities fraud]
should be the backdrop for criminal responsibility both because it
furnishes the standard of compensable injury for securities fraud victims
and because it is attuned to stock market complexities”).
Unfortunately, beyond reinforcing the criminal cases' use of research
and development costs, civil measures of damages provide little hard and
fast guidance. The Uniform Trade Secrets Act echoes the Sentencing
Guidelines' generalities:
Damages can include both the actual loss caused by misappropriation
and the unjust enrichment caused by misappropriation that is not
taken into account in computing actual loss. In lieu of damages
measured by any other methods, the damages caused by
misappropriation may be measured by imposition of liability for a
reasonable royalty for a misappropriator's unauthorized disclosure or
use of a trade secret.
Uniform Trade Secrets Act § 3(a) (1985). In determining damages under
the Uniform Trade Secrets Act, courts base the trade secret's market value
on the victim's loss or the defendant's gain, depending on which measure
appears to be more reliable or greater given the particular circumstances
of the theft. See University Computing Co. v. Lykes-Youngstown Corp.,
504 F.2d 518 (5th Cir. 1974); Vermont Microsystems, Inc. v. Autodesk
Inc., 138 F.3d 449, 452 (2d Cir. 1998). With such broad principles, “the
general law as to the proper measure of damages in a trade secrets case is
far from uniform.” Telex Corp. v. International Bus. Machs. Corp., 510
F.2d 894, 930 (10th Cir. 1975) (concerning misappropriation of trade
secrets and confidential information relating to electronic data processing
systems).
As might be expected, civil cases use a variety of methods to value
trade secrets:
• the value placed on the trade secrets by the parties
• the victim's lost profits

• the defendant's realized profits
• the defendant's saved costs from misappropriation
• a reasonable royalty to the victim, when there was otherwise no
gain or loss
1 Richard Raysman & Peter Brown, Computer Law: Drafting and
Negotiating Forms § 6.03A (2005). When there is evidence for more than
one measure, “the court will frequently award that amount which is most
beneficial to the injured party.” Id.
Civil cases often note that if the victim's loss were the only
appropriate measure of damages, someone caught red-handed stealing
trade secrets could not be punished if he had not yet used the information
to the owner's detriment. As a result, in such circumstances most Uniform
Trade Secrets Act cases have computed the trade secret's market value by
focusing on the defendant's gain. See, e.g., University Computing, 504
F.2d at 536 (holding that damages for misappropriation of trade secrets
are measured by the value of the secret to the defendant “where the trade
secret has not been destroyed and where the plaintiff is unable to prove
specific injury”); Salisbury Labs., Inc. v. Merieux Labs., Inc., 908 F.2d
706, 714 (11th Cir. 1990) (ruling that under Georgia's UTSA, damages
for misappropriation of trade secrets should be based on the defendant's
gain). Under the more recent Federal Sentencing Guidelines, the court
may use a defendant's gain as a loss for the victim in certain
circumstances. See U.S.S.G. § 2B1.1 cmt. n.3(B) (2004).
A number of civil cases determine trade secrets' market value by
calculating a “reasonable royalty,” that is, the amount the thief would
have had to pay the victim in licensing or royalty fees had he legitimately
licensed the stolen technology. See, e.g., University Computing, 504 F.2d
at 537. When the defendant has not yet realized sufficient profit to
readily indicate the stolen information's market value, the preferred
estimate is the “reasonable royalty” (or “forced licensing”) measure. See
Uniform Trade Secrets Act § 3(a) (1985) (“In lieu of damages measured
by any other methods, the damages caused by misappropriation may be
measured by imposition of liability for a reasonable royalty for a
misappropriator's unauthorized disclosure or use of a trade secret.”); Vitro
Corp. v. Hall Chem. Co., 292 F.2d 678, 683 (6th Cir. 1961); see also
Vermont Microsystems, Inc. v. Autodesk, Inc., 138 F.3d 449, 450 (2d
Cir. 1998). Other federal cases using the “reasonable royalty” method
include Molex, Inc. v. Nolen, 759 F.2d 474 (5th Cir. 1985); University
Computing Co., 504 F.2d 518; Linkco, Inc. v. Fujitsu Ltd., 232 F. Supp.
2d 182, 186-87 (S.D.N.Y. 2002) (holding that a “reasonable royalty is the

best measure of damages in a case where the alleged thief made no
profits”); Carter Prods., Inc. v. Colgate-Palmolive Co., 214 F. Supp. 383
(D. Md. 1963).
But calculating a reasonable royalty may prove more difficult and may
unduly prolong or complicate sentencing in cases where the defendant has
not yet manifested his intention to use the stolen technology and there is
no readily ascertainable benchmark for determining a reasonable royalty.
• Practical Guidance on Gathering Evidence
Because of the flexible nature of valuing trade secrets, prosecutors and
investigators should try to obtain the following types of evidence, if
available and applicable:
• the amount the defendant paid for the trade secret
• the amount for which the defendant sold or tried to sell the trade
secret
• the amount for which similar trade secret information sold in the
legitimate open market
• a reasonable royalty, based on what a willing buyer would pay a
willing seller for the technology in an arms-length transaction
• the trade secret owner's research and development costs; and
• the market price that the defendant actually received or paid in
exchange for the technology

Instrumentality, or Agent—U.S.S.G. § 2B1.1(b)(5)
The offense level is increased two points if the defendant knew or
intended the offense to benefit a foreign government, foreign
instrumentality, or foreign agent. See U.S.S.G. § 2B1.1(b)(5).

If the offense involved “sophisticated means,” the offense level is
increased by 2 levels, and if the resulting offense is less than 12, it must
be increased to 12. U.S.S.G. § 2B1(b)(9)(C). “'[S]ophisticated means'
means especially complex or especially intricate offense conduct
pertaining to the execution or concealment of an offense,” which includes
“hiding assets or transactions,” among other things. Id. cmt. n.8(B).
The sophisticated means enhancement will often apply to trade secret
offenses, because these crimes are often committed by corporate insiders

who have the need and opportunity to take extensive precautions to
shield their actions from their employers. A defendant can receive the
adjustment for sophisticated means in addition to the adjustment for use
of a special skill under U.S.S.G. § 3B1.3. See United States v. Rice, 52
F.3d 843, 851 (10th Cir. 1995) (“The purpose of the special skill
enhancement is to punish those criminals who use their special talents to
commit crime. In contrast, the sophisticated means and more than
minimal planning enhancements [in predecessor guideline to § 2B1.1] are
designed to target criminals who engage in complicated criminal activity
because their actions are considered more blameworthy and deserving of
greater punishment than a perpetrator of a simple version of the crime.
We therefore see no double counting here.”); United States v. Olis, 429
F.3d 540, 549 (5th Cir. 2005); United States v. Minneman, 143 F.3d
274, 283 (7th Cir. 1998).
VIII.C.2.f. Upward Departure Considerations—

U.S.S.G. § 2B1.1 cmt. n.19(A)
A non-exhaustive list of factors in which an upward departure should
be considered is set forth in Application Note 19 to U.S.S.G. § 2B1.1.
The factors that are most likely to be relevant in a trade secret case are
intending, risking, and causing non-monetary harm, such as emotional
harm, because many EEA cases involve disgruntled employees or former
employees out for revenge. U.S.S.G. § 2B1.1 cmt. n.19(i),(ii).

U.S.S.G. § 2B1.1 cmt. n.19(C)
Application Note 19(C) to U.S.S.G. § 2B1.1 suggests that a
downward departure may be warranted if the offense level “substantially
overstates the seriousness of the offense.” EEA defendants are likely to
raise this as a basis for downward departure if the loss amount greatly
outweighs the amount of the actual or intended gain or loss, as sometimes
happens when the trade secret is valued by research and development
costs.

Trade secret offenses committed by corporate insiders often deserve
the 2-level adjustment for abuse of a position of trust under U.S.S.G.
§ 3B1.3. The adjustment is appropriate when the defendant had
“professional or managerial discretion (i.e., substantial discretionary
judgment that is ordinarily given considerable deference)” and the
position of trust “contributed in some significant way to facilitating the

commission or concealment of the offense.” Id. cmt. n.1. A defendant can
receive the enhancements for abuse of a position of trust and
sophisticated means simultaneously. Cf. United States v. Straus, 188 F.3d
520, 1999 WL 565502, at *5 (10th Cir. 1999) (table) (holding that
abuse-of-trust and more-than-minimal-planning enhancements, the latter
in a predecessor to U.S.S.G. § 2B1.1(b)(9)(C), can be applied to same
conduct simultaneously).
VIII.C.2.i. Use of Special Skill—U.S.S.G. § 3B1.3

Trade secret defendants who use their specialized technical knowledge
to understand and use the misappropriated trade secret will often qualify
for an adjustment for use of a special skill under U.S.S.G. § 3B1.3. See,
e.g., United States v. Lange, 312 F.3d 263, 270 (7th Cir. 2002).
“'Special skill' refers to a skill not possessed by members of the general
public and usually requiring substantial education, training, or licensing.
Examples would include pilots, lawyers, doctors, accountants, chemists,
and demolition experts.” U.S.S.G. § 3B1.3 cmt. n.4. Special skill includes
any type of special skill, not just one gained through advanced education.
In Lange, it applied to a mechanical drafter, an EEA defendant who
committed his offense using his associate's degree in graphic design and
his ability to work with his former employer's engineering drawings in
AutoCAD. Lange, 312 F.3d at 270.
A defendant can receive the adjustment for use of a special skill in
addition to the adjustment for sophisticated means under U.S.S.G.
§ 2B1.1(b)(9)(C).
VIII.C.2.j. No Downward Departure for Victim's Participation

in Developing the Case
As noted in Section VIII.C.1.k. of this Chapter, the court may not
depart downward on the ground that the victim participated in the
prosecution.
VIII.D. Restitution
“'The principle of restitution is an integral part of virtually every
formal system of criminal justice, of every culture and every time. It holds
that, whatever else the sanctioning power of society does to punish its
wrongdoers, it should also ensure that the wrongdoer is required to the
degree possible to restore the victim to his or her prior state of well-

being.'” Attorney General Guidelines on Victim and Witness Assistance,
Art. V.A. (Dep't of Justice May 2005) (emphasis added in original)
(quoting S. Rep. No. 104-179, at 12-13 (1996), reprinted in 1996
U.S.C.C.A.N. 924, 925-26).
In intellectual property cases, there are two types of victim: the owner
of the intellectual property that was infringed or misappropriated, and any
consumer who was lured into purchasing the infringing goods by fraud.
Both types of victim usually qualify for restitution if they have suffered
a loss.
This section discusses restitution in intellectual property crimes. For
more detailed guidance on restitution principles and procedures,
prosecutors should consult the Attorney General Guidelines on Victim
and Witness Assistance, cited above, as well as the Prosecutor's Guide to
Criminal Monetary Penalties: Determination, Imposition and
Enforcement of Restitution, Fines & Other Monetary Impositions (Dep't
of Justice Office of Legal Education May 2003).

Intellectual Property Prosecutions
Most criminal intellectual property defendants must pay their victims
restitution.
Intellectual property offenses in Title 18 require restitution under the
Mandatory Victims Restitution Act of 1996 (“MVRA”), codified in part
at 18 U.S.C. § 3663A (“Mandatory restitution to victims of certain
crimes”). Under the MVRA, restitution is mandatory following any
“offense against property under [Title 18] ... including any offense
committed by fraud or deceit ... in which an identifiable victim or victims
suffered a pecuniary loss.” 18 U.S.C. § 3663A(c)(1)(A)(ii),(B). Intellectual
property crimes are offenses against property in two senses: some defraud
unwitting customers into paying money for infringing products, and all
involve intellectual property, which is property as much as any tangible
property. See, e.g., United States v. Carpenter, 484 U.S. 19, 26 (1987)
(stating that confidential information, another type of intangible
property, has “long been recognized as property”); United States v.
Trevino, 956 F.2d 276, 1992 WL 39028 (9th Cir. 1992) (table) (in
counterfeit trademark prosecution, affirming order of restitution to
nuclear power plant victim that had purchased counterfeit circuit
breakers). The few cases on point confirm that intellectual property
offenses are “offense[s] against property” for the purpose of § 3663A.
See United States v. Chay, 281 F.3d 682 (7th Cir. 2002) (noting that a
conviction under 18 U.S.C. § 2318(a) for trafficking in counterfeit

documents and packaging for computer programs was an “offense against
property” under 18 U.S.C. § 3663A and thus required mandatory
restitution); United States v. Hanna, No. 02 CR. B64-01, 2003 WL
22705133 (S.D.N.Y. Nov. 17, 2003) (stating that a conviction under 18
U.S.C. § 2320 for trafficking in counterfeit trademarked handbags and
other goods requires full restitution under 18 U.S.C. §§ 3663A, 3664).
See also United States v. Cho , 136 F.3d 982, 983 (5th Cir. 1998)
(mentioning restitution in trademark counterfeiting case); United States
v. Manzer, 69 F.3d 222, 229-30 (8th Cir. 1995) (upholding restitution
award of $2.7 million in mail fraud, wire fraud, and copyright
infringement prosecution for the sale of modification and cloning
packages for unauthorized decryption of premium channel satellite
broadcasts); United States v. Sung, 51 F.3d 92, 96 (7th Cir. 1995)
(mentioning restitution in trademark counterfeiting case); United States
v. Bohai Trading Co. , 45 F.3d 577, 579 (1st Cir. 1995) (same—
restitution amount of $100,000); United States v. Hicks, 46 F.3d 1128,
1195 WL 20791, at *3 (4th Cir. 1995) (table) (upholding restitution
award in satellite decryption and copyright case).
These cases support the proposition that restitution is mandatory in
all Title 18 intellectual property offenses, including § 1831 (economic
espionage to benefit foreign government, instrumentality, or agent),
§ 1832 (general economic espionage), § 2318 (counterfeit and illicit labels
and counterfeit documentation and packaging for copyrighted works),
§ 2319 (copyright), § 2319B (camcorded movies), and § 2320 (goods,
services, labels, documentation, and packaging with counterfeit marks).
In addition, Congress recently made clear that restitution must be ordered
in appropriate § 2320 cases. See 18 U.S.C. § 2320(b)(4) (as amended by
the Stop Counterfeiting in Manufactured Goods Act, Pub. L. No. 109-
181, § 1, 120 Stat. 285, 286 (enacted March 16, 2006)).
This list might also include violations of § 2319A (bootleg music and
music video recordings), but defendants might argue that those crimes are
not offenses against property on the ground that bootleg music and music
video recordings do not infringe copyrighted property, see Section II.F. of
this Manual (describing § 2319A's constitutional basis as the Commerce
Clause rather than the Intellectual Property Clause), or any other type of
property, and that any revenues from these offenses do not represent an
actual pecuniary harm to the victim because bootleg music and music
video recordings do not decrease artists' sales. Prosecutors may wish to
consult CCIPS at (202) 514-1026 to discuss restitution in § 2319A
convictions.

There are two principal exceptions to mandatory restitution provided
for in § 3663A: “if (A) the number of identifiable victims is so large as to
make restitution impracticable; or (B) determining complex issues of fact
related to the cause or amount of the victim's losses would complicate or
prolong the sentencing process to a degree that the need to provide
restitution to any victim is outweighed by the burden on the sentencing
process.” 18 U.S.C. § 3663A(c)(3). Defendants can be expected to argue
for one or both of these exceptions in cases of online copyright piracy that
involve a large number of copyrighted works owned by a large number of
victims, in cases of retail counterfeit goods cases that were sold to a large
number of defrauded customers, and in trade secret cases that involve
complex issues of valuation. “This 'exception' was intended to be used
sparingly, and the court is expected to use every means available,
including a continuance of the restitution determination of up to 90 days,
if necessary, to identify as many victims and harms to those victims as
possible. 18 U.S.C. § 3664(d)(5); U.S. v. Grimes, 173 F.3d 634 (7th Cir.
1999).” Prosecutor's Guide to Criminal Monetary Penalties:
Determination, Imposition and Enforcement of Restitution, Fines &
Other Monetary Impositions 28 (Dep't of Justice Office of Legal
Education May 2003). Department policy also requires that “[w]hen this
exception does apply, the prosecutor should nevertheless seek restitution
for the benefit of the victims to the extent practicable,” Attorney General
Guidelines on Victim and Witness Assistance Art. V.F. (Dep't of Justice
May 2005) (emphasis added), such as by asking the court to order
restitution “for those victims and harms the court can identify,”
Prosecutor's Guide to Criminal Monetary Penalties at 30 (discussing
similar exception for discretionary restitution). How to ensure restitution
in such situations is addressed below in the discussion of how to set the
restitution amount.
Another possible exception to mandatory restitution may exist for
criminal trademark, service mark, and certification mark cases under 18
U.S.C. § 2320 in which the mark-holder neglected to use the ® symbol
(or other proper notice) and the defendant lacked actual notice that the
mark was registered. See Section III.E.3. of this Manual. In those cases,
however, even though restitution might not be awarded to the mark-
holder, it should still be awarded to any customers of the defendant who
were defrauded into buying what they thought were authentic goods or
services. Id.
Although technically not an exception to the mandatory restitution
provisions in 18 U.S.C. § 3663A, there are two classes of intellectual
property crimes for which there is no mandatory restitution under
§ 3663A. The first class consists of those intellectual property offenses

located outside Title 18 of the United States Code. Mandatory restitution
applies only to an “offense against property under this title [18],” 18
U.S.C. § 3663A(c)(1)(A)(ii), which by definition excludes intellectual
property offenses located outside Title 18. These include violations of the
Digital Millennium Copyright Act, 17 U.S.C. § 1204, and the
unauthorized reception of cable and satellite service as prohibited by 47
U.S.C. §§ 553(b)(2), 605.
The second class consists of any intellectual property offenses located
in Title 18 that might be characterized as not being “offense[s] against
property.” § 3663A(c)(1)(A)(ii) (emphasis added). Examples might
include violations of 18 U.S.C. § 2319A (bootleg music and music video
recordings).
Fortunately, even in the cases discussed in the previous paragraphs,
there are other mechanisms to obtain restitution. For intellectual property
offenses that are located in Title 18 but are not offenses against property,
discretionary restitution is available under 18 U.S.C. § 3663(a)(1)(A). For
intellectual property offenses that are located outside Title 18, restitution
is available under a plea agreement. See 18 U.S.C. § 3663(a)(3). And,
finally, discretionary restitution can be ordered for any intellectual
property crime—in fact any crime at all, whether an intellectual property
crime or not, whether in Title 18 or not, and whether an offense against
property or not—as a condition of probation, or of supervised release after
imprisonment. See 18 U.S.C. §§ 3563(b)(2) (probation), 3583(d)
(supervised release). A good example of these principles is United States
v. Lexington Wholesale Co. , 71 Fed. Appx. 507 (6th Cir. 2003)
(unpublished), in which a defendant was convicted for selling infant
formula repackaged with counterfeit trademarks and without an accurate
“use by” date, which resulted in one count for criminal trademark
violations under 18 U.S.C. § 2320 and one count for misbranded food or
drugs under Title 21. 71 Fed. Appx. at 508. The sentencing court imposed
restitution to the victim of the misbranding count only, which the
defendant argued was improper because restitution is authorized only for
offenses under Title 18, not Title 21. Id. The appellate court affirmed
restitution on the ground that it was authorized as a condition of
probation and also by the plea agreement. Id. at 508-09.
In deciding whether to award discretionary restitution, the court must
consider not only the victim's loss, but also the defendant's financial
resources. 18 U.S.C. § 3663(a)(1)(B)(i); see also § 3563(b)(2) (allowing
court to order restitution to a victim as a condition of probation “as []
reasonably necessary” and without regard to the limitations on restitution
in § 3663(a) and § 3663A(c)(1)(A)). Mandatory restitution requires full

restitution. Prosecutor's Guide to Criminal Monetary Penalties at 29-30.
There is, however, a presumption for full restitution, even in discretionary
restitution cases. Id. The Department's policy is to require full restitution
in discretionary cases (assuming the defendant's current or future
economic circumstances warrant it), but in discretionary cases to require
nominal payment if economic circumstances so warrant. Id. at 30.
In deciding whether to order discretionary restitution, the court
should also consider whether “the complication and prolongation of the
sentencing process ... outweighs the need to provide restitution.” 18
U.S.C. § 3663(a)(1)(B)(ii). Again, however, the Department advises that
“prosecutors should only ask the court to apply this provision narrowly,
i.e., only to whatever portion of restitution it may be applicable, and to
impose restitution for those victims and harms the court can identify.”
Prosecutor's Guide to Criminal Monetary Penalties at 30.
Department policy requires consideration of the availability of
restitution when making charging decisions, and to structure plea
agreements to provide restitution whenever possible. See Attorney
General Guidelines on Victim and Witness Assistance Arts. V.C.1.
(stating that “[w]hen exercising their discretion, prosecutors shall give due
consideration to the need to provide full restitution to the victims of
Federal criminal offenses,” among other charging considerations), V.D.1.-
.6. (plea agreements, including required provisions and supervisors' duties
for approval relating to restitution). If one of the charges would require
restitution, the plea agreement should require full restitution even if the
defendant pleads guilty to a charge that would not require restitution. Id.

Consumers Who Were Defrauded
Prosecutors should consider all victims who suffered a loss, from the
holder of the intellectual property to the direct purchaser and the ultimate
consumer of the infringing good.
Generally, the intellectual property rights-holder whose works were
infringed or misappropriated qualifies for restitution. This is clear in cases
involving copyrights, trademarks, and trade secrets. As noted in Section
VIII.D.1. of this Chapter, DMCA offenses do not qualify for mandatory
restitution. Moreover, the cases suggest that in DMCA or DMCA-like
cases, the company whose technological measures are circumvented is not
entitled to restitution unless the company also owns copyrighted works
that were infringed as a result of the circumvention. See United States v.
Oliver, No. 8:02CR3, 2005 WL 1691049, at *5 (D. Neb. July 18, 2005)
(“Even if Sony had made money as a result of the defendant's criminal

conduct [in modifying Sony Playstations to play pirated games in
violation of the DMCA], it simply does not negate the fact that the
defendant is guilty of violating Sony's copyright [by modifying the game
machines to play pirated Sony games].”); United States v. Hicks, 46 F.3d
1128, 1995 WL 20791, at *1 (4th Cir. Jan. 20, 1995) (table) (holding
that defendant convicted of selling modified satellite TV descrambling
devices in violation of 47 U.S.C. § 605(e)(4) was not liable for restitution
to descrambling device manufacturers because they had been fully
compensated when they originally sold their devices, but ordering
restitution to satellite service providers for what customers would have
paid for the additional channels they could receive because of the
defendant's modifications). Industry associations that represent
intellectual property rights-holders can, in some circumstances, help
identify rights-holders and receive and distribute the restitution to the
rights-holders.
Defrauded purchasers—if any—are entitled to restitution as well. See,
e.g., United States v. Trevino, 956 F.2d 276, 1992 WL 39028 (9th Cir.
1992) (table) (in counterfeit trademark prosecution, affirming order of
restitution to nuclear power plant victim that had purchased counterfeit
circuit breakers). A defendant who has defrauded a large number of
consumers can be expected to argue that restitution is not required
because the class of defrauded consumers is impracticably large or difficult
to identify. See 18 U.S.C. § 3663A(c)(3). There are procedures for
ordering restitution for victims who can be identified by name but cannot
presently be located at a particular address. See United States v.
Berardini, 112 F.3d 606, 609-12 (2d Cir. 1997).
Consumers who knew that they were purchasing counterfeits generally
do not qualify as victims, because they have not been harmed.
Distinguishing between consumers who were and were not defrauded may
be a challenge.
In determining whether an involved party qualifies as a victim for the
purpose of restitution, the court will distinguish between those harmed by
the defendant's relevant conduct and those harmed by the offense of
conviction. (The rest of this paragraph consists largely of excerpts from
the Prosecutor's Guide to Criminal Monetary Penalties: Determination,
Imposition and Enforcement of Restitution, Fines & Other Monetary
Impositions 32 (Dep't of Justice Office of Legal Education May 2003),
with minor edits.) The court is statutorily authorized to impose
restitution only to identifiable victims of the acts that are part of the
offense of conviction. In Hughey v. United States, 495 U.S. 411, 413
(1990), the Supreme Court held that the restitution statutes limit

restitution to “the loss caused by the specific conduct that is the basis of
the offense of conviction.” Restitution is not authorized for acts merely
related to the offense of conviction, such as acts that are within “relevant
conduct” under guideline sentencing (U.S.S.G. § 1B1.3), but are outside
the actual offense of conviction itself. Under the primary restitution
statutes, a victim is “a person directly and proximately harmed as a result
of the commission of an offense for which restitution may be ordered.” 18
U.S.C. §§ 3663A(a)(2), 3663(a)(2). Where the offense of conviction
includes a scheme, conspiracy, or pattern of criminal activity, however,
restitution can be imposed for the entire scheme, conspiracy, or pattern.
Therefore, prosecutors should charge such offenses to indicate the specific
nature and full extent of the acts that constitute the scheme, conspiracy,
or pattern of which the offense of conviction is involved, in order to
permit the broadest imposition of restitution.
If the acts for which restitution is sought cannot be tied together with
a scheme, pattern, or conspiracy, then the acts outside the offense of
conviction generally do not trigger restitution. Under this rule, restitution
is generally not triggered by one kind of act if the offense of conviction
describes another kind of act, even if the acts are logically related in
purpose or intent—for example, if the offense of conviction is possession
of stolen credit cards, some courts will not impose restitution for the
victims of the use of the cards. See, e.g., United States v. Blake, 81 F.3d
498 (4th Cir. 1996); United States v. Hayes, 32 F.3d 171 (5th Cir.
1994). However, some courts apply this rule more strictly than others. For
example, to determine the existence of a scheme and what acts it
included, some courts will consider the facts alleged in the indictment,
proven at trial, or admitted in the plea colloquy. See, e.g., United States
v. Jackson, 155 F.3d 942 (8th Cir. 1998); United States v. Ramirez, 196
F.3d 895 (8th Cir. 1999); United States v. Hughey (II), 147 F.3d 423,
438 (5th Cir. 1998) (suggesting that restitution might have been triggered
by acts not in the indictment had they been established by the trial
record).
If no scheme, conspiracy, or pattern encompasses the acts for which
injured parties seek restitution, restitution will likely be limited in two
respects. First, a party who was injured solely by an act outside the offense
of conviction—such as a party whose losses were proved only as relevant
conduct—cannot obtain restitution. Second, a party who was injured by
the offense of conviction can obtain restitution only for the offense-of-
conviction acts and not acts proved only as relevant conduct at
sentencing—even relevant conduct that counted towards the loss or
infringement amount; however, some courts may still allow restitution for
this type of relevant conduct if it is alleged in the indictment or proved at

trial, not just at sentencing. The exception to both these limitations is, of
course, restitution ordered pursuant to a stipulation in a plea agreement.
See 18 U.S.C. § 3663(a)(3).
Application of these principles to an intellectual property crime
occurred in United States v. Manzer, 69 F.3d 222 (8th Cir. 1995), in
which the court ordered $2.7 million in restitution from a defendant
convicted of mail fraud, wire fraud, and criminal copyright infringement
for trafficking in cloned computer chips. The cloned chips would allow
satellite descrambling devices to decrypt cable satellite signals without
authorization. The defendant objected to the $2.7 million restitution
award on the ground that it included sales not identified in the
indictment. Id. at 229-30. The Eighth Circuit disagreed, holding that the
mail and wire fraud counts alleged a scheme to defraud that
“encompass[ed] transactions beyond those alleged in the counts of
conviction,” including the sales not otherwise identified in the indictment.
Id. at 230 (citation and internal quotation marks omitted). Note that the
restitution might have been limited to the sales alleged the indictment if
the defendant had pleaded to or been convicted of only the copyright
charge.
There are several ways to help ensure that restitution is awarded for
harm caused. As part of any plea deal, the government should require the
defendant to plead to the counts that offer maximum restitution, or the
government should insist upon a comprehensive plea agreement that
provides restitution to the victims of relevant offense conduct (whether
the statutes or offenses of conviction provide for it or not). See 18 U.S.C.
§ 3663(a)(3) (allowing court to order restitution as provided in plea
agreement); Prosecutor's Guide to Criminal Monetary Penalties:
Determination, Imposition and Enforcement of Restitution, Fines &
Other Monetary Impositions 22-24 (Dep't of Justice Office of Legal
Education May 2003).
At the beginning of the case, prosecutors should draft the indictment
to maximize restitution. Id. at 21. As the Executive Office for United
States Attorneys counsels:
Prosecutors should avoid the “scheme” restitution pitfalls by:
a) Charging offenses that involve the statutory elements of an
“intent to defraud” or “intent to deceive” in the traditional
wire/mail fraud (or conspiracy) format, where the scheme (or
conspiracy) is described in detail and incorporated by
reference into each specific act count; and

b) Making sure the dates alleged as the beginning and end of the
scheme or conspiracy include all acts in furtherance of the
scheme or conspiracy for which restitution should be
imposed.
Id. at 22. Moreover, “[s]imply tracking the statutory language of such
offenses does not clarify if the acts of conviction are part of a scheme, i.e.,
whether different kinds of acts make up a scheme to 'defraud' or 'deceive.'
Numerous restitution orders have been vacated in such cases due to
ambiguity of the 'scheme' issue.” Id. The same concerns apply to whether
acts in addition to those alleged as overt acts of a conspiracy can qualify
as part of the conspiracy for purposes of awarding restitution. The
Prosecutor's Guide to Criminal Monetary Penalties discusses specific ways
to structure restitution provisions in a plea agreement to maximize
restitution. Id. at 23-24.
VIII.D.3. Determining a Restitution Figure

Once the government has identified the people and entities who
might be classified as victims—consumers who were defrauded and
intellectual property rights-holders—the next question is how to calculate
what the victims are owed, if anything.
To begin with, as discussed in the prior section, the restitution award
must be based on the loss caused by the defendant's offense of conviction.
After determining which victims and transactions qualify for
restitution, the government must determine how the restitution should be
calculated. The most important principle is that restitution is intended to
make the victims whole by compensating them for their losses. See 18
U.S.C. §§ 3663(a)(1)(B)(i)(I), 3663A(b), 3664(a); U.S.S.G. § 5E1.1(a).
This principle has several consequences.
First, the restitution order should require the defendant to return any
of the victim's property that he took. See 18 U.S.C. §§ 3663(b)(1)(A),
3663A(b)(1)(A), 3664(f)(4)(A). This principle applies across all
intellectual property offenses:
• In trade secret offenses, the defendant should be required to
return the trade secret and any other items that he took from the
owner of the trade secret.
• In infringement cases, the defendant should be required to return
the money he accepted from the customers he defrauded (if
any—in some cases the customers knew that they were receiving
counterfeits). Although the defendant might argue that he is

entitled to offset the value of the goods the defrauded customers
received, often that value is next to nothing. Compare cf. United
States v. West Coast Aluminum Heat Treating Co., 265 F.3d
986, 992 (9th Cir. 2001) (“And, by reducing the loss calculation
to account for the partial benefit gained by the government, the
district court remained consistent with the rule that the victim's
loss should be offset by the victim's benefit.”) and United States
v. Matsumaru, 244 F.3d 1092, 1109 (9th Cir. 2001) (holding
that restitution of the purchase price for the business the victim
paid for and was promised but did not receive, must be offset by
the value of the van and business license he did receive) with
United States v. Angelica, 859 F.2d 1390, 1394 (9th Cir. 1988)
(affirming trial court's refusal to offset restitution award by value
of substitute property given to victims, because there was “no
abuse of discretion in the district court's decision to disregard the
value of the inexpensive garnets that were unwanted by the
victims and substituted for their diamonds as part of the
fraudulent scheme”) and United States v. Austin, 54 F.3d 394,
402 (7th Cir. 1995) (holding that “even if the [counterfeit or
misrepresented art] pieces Austin sold ... were not completely
worthless, $0 was the best estimate of their worth” for purposes
of calculating loss).
• In infringement cases—and perhaps trade secret cases as well—the
defendant should also compensate the intellectual property rights-
holder victims for any sales that he diverted from them. See
United States v. Sung, 51 F.3d 92, 94 (7th Cir. 1995) (holding,
in criminal trademark prosecution, that “[r]estitution in a
criminal case is the counterpart to damages in civil litigation”). If
the defendant's conduct did not divert any sales from the victim,
then the victim is entitled to no restitution. See United States v.
Foote, No. CR.A. 00-20091-01-KHV, 2003 WL 22466158, at *7
(D. Kan. July 31, 2003) (refusing to award restitution to
trademark-holders because the government proposed no reliable
estimate of the victim's losses and citing cases for the need to
prove lost profits). A defendant is most likely to divert sales from
the victim when he has defrauded customers into thinking that
his product or service is authentic, although he may have a
counter-argument if his prices were sufficiently under the
authentic price that his customers would have been unlikely to
pay the victim the full price for the real thing. A consumer who
pays $20 for a high-quality (or even a low-quality) fake purse
might not have paid full price ($120 to $700) for the real purse,

and thus his purchase of the fake might not represent a lost sale
to the victim. Similarly, some computer users who download a
$60,000 engineering program for free from an infringing website
or peer-to-peer network may be “trophy hunters” who would not
have paid full price for an authorized copy, whereas other
downloaders may be businesspeople who would have paid full
price had the free download not been available. Restitution orders
should differentiate between these situations, to the extent
possible. Prosecutors might also try to introduce evidence
establishing that the availability of high-quality infringing works
affected the market for the victim's product. See Brooktree Corp.
v. Advanced Micro Devices, Inc., 977 F.2d 1555, 1579 (Fed. Cir.
1992) (civil case upholding “actual damages” calculation based on
evidence that plaintiff had been forced to lower its prices as a
result of defendant's infringing activities).
• Restitution based on lost sales is not calculated by the defendant's
gain, but rather by the victim's loss. Foote, 2003 WL 22466158,
at *7. For example, in United States v. Martin, 64 Fed. Appx. 129
(10th Cir. 2003), the total value of the items infringed was
$1,143,395, but the restitution equaled only $395,000—the retail
value multiplied by the rights-holder's profit margin. Nevertheless,
the defendant has no right to have his own costs offset against his
gain. United States v. Chay, 281 F.3d 682, 686-87 (7th Cir.
2002).
• When the evidence of infringement consists of the defendant's
inventory of infringing product rather than his actual sales—and
the defendant therefore argues against any restitution for lack of
actual diverted sales—the government may argue that the
inventory is a reasonable estimate of the defendant's past sales.
This argument is likely to be most persuasive when the
defendant's inventory is counted after he has been in business for
a long time. Inventory is more likely to overstate past sales when
a business is just starting out, and to understate past sales when
the business has been successful and ongoing for a substantial
time.
• At least one court has held that restitution in a criminal
intellectual property case can be based on the amount of statutory
damages that the victim could have obtained from the defendant
in a civil case, but this was a case in which the statutory damages
likely understated the actual damages. See United States v.
Manzer , 69 F.3d 222, 229-30 (8th Cir. 1995) (upholding

restitution award in descrambler case of $2.7 million for 270
cloning devices based on minimum statutory damages of $10,000
per device, where victim provided loss figure of over $6.8 million).
Statutory damages are available in civil suits for a variety of
intellectual property violations. See e..g., 15 U.S.C. § 1117 (c)
(statutory damages of $500-$100,000 (up to $1 million if
infringement was willful) per counterfeit mark per type of goods
or services); 17 U.S.C. § 504(c) (statutory damages of $750-
$30,000 (up to $150,000 if infringement was willful) per
infringed work); 47 U.S.C. § 605(e)(3)(C)(i)(II) (statutory
damages of $10,000-$100,000 per violation). See also Roger D.
Blair & Thomas F. Cotter, An Economic Analysis of Damages
Rules in Intellectual Property Law, 39 Wm. & Mary L. Rev.
1585, 1651-72 (1998) (discussing economic theory of statutory
damages in copyright law).
• If the defendant earned a profit from his crime but the court finds
that restitution is too difficult to calculate, the court can
nevertheless take away the defendant's gain by imposing a fine in
the amount of his gain. See Foote, 2003 WL 22466158, at *7.
Second, the restitution order should compensate the victim for any
money spent to investigate the defendant's conduct, whether during the
victim's own investigation or while helping the government investigate
and prosecute. These costs often arise in intellectual property cases:
employers conduct internal investigations into their employees' theft of
trade secrets, and copyright and trademark-holders often hire private
investigators to monitor and investigate suspected infringers. The
mandatory and discretionary restitution statutes both authorize
restitution “for lost income and necessary child care, transportation, and
other expenses related to participation in the investigation or prosecution
of the offense or attendance at proceedings related to the offense.” 18
U.S.C. §§ 3663(b)(4), 3663A(b)(4). These provisions have been
interpreted to cover not only the victim's expenses in helping the
government, but also the costs of the victim's own investigation. See
United States v. Brown, 150 Fed. Appx. 575 (8th Cir. 2005) (per curiam)
(awarding restitution to victim company for staff investigation costs into
reconstructing and correcting financial records related to defendant's
embezzlement, where defendant contested proof of amount but not
whether investigative costs as a category are awardable); United States v.
Beaird, 145 Fed. Appx. 853 (5th Cir. 2005) (per curiam) (affirming
$200,000 award of restitution for attorney's fees and litigation expenses
associated with assisting the FBI's investigation), cert. denied, 126 S. Ct.
1382 (2006); United States v. Gordon, 393 F.3d 1044, 1049, 1056-57

(9th Cir. 2004) (discussing reimbursement of investigative costs in depth,
in case affirming $1,038,477 in restitution for costs of company's internal
investigation and responses to grand jury subpoenas), cert. denied, 126 S.
Ct. 472 (2005). See also United States v. Susel, 429 F.3d 782, 783 (8th
Cir. 2005) (per curiam) (affirming award of software company's
administrative and transportation expenses during participation in the
investigation and prosecution of the offense in criminal copyright case).
Third, in deciding whether to award discretionary restitution, the
court must consider not only the victim's loss, but also the defendant's
financial resources. 18 U.S.C. § 3663(a)(1)(B)(i); see also 18 U.S.C.
§ 3563(b)(2) (allowing court to order restitution to a victim as a
condition of probation “as [] reasonably necessary” and without regard to
the limitations on restitution in § 3663(a) and § 3663A(c)(1)(A)).
Mandatory restitution requires full restitution. Prosecutor's Guide to
Criminal Monetary Penalties at 29-30. There is, however, a presumption
for full restitution, even in discretionary restitution cases. Id. Department
policy requires full restitution in discretionary cases (assuming the
defendant's current or future economic circumstances warrant it), unless
economic circumstances warrant nominal payment. Id. at 30. In no case
shall the fact that a victim has received or is entitled to receive
compensation with respect to a loss from insurance or any other source be
considered in determining the amount of restitution. 18 U.S.C.
§ 3664(f)(1)(B).
Fourth, victims have an important role in helping to determine the
appropriate amount of restitution. The government must consult with
witnesses and the court to consider victims' evidence at sentencing. See
42 U.S.C. § 10607(c)(3)(G); Attorney General Guidelines for Victim and
Witness Assistance Art. IV.B.2.b(4) (May 4, 2005). See generally Chapter
X of this Manual (Victims). The criminal intellectual property statutes
similarly require the court to consider victims' evidence at sentencing.
See 18 U.S.C. §§ 2319(d), 2319A(d), 2319B(e), 2320(d). The pre-
sentence report must also include a verified assessment of victim impact
in every case. Fed. R. Crim. P. 32(d)(2)(B). Trade associations can be very
helpful in providing victim impact statements, particularly when an
offense involves a large quantity and variety of infringing products. See
the listing of intellectual property contacts in Appendix G of this Manual.

VIII.E. Forfeiture
In intellectual property (IP) crimes, forfeiture can serve several
important functions. Forfeiting infringing items removes them from the
stream of commerce so they cannot be sold or redistributed. Forfeiting the
tools and equipment that defendants use to commit IP crimes prevents
their being used to commit further IP crime. Forfeiting the proceeds of IP
crime—the revenues and profits—prevents their reinvestment in a
criminal enterprise. Finally, forfeiture can serve as a powerful deterrent.
Congress has passed many forfeiture laws that address specific crimes,
but in a manner that has created a complex web of forfeiture statutes. The
specific IP forfeiture provisions vary with the IP crime, yet the underlying
criminal IP statute will often not make it obvious which forfeiture
remedies—administrative, civil, or criminal—are available.
To make IP forfeiture more standard and intuitive, Congress passed
the Stop Counterfeiting in Manufactured Goods Act, Pub. L. No. 109-
181, 120 Stat. 285 (enacted March 16, 2006) to expand the type of
property that can be forfeited and to clarify and standardize the
procedures for doing so. The Act, however, affects only counterfeit
trademark, service mark, and certification mark offenses in 18 U.S.C.
§ 2320. Consequently, the Administration has proposed similar
amendments to the forfeiture provisions for other IP offenses.
This Chapter is not a definitive guide to forfeiture law, but rather it
provides a basic overview of the forfeiture remedies available in IP crimes.
Due to the intricacies of forfeiture law (including both recent changes in
2006 and possible future revisions), prosecutors with questions
concerning forfeiture practice and procedure should contact the forfeiture
expert in their office or the Criminal Division's Asset Forfeiture and
Money Laundering Section at (202) 514-1263.
VIII.E.1. Property Subject to Forfeiture

Intellectual property crimes give rise to three general categories of
forfeitable property:
• Contraband items, which include infringing copyrighted copies
and phonorecords; goods, labels, documentation, and packaging
that bear counterfeit trademarks, service marks, or certification
marks; and unauthorized recordings of live musical performances.
See 49 U.S.C. § 80302(a)(6). These items are generally subject to
forfeiture.

• Proceeds derived from the commission of an IP offense. These are
also usually forfeitable.
• Facilitating property, that is, property that was used to commit or
facilitate the IP offense, such as plates, molds or masters used to
produce copyright-infringing works; computers, tools, equipment,
and supplies used to produce counterfeit goods; and vehicles used
to traffic in any of the above. Forfeiture of facilitating property is
available in many cases, but its availability varies substantially
depending on the specific IP offense, the type of property, and
the type of forfeiture sought.
VIII.E.2. Overview of Forfeiture Procedures

There are three types of forfeiture procedures: administrative, civil,
and criminal. This section gives a brief overview and includes a table that
summarizes the types of forfeiture available for each kind of property,
organized by intellectual property offense.
VIII.E.2.a. Administrative Forfeiture Proceedings

Administrative forfeiture occurs when a law enforcement agency
forfeits property in an administrative, non-judicial matter. As with the
other types of forfeiture procedure, administrative forfeiture is available
only pursuant to a specific statute that authorizes such a procedure.
Administrative forfeiture commences once an agency seizes property and
then sends or publishes notice of the property seizure within the
prescribed deadlines. If nobody responds to the notice by filing a claim of
ownership claim within the allotted time, the property is forfeited without
involving a prosecutor or judge. If a claim is filed, the seizing agency must
either return the property or seek forfeiture through a judicial procedure.
Administrative forfeiture in IP offenses is usually limited to situations
that implicate the customs laws. For example, Immigration and Customs
Enforcement (ICE) may seize, forfeit, and destroy imported copyright-
infringing products administratively pursuant to 17 U.S.C. §§ 509(b)
and 603(c). ICE may also seize, forfeit, and destroy imported trademark-
infringing products administratively under 19 U.S.C. § 1526(e).
Administrative forfeiture may also be available for violations of 18 U.S.C.
§§ 2318 and 2319A. See 18 U.S.C. § 2318(e); 17 U.S.C. § 509; see also
18 U.S.C. § 981(d); 19 U.S.C. §§ 1607-09 (administrative forfeiture of
proceeds); 49 U.S.C. § 80304 (administrative forfeiture of facilitating
property).

Real property and personal property (other than monetary
instruments) that are worth more than $500,000 can never be forfeited
in an administrative proceeding. See 19 U.S.C. § 1607; 18 U.S.C. § 985.
VIII.E.2.b. Civil and Criminal Proceedings

Unlike administrative forfeiture proceedings, civil and criminal
forfeiture are judicial actions that require the involvement of prosecutors
and the courts.
Criminal forfeiture is an in personam proceeding that is executed as
part of a criminal defendant's sentence. It thus requires a conviction and
is limited to property belonging to the defendant that was involved in the
offense of conviction. Criminal forfeiture cannot reach a third party's
property, even if the defendant used the third party's property to commit
the crime.
Whereas criminal forfeiture is an in personam action against the
defendant, civil forfeiture is an in rem action against the property itself.
This means that civil forfeiture proceedings can reach property regardless
of who owns it, if the government can prove that the property was derived
from or used to commit a crime. Civil forfeiture proceedings are not part
of a criminal case at all. The burden of proof is a preponderance of the
evidence, and civil forfeiture proceedings can dispose of property even
without a criminal conviction or the filing of any criminal charges.
VIII.E.2.c. Table of Forfeiture Provisions Arranged by Criminal

IP Statute
The following list indicates the types of forfeiture available for each
intellectual property offense. Note that administrative forfeiture is
generally available for vessels used to transport contraband items pursuant
to 49 U.S.C. § 80304. Note also that even where forfeiture of proceeds is
not provided for directly, it may be available indirectly through money
laundering statutes.
CRIMINAL COPYRIGHT INFRINGEMENT

Administrative Yes. 17 U.S.C. §§ 509(a) (forfeiture of
infringing goods) and (b) (applying
customs laws), 602-603 (specifically
prohibiting imports of infringing
copies). 18 U.S.C. § 981(d) (allowing
administrative forfeiture for proceeds

forfeitable civilly); 19 U.S.C. §§ 1595a,
1607-09.
Civil
Infringing Items Yes. 17 U.S.C. §§ 509(a), 602-603
(prohibiting imports).
Facilitating Property Yes. 17 U.S.C. § 509(a) (plates, molds,
masters and other equipment used to
make infringing copies).
Proceeds Yes. 18 U.S.C. § 981(a)(1)(C).
Criminal
Infringing Items Yes. 17 U.S.C. §§ 506(b), 602-603;
28 U.S.C. § 2461(c) (allowing criminal
forfeiture where property could be
seized civilly).
Facilitating Property Yes. 17 U.S.C. § 506(b);
28 U.S.C. § 2461.
Proceeds Yes. 18 U.S.C. § 981(a)(1)(C);
28 U.S.C. § 2461(c).
DIGITAL MILLENNIUM COPYRIGHT ACT

Administrative No.
Civil None.
Criminal None.
ECONOMIC ESPIONAGE ACT (TRADE SECRET THEFT)

Administrative No.
Civil None.
Criminal
Facilitating Property Yes (discretionary).
18 U.S.C. § 1834(a)(2).
Proceeds Yes (mandatory).
18 U.S.C. § 1834(a)(1).

COUNTERFEIT/ILLICIT LABELS, DOCUMENTATION, AND PACKAGING FOR
COPYRIGHTED WORKS
Administrative Yes. 18 U.S.C. § 2318(e);
17 U.S.C. § 509(b);
18 U.S.C. § 981(d);
19 U.S.C. §§ 1595a (allowing seizure
and forfeiture by Customs), 1607-09.
Civil
Counterfeit/ Yes. 18 U.S.C. § 2318(e); 17 U.S.C.
Infringing Items § 509.
Facilitating Property Yes. 18 U.S.C. § 2318(e);
17 U.S.C. § 509.
Proceeds Yes. 18 U.S.C. §§ 981(a)(1)(C),
1956(c)(7).
Criminal
Counterfeit/ Yes (mandatory). 18 U.S.C. § 2318(d).
Infringing Items
Facilitating Property Yes (mandatory as to plates, molds,
masters, etc.; discretionary as to other
equipment). 18 U.S.C. § 2318(d).
1956(c)(7); 28 U.S.C. § 2461(c).
UNAUTHORIZED FIXATIONS OF LIVE MUSICAL PERFORMANCES

(“BOOTLEGGING”)
Administrative Yes. 18 U.S.C §§ 2319A(c), 981(d);
19 U.S.C. §§ 1595a, 1607-09.
Civil
Unauthorized Yes. 18 U.S.C. § 2319A(c).
Recordings
Facilitating Property No.
Proceeds Yes. 18 U.S.C. § 981(a)(1)(C).

Criminal
Unauthorized Yes (mandatory).
Recordings 18 U.S.C. § 2319A(b).
Facilitating Property Yes (mandatory for plates, molds,
masters, etc.; discretionary as to other
equipment). 18 U.S.C. § 2319A(b).
1956(c)(7); 28 U.S.C. § 2461(c).
UNAUTHORIZED RECORDING OF MOTION PICTURES (“CAMCORDING”)

Administrative No.
Civil None.
Criminal
Unauthorized Yes (mandatory).
Recordings 18 U.S.C. § 2319B(b).
Facilitating Property Yes (mandatory).
18 U.S.C. § 2319B(b).
Proceeds No.
GOODS, SERVICES, LABELS, DOCUMENTATION, AND PACKAGING WITH

COUNTERFEIT MARKS
***NOTE: 18 U.S.C. § 2320(b) was amended on March 16, 2006. The
table below reflects these amendments. The pre-amendment provision is
discussed and quoted in Sections VIII.E.4.b. and VIII.E.5. of this
Chapter.
Administrative Yes. 19 U.S.C. §§ 1595a, 1607-09;
18 U.S.C. § 981(d);
Civil
Counterfeit Items Yes. 18 U.S.C. § 2320(b)(1)(A).
Facilitating Property Yes. 18 U.S.C. § 2320(b)(1)(B).
Proceeds Yes. 18 U.S.C. §§ 981(a)(1)(C);
1956(c)(7); 28 U.S.C. § 2461(c).

Criminal
Counterfeit Items Yes (mandatory).
18 U.S.C. § 2320(b)(3)(A).
Facilitating Property Yes (mandatory).
18 U.S.C. § 2320(b)(3)(A).
Proceeds Yes. 18 U.S.C. § 2320(b)(3)(A); or
alternatively:
18 U.S.C. §§ 981(a)(1)(C), 1956(c)(7);
28 U.S.C. § 2461(c).
VIII.E.3. Choosing a Forfeiture Procedure

Although the prosecutor may commence parallel civil and criminal
forfeiture cases to keep all avenues of forfeiture open, various factors may
affect which procedure is best to pursue:
• Substitute assets. In criminal proceedings, the court can enter a
money judgment against the defendant for the property's value or
can order the forfeiture of substitute assets if the property has
been dissipated or cannot be found.
• Burden of proof. In civil proceedings, the government need only
prove that a crime was committed and that the property derived
from or facilitated the crime by a preponderance of the evidence.
In criminal cases, the government must prove beyond a
reasonable doubt that a crime was committed and that the
defendant committed the crime, although the nexus between the
property and the offense need be proved only by a preponderance
of the evidence.
• Criminal conviction as a prerequisite. Civil forfeiture does not
require a conviction. This is especially important if the
government wants to forfeit the property of fugitives or
defendants who have died, or if the government can prove that
the property was involved in a crime but cannot prove the
wrongdoer's specific identity. Moreover, civil proceedings may be
brought against any property derived from either a specific
offense or from an illegal course of conduct, and therefore is not
limited to property involved in the offense(s) of conviction.
• Ownership of property. Criminal forfeiture reaches property only
if it is owned by the defendant. Civil forfeiture should be
considered if the prosecutor seeks to forfeit proceeds or
facilitation property that the defendant does not own.

• Discovery and disclosure obligations. Civil forfeiture, governed by
civil discovery rules, can result in early or unwanted disclosure of
information through traditional civil discovery mechanisms such
as interrogatories and depositions, and it is subject to stringent
deadlines.
• Attorneys' fees. If the government brings an unsuccessful action
for civil forfeiture, it may be liable for the owner's attorneys' fees.
• Efficiency. Administrative forfeiture is preferred whenever
available, as it can dispose of certain forfeiture matters quickly in
a non-judicial setting.
VIII.E.4. Civil Forfeiture in IP Matters

Civil forfeiture is available in some (though not all) intellectual
property offenses. It is available for property connected to criminal
copyright infringement, 18 U.S.C. § 2319; trafficking in counterfeit or
illicit labels or counterfeit documentation or packaging for copyrighted
works, 18 U.S.C. § 2318; unauthorized fixations of live musical
performances, 18 U.S.C. § 2319A; and trafficking in goods, services,
labels, documentation, or packaging with counterfeit marks,
18 U.S.C. § 2320. Civil forfeiture is not available if the property is only
connected to violations of the Digital Millennium Copyright Act,
17 U.S.C. § 1204, or the Economic Espionage Act, 18 U.S.C. §§ 1831,
1832. Again, the government need only prove that the crime was
committed; it need not convict a specific defendant of the crime.
VIII.E.4.a. Proceeds
The government can forfeit the proceeds of 18 U.S.C. §§ 2318, 2319,
2319A, and 2320 offenses in civil forfeiture proceedings. Under the Civil
Asset Forfeiture Reform Act of 2000 (“CAFRA”) amendments to
18 U.S.C. § 981(a)(1)(C), a general civil forfeiture statute, the
government can seek civil forfeiture of “[a]ny property, real or personal,
which constitutes or is derived from proceeds traceable to,” among other
things, any offense defined as a specified unlawful activity in the money
laundering provisions at 18 U.S.C. § 1956(c)(7). Specified unlawful
activities include criminal copyright infringement and trademark
counterfeiting, 18 U.S.C. § 1956(c)(7)(D) (citing 18 U.S.C. §§ 2319,
2320), as well as any offense listed as racketeering activity in
18 U.S.C. § 1961(1). Section 1961, in turn, lists not only §§ 2319 and
2320 violations, but also violations of 18 U.S.C. § 2318 (counterfeit
labels, documentation, and packaging for copyrighted works) and § 2319A

(bootleg musical recordings). Thus, civil forfeiture of proceeds is available
for violations of 18 U.S.C. §§ 2318, 2319, 2319A, and 2320.

Facilitating Property
Civil forfeiture of infringing and other contraband items, as well as
facilitating property, is also available for some IP offenses, but varies
greatly depending on the particular offense and property involved.
For some copyright and copyright-related offenses, Title 17 provides
for civil forfeiture of contraband such as infringing copies and certain
types of facilitating property. Civil forfeiture is available against property
that was manufactured or used in violation of the copyright laws,
17 U.S.C. § 509(a), specifically (a) infringing copies, or copies intended
for infringing use; and (b) the plates, masters, or other means used for
reproducing the infringing copies, as well as other devices for
manufacturing, reproducing, or assembling infringing copies. See, e.g.,
United States v. One Sharp Photocopier, Model SF-7750, 771 F. Supp.
980, 983 (D. Minn. 1991) (holding that the government was entitled to
forfeiture of copier used to produce infringing copies of a software
instruction manual); see also 17 U.S.C. § 509(b) (incorporating
administrative forfeiture provisions of Title 19 and the provisions relating
to in rem admiralty actions). Civil forfeiture is also available against
infringing articles or unauthorized fixations imported into the United
States, in some circumstances. See 17 U.S.C. §§ 602-603 (infringing
copies); 18 U.S.C. § 2319A (unauthorized fixations of live musical
performances).
For counterfeit trademark, service mark, and certification mark
offenses, the forfeiture provisions changed markedly in 2006. Before the
March 16, 2006 amendments, there was no civil forfeiture authority for
these cases except in the context of importation or proceeds under the
specified unlawful activity provisions discussed in above. However, the old
version of the statute, 18 U.S.C. § 2320, included a hybrid forfeiture
provision that used the civil preponderance-of-the-evidence standard but
applied only in a criminal prosecution. Before its amendment, § 2320(b)
provided that “[u]pon a determination by a preponderance of the
evidence that any articles in the possession of a defendant in a
prosecution under this section bear counterfeit marks, the United States
may obtain an order for the destruction of such articles.”
18 U.S.C. § 2320(b) (West 2005). Congress enacted this provision
because “[e]ven if the defendant is ultimately acquitted of the criminal
charge, there is no valid public policy reason to allow the defendant to

retain materials that are in fact counterfeit.” Joint Statement on
Trademark Counterfeiting Legislation, 130 Cong. Rec. 31,674 (1984).
See also United States v. Foote, 238 F. Supp. 2d 1271 (D. Kan. 2002).
This provision was revised considerably, however, by the Stop
Counterfeiting in Manufactured Goods Act, Pub. L. No. 109-181, 120
Stat. 285 (enacted March 16, 2006) to provide for civil forfeiture of
“[a]ny article bearing or consisting of a counterfeit mark used in
committing” a § 2320 violation, and “[a]ny property used, in any manner
or part, to commit or to facilitate the commission of” such a violation.
18 U.S.C. § 2320(b)(1).
VIII.E.4.c. Innocent Owner Defense

In most civil forfeiture actions, the innocent owner defense allows an
owner to challenge the forfeiture on the ground that he was unaware that
the property was being used for an illegal purpose, or took all reasonable
steps under the circumstances to stop it. See United States v. 2001
Honda Accord EX, 245 F. Supp. 2d 602 (M.D. Pa. 2003) (holding that
CAFRA preserved the rule that the burden of proof shifts to the claimant
to establish the innocent owner defense); United States v. 2526 Faxon
Avenue, 145 F. Supp. 2d 942 (W.D. Tenn. 2001) (holding that CAFRA
requires the claimant to prove the affirmative innocent owner defense by
a preponderance of the evidence). There are some exceptions, however,
most notably for importation offenses, and therefore prosecutors may
wish to consult with the Department's Asset Forfeiture and Money
Laundering Section at (202) 514-1263 if an innocent owner is likely to
submit a claim.
VIII.E.4.d. Victims' Ability to Forfeit Property

Note also that some IP rights-holders may obtain certain civil seizures
that can complicate the government's criminal prosecution, not to
mention its forfeiture proceedings. Mark-holders have an ex parte remedy
for seizing infringing products and manufacturing equipment.
15 U.S.C. §1116(d). Mark-holders may also petition the court for seizure
orders during a civil action against an infringer under 15 U.S.C. § 1114.
Authority for an ex parte seizure order is provided at 15
U.S.C. § 1116(d)(1)(A). Mark-holders who seek such an order must give
reasonable notice to the United States Attorney for the judicial district in
which the order is sought, after which the United States Attorney “may
participate in the proceedings arising under such application if such
proceedings may affect evidence of an offense against the United States.”
15 U.S.C. § 1116(d)(2). The mark-holder's application may be denied “if
the court determines that the public interest in a potential prosecution so

requires.” Id. If the mark-holder's application is granted, then the seizure
must be made by a federal, state, or local law enforcement officer. See
15 U.S.C. § 1116(d)(9).
Similar ex parte seizure remedies are available to rights-holders in
copyright and counterfeit or illicit labels cases. See 17 U.S.C. § 503;
18 U.S.C. § 2318(f).
Prosecutors may need to participate in these civil proceedings in order
to preserve evidence relevant to an incipient or ongoing criminal case, to
contest the issuance of an order, to preserve an ongoing investigation, or
to inform the mark-holder of his ability to initiate a parallel civil case to
seize, forfeit, and destroy equipment used to manufacture the counterfeit
trademark goods.
VIII.E.5. Criminal Forfeiture in IP Matters

As noted above, criminal forfeiture is an in personam action, and thus
is available only once a defendant has been convicted, and then it is
limited to property belonging to the defendant. See United States v.
Totaro , 345 F.3d 989, 995 (8th Cir. 2003) (holding that criminal
forfeiture is in personam, because if it allowed the forfeiture of a third
party's interest, the forfeiture would become an in rem action and the
third party could contest the forfeiture on more than ownership grounds);
United States v. O'Dell, 247 F.3d 655, 680 (6th Cir. 2001) (recognizing
that criminal forfeiture “entitles the government to forfeiture of a
convicted defendant's interests and nothing more”) (citation omitted);
United States v. Gilbert, 244 F.3d 888, 919 (11th Cir. 2001) (“Because
it seeks to penalize the defendant for his illegal activities, in personam
forfeiture reaches only that property, or portion thereof, owned by the
defendant.”) (citation omitted).
Even though criminal forfeiture is executed after conviction, the
government should plan for criminal forfeiture during the investigation
and at indictment. Pre-indictment seizure warrants can be used to seize
infringing items (whether or not they are the property of a target).
Moreover, the indictment should include separate forfeiture charges that
identify any property that is forfeitable pursuant to the charged offenses.
For forfeiture language to include in an indictment, prosecutors should
consult the forfeiture expert in their office or the Criminal Division's Asset
Forfeiture and Money Laundering Section.
Criminal forfeiture is available for at least some types of property in
cases involving the following criminal IP statutes: copyright,
17 U.S.C. § 506, 18 U.S.C. § 2319; trade secret theft, 18 U.S.C. § 1834;

trafficking in counterfeit or illicit labels or counterfeit documentation or
packaging for copyrighted works, 18 U.S.C. § 2318; trafficking in goods,
services, labels, documentation, or packaging with counterfeit marks,
18 U.S.C. § 2320; bootlegged recordings of live musical performances,
18 U.S.C. § 2319A; and movie camcording, 18 U.S.C. § 2319B.
Currently, there are no criminal forfeiture provisions for violations of the
Digital Millennium Copyright Act, 17 U.S.C. § 1204.
The government can obtain criminal forfeiture of IP crime proceeds
whenever those proceeds could be forfeited civilly: 18 U.S.C. §§ 2318,
2319, 2319A, and 2320. This is because CAFRA generally provided that
criminal forfeiture is available whenever civil forfeiture is available:
If a person is charged in a criminal case with a violation of an Act of
Congress for which the civil or criminal forfeiture of property is
authorized, the Government may include notice of the forfeiture in
the indictment or information pursuant to the Federal Rules of
Criminal Procedure. If the defendant is convicted of the offense giving
rise to the forfeiture, the court shall order the forfeiture of the
property as part of the sentence in the criminal case pursuant to the
Federal Rules of Criminal Procedure and section 3554 of title 18,
United States Code. The procedures in section 413 of the Controlled
Substances Act (21 U.S.C. § 853) apply to all stages of a criminal
forfeiture proceeding, except that subsection (d) of such section
applies only in cases in which the defendant is convicted of a violation
of such Act.
28 U.S.C. § 2461(c). As discussed above, the offenses for which civil
forfeiture is available are enumerated in 18 U.S.C. § 981, and include any
offense constituting “specified unlawful activity” under
18 U.S.C. § 1956(c)(7), the money laundering statute. Section
1956(c)(7)'s list of “specified unlawful activity” includes, directly or
indirectly, violations of 18 U.S.C. §§ 2318, 2319, 2319A, and 2320.
Where a defendant has engaged in a monetary transaction involving
the proceeds of an intellectual property offense, “knowing that the
property involved in a financial transaction represents the proceeds of
some form of unlawful activity”—regardless of whether the crime is listed
in § 1956(c)(7)—the defendant may also be charged, and the proceeds
subject to forfeiture, under the money laundering statute directly. See
United States. v. Turner, 400 F.3d 491 (7th Cir. 2005) (holding that the
defendant need not know the actual source of the money, but only that
it came from “some illegal activity”); see also United States v. Khalil, No.

CR. A. 95-577-01, 1999 WL 455698 (E.D. Pa. June 30, 1999) (forfeiture
involving counterfeiting popular music).
In addition, for counterfeit marks cases, the Stop Counterfeiting in
Manufactured Goods Act (enacted March 16, 2006, discussed in Section
VIII.E.4. of this Chapter) amended 18 U.S.C. § 2320 to provide for
mandatory criminal forfeiture of proceeds (as well as other property). See
18 U.S.C. § 2320(b)(3)(A)(i) (as amended Mar. 16, 2006).
The Economic Espionage Act provides for mandatory criminal
forfeiture of the proceeds of a violation of 18 U.S.C. § 1831 or § 1832.
See 18 U.S.C. § 1834(a)(1).

Facilitating Property
Generally, criminal forfeiture is available against contraband items
involved in an IP offense—such as infringing items, unauthorized
recordings, and counterfeit labels or marks or articles bearing such
marks—and in some cases those items are subject to mandatory
destruction. Facilitating property is likewise subject to criminal forfeiture
in most cases, although such equipment generally need not be destroyed
and can instead be disposed of in other ways, such as at auction.
Copyright offenses are subject to mandatory forfeiture: “When any
person is convicted of a violation of subsection (a), the court in its
judgment of conviction shall, in addition to the penalty therein
prescribed, order the forfeiture and destruction or other disposition of all
infringing copies or phonorecords and all implements, devices, or
equipment used in the manufacture of such infringing copies or
phonorecords.” 17 U.S.C. § 506(b).
Criminal forfeiture is likewise mandatory in offenses for camcording
and trafficking in counterfeit and illicit labels and counterfeit
documentation and packaging for copyrighted works. See
18 U.S.C. § 2318(d) (stating that the court must order “the forfeiture and
destruction or other disposition of all counterfeit labels or illicit labels and
all articles to which counterfeit labels or illicit labels have been affixed or
which were intended to have had such labels affixed, and of any
equipment, device, or material used to manufacture, reproduce, or
assemble the counterfeit labels or illicit labels”); 18 U.S.C. § 2319B(b)
(stating that upon conviction, the court “shall, in addition to any penalty
provided, order the forfeiture and destruction or other disposition of all
unauthorized copies of motion pictures or other audiovisual works

protected under title 17, or parts thereof, and any audiovisual recording
devices or other equipment used in connection with the offense”).
The “bootleg” statute, 18 U.S.C. § 2319A(b), contains a similar
forfeiture provision, requiring forfeiture and destruction of unauthorized
recordings. However, unlike the mandatory forfeiture of equipment
discussed above, the forfeiture of equipment used to reproduce
unauthorized recordings of live musical performances is left to the
discretion of the court, “taking into account the nature, scope, and
proportionality of the use of the equipment in the offense.” Compare
18 U.S.C. § 2319A(b) with 17 U.S.C. § 506(b).
For counterfeit marks cases, as noted above, until March 16, 2006,
the criminal statute contained an unusual criminal forfeiture provision
that allowed forfeiture of counterfeit goods upon a showing by a
preponderance of the evidence (within or related to a criminal case) that
the items bore counterfeit marks. See 18 U.S.C. § 2320(b) (West 2005).
See supra II.E.4. Under the recent revisions to the forfeiture provisions in
the Stop Counterfeiting in Manufactured Goods Act, 18 U.S.C. § 2320
now provides for mandatory forfeiture of “any article that bears or
consists of a counterfeit mark used in committing the offense” and any of
the defendant's property “used, or intended to be used, in any manner or
part, to commit, facilitate, aid, or abet the commission of the offense.”
18 U.S.C. § 2320(b)(3)(A). Any seized article bearing or consisting of a
counterfeit mark must be destroyed. 18 U.S.C. § 2320(b)(3)(B).
The Economic Espionage Act, governing theft of trade secrets,
provides for forfeiture of property used in facilitating the commission of
the offense, considering the nature, scope, and proportionality of the use
of the property in the offense. 18 U.S.C. § 1834(a)(2).

IX.
Charging
Decisions
IX.A. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307

IX.B. The Federal Interest in Intellectual Property Crimes . . . . 308
IX.B.1. Federal Law Enforcement Priorities . . . . . . . . . . . 308
IX.B.2. The Nature and Seriousness of the Offense . . . . . 309
IX.B.3. The Deterrent Effects of Prosecution . . . . . . . . . . 311
IX.B.4. The Individual's History of Criminal Offenses and
Civil Intellectual Property Violations . . . . . . . . . . 311
Investigation or Prosecution of Others . . . . . . . . . 312
IX.C. Whether a Person is Subject to Prosecution in
Another Jurisdiction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312
IX.D. The Adequacy of Alternative Non-Criminal Remedies . . . 313
IX.E. Special Considerations in Deciding Whether to Charge
Corporations and Other Business Organizations . . . . . . . 314
IX.A. Introduction
In determining whether to charge an intellectual property crime,
federal prosecutors should generally weigh the same considerations that
are weighed with respect to any other federal offense. The principal
resource is Chapter 9-27.000 of the United States Attorneys' Manual
(USAM) (“Principles of Federal Prosecution”). Ordinarily, the prosecutor
“should commence or recommend Federal prosecution if he/she believes
that the person's conduct constitutes a Federal offense and that the
admissible evidence will probably be sufficient to obtain and sustain a
conviction.” USAM 9-27.220.
This directive is not absolute. Even a provable case may be declined
in three situations: when prosecution would serve no substantial federal
307
interest; when the person is subject to effective prosecution in another
jurisdiction; and when there exists an adequate non-criminal alternative
to prosecution. Id. Broken down further, the relevant considerations
include:
• The federal interest in intellectual property crimes, which
includes:
• Federal law enforcement priorities.
• The nature and seriousness of the offense.
• The deterrent effect of prosecution.
• The individual's culpability in connection with the offense.
• The individual's criminal history.
• The individual's willingness to cooperate in the investigation
or prosecution of others.
• The probable sentence and other consequences of conviction.
• Whether the person is subject to prosecution in another
jurisdiction
• The adequacy of alternative non-criminal remedies
• Special considerations for deciding whether to charge
corporations
This chapter briefly discusses how some of these factors apply
specifically to intellectual property crimes.
IX.B. The Federal Interest in Intellectual

Property Crimes
In determining whether a particular prosecution would serve a
substantial federal interest, the prosecutor should weigh all relevant
factors. USAM 9-27.230. Several factors that have specific application to
intellectual property crimes are discussed below.
IX.B.1. Federal Law Enforcement Priorities

“[F]rom time to time the Department establishes national
investigative and prosecutorial priorities. These priorities are designed to
focus Federal law enforcement efforts on those matters within the Federal

jurisdiction that are most deserving of Federal attention and are most
likely to be handled effectively at the Federal level.” USAM
9-27.230(B)(1) (comment).
Because of the importance of intellectual property to the national
economy and the scale of intellectual property theft, intellectual property
crime continues to be a law enforcement priority. Intellectual property
theft worldwide reportedly costs American companies $250 billion a year.
U.S. Department of Justice, Report of the Department of Justice's Task
Force on Intellectual Property 8 (Oct. 2004) (citing Office of the United
States Trade Representative). As a consequence, “the American economy
is losing hundreds of millions of dollars in tax revenues, wages, investment
dollars, as well as hundreds of thousands of jobs.” Id. The Justice
Department has therefore made the enforcement of intellectual property
laws a high priority. Id. at 13.
To meet this priority, the Department has trained a national network
of specialized prosecutors designated “Computer Hacking and Intellectual
Property (CHIP) Coordinators,” at least one of whom is located in each
of the nation's ninety-four United States Attorneys' Offices, with greater
numbers in the twenty-five CHIP units located in districts that experience
some of the highest concentrations of computer and intellectual property
crimes. See id. at 13.
At the national and international level, intellectual property
prosecutions are coordinated by the Department's Computer Crime and
Intellectual Property Section (CCIPS) in Washington, D.C. CCIPS can
help evaluate whether a particular intellectual property crime poses a
matter of federal priority. CCIPS can be reached at (202) 514-1026.
IX.B.2. The Nature and Seriousness of the Offense

As with other offenses, intellectual property crimes vary in their
nature and seriousness. It is therefore essential to consider each case on
its own facts.
The offense's nature and seriousness are indicated by the usual factors,
with special importance placed on threats to health or safety, the volume
of infringement, the amount of revenue and profit, the number of
participants, the involvement of organized crime, and the magnitude of
the victim's loss or potential loss, all of which are factored into the
sentencing guidelines. See U.S. Sentencing Guidelines Manual
§ 2B5.3(b)(1) & cmt. n.2(A) (2005) (volume of infringement and
likelihood that defendant's sales displaced the victim's); id. cmt. 4(A)
IX. Charging Decisions 309

(substantial harm to victim's reputation); id. app. note 4(B) (involvement
of organized crime).
Other considerations that are more particular to intellectual property
offenses include the following:
• Federal criminal prosecution is most appropriate in the most
egregious cases. The criminal intellectual property statutes punish
only a subset of the conduct that is punishable under civil
intellectual property laws. Even then, the government must prove
its case beyond a reasonable doubt, including a high state of mens
rea.
• Limited federal resources should not be diverted to prosecute an
inconsequential case or a case in which the violation is only
technical. Even some branches of civil intellectual property law
recognize the maxim, “de minimis non curat lex.”
• Federal prosecution is most appropriate when the questions of
intellectual property law are most settled. Federal prosecutors
should, however, not hesitate to apply settled intellectual
property concepts in innovative ways to new schemes and new
technology.
• Victims have a broad range of civil remedies that include
restitution, damages, punitive or quasi-punitive damages,
injunctions, court costs, and attorneys' fees. See Section IX.D. of
this Chapter.
• The more strongly an intellectual property owner acts to protect
its rights, the stronger the interest in prosecution. Id.
• Many intellectual property offenses include multiple victims: not
only the owners of the intellectual property that was infringed,
but also customers who were defrauded. Both classes of victim
deserve protection, and one class's lack of interest in prosecution
should not countermand prosecution when the other class's
interest is strong.
• The sources or manufacturers of infringing goods and services are
generally more worthy of prosecution than distributors. Cf.
U.S.S.G. § 2B5.3(b)(3).
• Counterfeit goods or services that endanger the public's health or
safety deserve the highest consideration for prosecution. See
United States Department of Justice, Report of the Department
of Justice's Task Force on Intellectual Property 7-9 (Oct. 2004);
cf. U.S.S.G. § 2B5.3(b)(5) (adjusting offense level for

infringement offenses involving “conscious or reckless risk of
serious bodily injury or possession of a dangerous weapon in
connection with the offense” by 2 levels, with a minimum offense
level of 13).
IX.B.3. The Deterrent Effect of Prosecution

Some infringers are undeterred by civil liability. They treat civil
remedies as a cost of doing business and continue their infringement after
civil sanctions, albeit with different products or under a different
corporate guise. Criminal prosecution can better deter a persistent violator
from repeating his or her crime.
Criminal prosecution may also further general deterrence. Individuals
may commit intellectual property crimes not only because some are
relatively easy to commit, such as copying music, but also because they do
not fear prosecution. But one person's relatively small-scale violations, if
permitted to take place openly and notoriously, can lead others to believe
that such conduct is tolerated. While some counterfeiting or piracy
offenses may not result in provable direct loss to a victim, the widespread
commission of such crimes can devastate the value of intellectual property
rights in general.
Criminal prosecution plays an important role in establishing the
public's understanding of what conduct is acceptable and what is not.
Vigorous prosecution changes the public's calculus. Put simply, more
individuals will be deterred from committing intellectual property offenses
if they believe they will be investigated and prosecuted.
IX.B.4. The Individual's History of Criminal Offenses and Civil

Intellectual Property Violations
Repeat criminal offenders are especially worthy of prosecution. See
USAM 9-27.230(B)(5) (comment). The repeat-offender provisions in the
intellectual property crime statutes and the United States Sentencing
Guidelines ensure that repeat offenders receive stiffer sentences.
In addition to the defendant's criminal history, it is also appropriate
to consider his or her history of civil intellectual property violations.
When infringers consider civil penalties merely a cost of doing business,
criminal enforcement is particularly appropriate. Sources for determining
the defendant's history of civil intellectual property offenses include civil
litigation records (which are often searchable online), the victim's legal
department and private investigators, and any state consumer protection
agencies to which consumers might have complained.
IX. Whether to Charge an Intellectual Property Crime 311

Investigation or Prosecution of Others
As discussed in Section IX.B.2. of this Chapter, the sources of
counterfeit or pirated goods or services are especially worthy of
prosecution. Special consideration should be given to targets who are
willing to cooperate in an investigation that leads to a source's
prosecution.
This includes the prosecution of foreign sources. In recent years, the
Department of Justice has worked extensively with foreign law
enforcement agencies to investigate and prosecute foreign violators, both
by extraditing foreign violators to the United States and by coordinating
searches and prosecutions simultaneously in the United States and
abroad. CCIPS has regular contact with foreign prosecutors and law
enforcement agencies with an interest in intellectual property crime.
Therefore, for assistance in investigating or prosecuting offenses with an
international dimension, contact CCIPS at (202) 514-1026.
IX.C. Whether the Person is Subject to

Prosecution in Another Jurisdiction
The second situation in which a prosecutor may decline prosecution
despite having a provable case occurs when the putative defendant is
subject to effective prosecution in another jurisdiction. USAM 9-27.240.
Relevant to this inquiry is the strength of the other jurisdiction's interest
in prosecution; the other jurisdiction's ability and willingness to prosecute
effectively; the probable sentence or other consequences of conviction in
the other jurisdiction; and any other pertinent factors. Id.
The primary question will often not be whether the case could be
prosecuted by another U.S. Attorney's Office, but rather whether it could
be prosecuted by state or local authorities. USAM 9-27.240 (comment).
State or local law enforcement may be a viable alternative to federal
prosecution. Federal intellectual property laws generally do not preempt
state and local intellectual property laws. The only relevant area of
intellectual property in which there is broad federal preemption is
copyright infringement, but even in that area states have passed some
creative laws that indirectly criminalize traffic in some pirated works.
Compare 17 U.S.C. § 301 (copyright preemption), State v. Perry, 697
N.E.2d 624 (Ohio 1998) (holding that federal copyright law preempted
prosecution in case involving defendant's use of computer software on his

bulletin board), Kodadek v. MTV Networks, Inc., 152 F.3d 1209, 1212-
13 (9th Cir. 1998) (holding state law unfair competition claim preempted
where complaint expressly based the claim on rights granted by the
Copyright Act), and Kregos v. Associated Press, 3 F.3d 656, 666 (2d Cir.
1993) (holding state law unfair competition and misappropriation claims
preempted when based solely on the copying of protected expression in
forms), with Anderson v. Nidorf, 26 F.3d 100, 102 (9th Cir. 1994)
(holding California anti-piracy statute not preempted by federal copyright
laws in illegal sound recording case), State v. Awawdeh, 864 P.2d 965,
968 (Wash. Ct. App. 1994) (holding Washington statute not preempted
by federal copyright law in illegal sound recording case), and People v.
Borriello, 588 N.Y.S.2d 991, 996 (N.Y. App. Div. 1992) (holding New
York statute not preempted by Copyright Revision Act in illegal video
recording case).
IX.D. The Adequacy of Alternative

Non-Criminal Remedies
Department of Justice policy allows a prosecutor to decline criminal
prosecution in a situation that could be adequately addressed by non-
criminal remedies. USAM 9-27.220. Almost every federal intellectual
property crime has an analogue in civil law—be it state or federal—and
those laws generally offer victims generous relief, such as injunctions,
restitution, damages, punitive and quasi-punitive damages, court costs,
attorneys' fees, and even ex parte seizure of a defendant's infringing
products. See 15 U.S.C. §§ 1114, 1116-1117 (trademark); 17
U.S.C. §§ 501-505 (copyright). Imported infringing merchandise can also
be subject to civil forfeiture and fines by United States Customs and
Border Protection. See, e.g., 19 U.S.C. § 1526(f) (trademark). The
availability and adequacy of these remedies should be carefully considered
when evaluating an intellectual property case.
The prosecutor should also consider whether existing civil remedies

have been or are likely to deter a particular defendant. For those
undeterred by civil suits and remedies, criminal prosecution may be more
appropriate. When the defendant has violated an earlier civil order,
however, civil or criminal penalties for contempt of court may be an
acceptable alternative to prosecution for criminal intellectual property
violations.
IX. Whether to Charge an Intellectual Property Crime 313

Finally, when the violator's conduct is persistent, unsafe, profit-
oriented, fraudulent, or physically invasive, civil remedies may not fully
capture the wrongfulness of the defendant's conduct. In such cases,
criminal prosecution may be preferred.
Although the government may prosecute even if the victim has not
exhausted its civil and administrative remedies, the government should
consider the victim's pursuit of alternative remedies. The putative
defendant's conduct in response should also be examined.
IX.E. Special Considerations in Deciding

Whether to Charge Corporations
and Other Business Organizations
Corporations and other business organizations are often used to
commit intellectual property crimes. The decision whether to charge a
business organization involves numerous considerations. Department of
Justice policy on such charging decisions is generally set forth in Criminal
Resource Manual 162, available at http://www.usdoj.gov/usao/eousa/
foia_reading_room/usam/title9/crm00162.htm (also known as the
“Thompson memo”). This memorandum's analysis applies to intellectual
property crimes in the same manner as to other crimes.

X.
Victims of Intellectual
Property Crimes—
Ethics and Obligations
X.A. Victims' Rights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317
X.B. The Victim's Role in the Criminal Prosecution . . . . . . . . 319
X.B.1. Reporting an Intellectual Property Crime . . . . . . . . . 319
X.B.2. Ethical Concerns When the Criminal Prosecution Results in

an Advantage in a Civil Matter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320
X.B.2.a. Victims Who Seek Advantage by Threats of

Criminal Prosecution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320
X.B.2.b. Global Settlement Negotiations . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321
X.B.3. Parallel Civil Suits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322
X.B.3.a. Private Civil Remedies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323

Criminal Proceedings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323
X.B.3.c. Stays and Protective Orders to Delay Civil Proceedings

During Criminal Prosecution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325
X.C. Offers of Assistance From Victims and Related Parties . . 326
X.C.1. Gift Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327
X.C.1.a. Applicable Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327
315
X.C.1.b. Distinction Between “Assistance” and “Gifts” . . 328

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329
X.C.1.b.ii. Private Investigators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330
X.C.1.b.iii. Cash . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331

Products Cases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332

Enforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332
X.C.1.b.vi. Assistance from Private Third Parties . . . . 333

Acceptance of Gifts and Assistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335
X.C.1.c.i. Consultative Process for Acceptance of Assistance

and Gifts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335
X.C.1.c.ii. Solicitation of Gifts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335
X.C.1.c.iii. Acceptance of Gifts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335
X.C.2. Professional Responsibility Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337
X.C.3. Strategic and Case-Related Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 338
X.C.4. Help and Advice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341
But justice, though due to the accused, is due to the accuser also....
We are to keep the balance true.
Justice Benjamin Cardozo, Snyder v. Massachusetts, 291 U.S. 97, 122

(1934).
Many victims of intellectual property (“IP”) offenses are atypical, in

that they often have substantial resources to protect their rights by
investigating, pursuing, and deterring infringers independent of law
enforcement. For instance, businesses often pool their resources in

industry groups that undertake enforcement actions on their behalf. See
Appendix G (listing trademark and copyright organization contacts).
These groups sometimes investigate violations independently and refer the
results to law enforcement with a request to bring charges. They may even
seek to contribute resources to law enforcement agencies or multi-agency
task forces organized to focus on IP and other high-tech offenses.
Whether an IP victim can enforce its rights through civil or administrative
processes may influence whether criminal prosecution is warranted (see
Chapter IX of this Manual), and if so, what charges and strategy are
appropriate. The fact that IP rights-holders sometimes can address IP
crime on their own does not, however, diminish their rights under federal
law.
Although corporate rights-holders are often the primary victims in

intellectual property offenses, consumers are victimized also. Some
consumers may be defrauded into mistakenly buying counterfeits, while
consumers who purchase authentic goods pay higher prices.
X.A. Victims' Rights

Beginning with the passage of the Victim and Witness Protection Act
of 1982, Pub. L. No. 97-291, 96 Stat. 1248 (1982), Congress has enacted
numerous statutes that protect victims' rights during the investigation,
prosecution, and sentencing stages of criminal prosecutions. Most
recently, Congress revised and recodified victims' rights laws in the Justice
for All Act of 2004, Pub. L. No. 108-405, 118 Stat. 2260 (2004).
Guidance for the implementation of the Justice for All Act can be found
in the revised Attorney General Guidelines for Victim and Witness
Assistance (May 2005) (“AG Guidelines”), which supersedes all earlier
versions, and can be found at http://www.usdoj.gov/olp/final.pdf.
Generally, the Justice for All Act requires Department of Justice

employees to make their best efforts to notify victims of the following
rights:
1. The right to be reasonably protected from the accused
2. The right to reasonable, accurate, and timely notice of any public

court proceeding, or any parole proceeding, involving the crime
or any release or escape of the accused
3. The right not to be excluded from any such public court

proceeding, unless the court, after receiving clear and convincing
X. Victims 317
evidence, determines that testimony by the victim would be
materially altered if the victim heard other testimony at that
proceeding
4. The right to be reasonably heard at any public proceeding in the

district court involving release, plea, sentencing, or any parole
proceeding
5. The reasonable right to confer with the attorney for the

government in the case
6. The right to full and timely restitution as provided in law
7. The right to legal proceedings free from unreasonable delay
8. The right to be treated with fairness and with respect for the
victim's dignity and privacy
See 18 U.S.C. § 3771(a), (c)(1); AG Guidelines, Art. I.B. Apart from these
enumerated rights, the prosecutor has an independent obligation under
the Act to advise the victim of his or her right to counsel in connection
with the rights established by the Act. See 18 U.S.C. § 3771(c)(2); AG
Guidelines, Art. I.C.
The Act also creates several enforcement mechanisms. If the

government or a victim believes the victim's rights are being violated,
relief is possible by way of motion and ultimately a petition for writ of
mandamus in the Court of Appeals. See 18 U.S.C. § 3771(d)(3); AG
Guidelines, Art. II.D.1. If the victim's rights are violated, the Act does not
permit a motion for a new trial, but does provide for re-opening a plea or
sentence. 18 U.S.C. § 3771(d)(5). Finally, although the Act does not
authorize suits against government personnel, it requires the Department
to create an administrative authority within the Department to receive
and investigate complaints, and impose disciplinary sanctions for willful
or wanton non-compliance. See 18 U.S.C. § 3771(f)(2); AG Guidelines,
Art. I.D.2.; 28 C.F.R. § 45.10 (2005).
For purposes of enforcing these rights, the Justice for All Act defines
a victim as “a person directly and proximately harmed as a result of the
commission of a Federal offense or an offense in the District of
Columbia.” See 18 U.S.C. § 3771(e) (emphasis added); see also AG
Guidelines, Art. II.D.1. A victim may be an individual, a corporation,
company, association, firm, partnership, society, or joint stock company.
See 1 U.S.C. § 1 (defining “person”); AG Guidelines, Art. II.D.1. In
contrast, a “person whose injuries stem only indirectly from an offense is

not entitled to the rights or services described” above. AG Guidelines, Art.
II.E.2 (emphasis added). Accordingly, in considering whom to classify as
a victim, prosecutors may consider whether those who were injured during
the commission of a federal crime were indeed “directly and proximately
harmed” by the offense pursuant to 18 U.S.C.§ 3771(e), particularly in
cases where there are hundreds or even thousands of potential victims.
The Act's provision on “Multiple Crime Victims” is of particular

interest in cases involving the large-scale distribution of pirated digital
works over the Internet:
In a case where the court finds that the number of crime victims
makes it impracticable to accord all of the crime victims the rights
described in subsection (a), the court shall fashion a reasonable
procedure to give effect to this chapter that does not unduly
complicate or prolong the proceedings.
18 U.S.C. § 3771(d)(2); see also AG Guidelines, Art. II.G. For instance,

in an online software piracy prosecution with hundreds or thousands of
victims, it is often impractical for a prosecutor to notify all of the rights-
holders. In such cases, the prosecutor should consider, at a minimum,
notifying and enlisting the assistance of any trade organizations that
represent multiple rights-holders. The prosecutor could then craft an
alternative procedure for informing such representatives (in lieu of
notifying all rights-holders) and move the court to approve it.
The Act states that “[n]othing in this chapter shall be construed to

impair the prosecutorial discretion of the Attorney General or any officer
under his direction.” 18 U.S.C. § 3771(d)(6). Congress clearly did not
intend the Act to be implemented in a way that hinders prosecutorial
discretion in addressing issues of victims' rights and notification.
The Act did not alter other provisions that protect victimized rights-
holders. In all criminal prosecutions, a pre-sentence report must contain
verified information containing an assessment of the impact on any
individual against whom the offense has been committed. Fed. R. Crim.
P. 32(d)(2)(B). Additionally, most intellectual property statutes guarantee
victims (including producers and sellers of legitimate works, rights-
holders, and their legal representatives) the right to submit a victim
impact statement identifying the extent and scope of their injury and loss
prior to sentencing. See 18 U.S.C. §§ 2319(e), 2319A(d), 2319B(e),
2320(d).
X. Victims 319
X.B. The Victim's Role in the Criminal
Prosecution
The fact that victims of IP crime have access to civil remedies raises
several issues during criminal prosecution.
X.B.1. Reporting an Intellectual Property Crime
The Department recommends that victims of intellectual property

crimes document all investigative steps, preserve evidence, and contact
law enforcement right away. See U.S. Department of Justice Report of the
Department of Justice's Task Force on Intellectual Property App. C (Oct.
2004). Victims can report intellectual property crimes using the referral
forms in this Manual at Appendix H.
X.B.2. Ethical Concerns When the Criminal Prosecution Results

in an Advantage in a Civil Matter
Like other victims of crime, IP rights-holders are often interested in

securing economic and other relief, but, unlike many other victims, rights-
holders often have the resources to aggressively pursue that relief
themselves. Prosecutors are obligated by statute and policy to assist
victims in obtaining restitution and other remedies, but prosecutors are
also obligated to serve the public interest; occasionally, those interests
may be in tension. How concerned should the government be about IP
victims using the threat of criminal prosecution to advance their private
interests? And to what extent can the government offer a defendant
concessions in prosecution or sentencing in exchange for the defendant's
agreement to compensate the victim or mitigate the harm the defendant
has caused?
X.B.2.a. Victims Who Seek Advantage by Threats of Criminal

Prosecution
It is commonplace for an IP-owner's attorney to send a merchant a

letter directing him to cease and desist sales of infringing merchandise. If
the merchant continues to infringe, the letter will be solid evidence of the
defendant's mens rea during any ensuing criminal case.

Sometimes the IP owner's letter will include an express or implied
threat to seek criminal prosecution should the merchant persist. The
extent to which a lawyer can ethically threaten to press criminal charges
to advance a civil cause of action is not clear. The lack of clarity stems in
part from a patchwork of ethical rules. The ABA's Model Code of
Professional Responsibility (1969, amended 1980) explicitly prohibited
strategic threats of prosecution: “A lawyer shall not present, participate in
presenting, or threaten to present criminal charges solely to obtain an
advantage in a civil matter.” Disciplinary Rule 7-105(A). The ABA's
Model Rules of Professional Conduct, adopted in 1983, omitted the rule
as “redundant or overbroad or both.” See ABA Formal Ethics Opinion 92-
363 (1992) (allowing a lawyer to use a threat of a criminal referral to
obtain advantage if the civil claim and criminal matter are related and
well-founded). Not all states have dropped the old rule, and some have
adopted other specific provisions addressing the issue. Compare Office of
Disciplinary Counsel v. King , 617 N.E.2d 676, 677 (Ohio 1993)
(disciplining a lawyer under the old rule for threatening to seek
prosecution unless opponent in property dispute paid disputed rent or
vacated the property) with Disciplinary Rule 7-105(A) (Or. 2003)
(allowing such threats “if, but only if, the lawyer reasonably believes the
charge to be true and if the purpose of the lawyer is to compel or induce
the person threatened to take reasonable action to make good the wrong
which is the subject of the charge”).
Whatever the implication for the victim's lawyer, there is nothing

unethical about the government's prosecuting the offender after such a
threat has been made. The victim's threat does not present a legal or
ethical obstacle for the prosecution. Instead, the concern for the
government prosecutor is a strategic one, to the extent that the threat
reflects on the victim's credibility or willingness to manipulate the
criminal justice system for private gain. The victim's conduct in this regard
is one factor among many to be considered in deciding whether to
prosecute.
X.B.2.b. Global Settlement Negotiations
Ethical questions arise when the prosecution, victim, and defendant

attempt to resolve all pending civil and criminal disputes in a global
settlement agreement. While the answers to these questions are not
entirely clear, there are some best practices that follow the guidelines cited
above, Department policy, and strategic concerns.
X. Victims 321
First, it is often the better practice for the prosecutor to defer to the
other parties to suggest a global disposition rather than be the first to
suggest it. By adopting this approach, the prosecutor is less likely to create
the appearance of overreaching:
[T]he government can neither be, nor seem to be, trading money for
relief or insulation from criminal prosecution or sentencing
consequences. Such a trade-off not only would undermine the
integrity of the prosecutorial process, but also raises formidable
fairness concerns, with wealthy defendants better able to reach global
settlements than poor ones.
***
Many prudent Assistant United States Attorneys consider global

settlements to have an appropriate and ethical role in resolving
parallel proceedings, but follow a rule of not introducing or suggesting
such a disposition. If opposing counsel raise[s] the issue, it may be
responded to and pursued by government attorneys in close
consultation with supervisors, and mindful of the ethics issues.
U.S. Department of Justice, Federal Grand Jury Practice § 12.16 (Office

of Legal Education 2000) (concerning parallel proceedings and global
settlements).
Second, it is the better practice to limit the negotiations to matters of

criminal law. For example, as discussed in Section X.B.3.a. of this
Chapter, although some civil remedies will award a victim of IP theft with
treble damages, treble damages cannot be awarded under the criminal
restitution statutes. See 18 U.S.C. §§ 3663(b), 3663A(b), 3664(f)(1)(A).
See also Section VIII.D.3. of this Manual (discussing how to determine
restitution measures). However, the criminal statutes permit restitution
to be ordered “to the extent agreed to by the parties,” 18 U.S.C.
§ 3663(a)(3), and allow for the defendant to provide services in lieu of
money, 18 U.S.C. §§ 3663(a)(5), 3664(f)(4). Therefore, it is perfectly
appropriate for the government to require full restitution as a condition
of a plea agreement. See Sections VIII.D.1.-.2. of this Manual.
Clearly, the government may not use the threat of unsupported

charges to obtain advantage for a civil plaintiff. Model Rule of
Professional Conduct 3.8 prohibits a prosecutor from seeking charges that
the prosecutor knows are not supported by probable cause, and Rule 3.1
prohibits any advocate from asserting frivolous claims. Rule 4.1 requires
a lawyer to be truthful. Even a well-founded threat of criminal prosecution

may be unethical if intended merely to “embarrass, delay or burden a
third person.” Model Rules of Professional Conduct R. 4.4 (2003).
Finally, there is the strategic concern. A judge or jury might react

negatively if the victim or prosecutor appears to be threatening more
serious consequences in the criminal case as leverage in the civil
disposition. Although the prosecutor must at all times keep the victim
informed of the progress of the criminal case, including discussion of a
plea offer (see Section X.A. of this Chapter), it is ultimately the
prosecutor who must decide how, if at all, to attempt to resolve a criminal
case, including all issues of restitution to the victim.
X.B.3. Parallel Civil Suits
The civil and regulatory laws of the United States frequently overlap
with the criminal laws, creating the possibility of parallel civil and
criminal proceedings, either successive or simultaneous. In the
absence of substantial prejudice to the rights of the parties involved,
such parallel proceedings are unobjectionable under our jurisprudence.
Securities & Exch. Comm'n v. Dresser Indus., Inc., 628 F.2d 1368, 1374
(D.C. Cir. 1980) (en banc) (footnote omitted). The topic of parallel civil
suits is complex and largely beyond the scope of this Manual. For a more
extensive discussion of parallel proceedings, see U.S. Department of
Justice, Federal Grand Jury Practice ch. 12 (Office of Legal Education
2000). The following is a brief summary.
X.B.3.a. Private Civil Remedies
Victims of IP crimes have extraordinary enforcement mechanisms and

civil remedies against infringers. In civil actions, IP rights-holders can
recover damages, the defendant's profits, costs, attorney fees, and even
statutory damages, which can be punitive or quasi-punitive. See 15 U.S.C.
§ 1117 (trademark infringement damages); 17 U.S.C. §§ 504 (copyright
infringement), 505 (same), 1101 (bootlegged recordings of live musical
performances), 1203 (DMCA); 18 U.S.C. § 2318(f) (illicit labels and
counterfeit labels, documentation, and packaging for copyrighted works);
see also Getty Petroleum Corp. v. Island Transp. Corp., 862 F.2d 10, 13-
14 (2d Cir. 1988) (holding punitive damages unavailable for federal
trademark claims, but may be available for state infringement and unfair
competition claims). Civil remedies also include injunctive relief against
X. Victims 323
future infringement and seizure or impoundment of infringing goods. 15
U.S.C. §§ 1116, 1118 (trademark); 17 U.S.C. §§ 502 (copyright), 503
(same), 1101 (bootlegged recordings of live musical performances),
1203(b) (DMCA); 18 U.S.C. § 2318(f)(2)(A), (B) (illicit labels and
counterfeit labels, documentation, and packaging for copyrighted works).
Victims of trademark or copyright infringement can also seek the

private counterpart of a search warrant: an ex parte seizure order,
executed by law enforcement. 15 U.S.C. § 1116(d) (trademark); 17
U.S.C. § 503 (copyright); see Columbia Pictures Indus., Inc. v. Jasso, 927
F. Supp. 1075 (N.D. Ill. 1996) (sealed writ of seizure issued for pirated
videos); Time Warner Entm't Co. v. Does Nos. 1-2, 876 F. Supp. 407,
410 (E.D.N.Y. 1994) (recognizing availability of seizure order for
infringing goods, but denying the victims' ex parte request on Fourth
Amendment grounds because it called for execution by private
investigators and failed to describe the locations to be searched with
particularity). A party seeking civil seizure of goods with counterfeit
marks must first notify the United States Attorney to allow the
government's intervention should the seizure affect the public interest in
a criminal prosecution. 15 U.S.C. § 1116(d)(2).
Prosecutors should consider the availability and use of private civil

remedies in deciding whether to prosecute an infringer criminally. See
Section IX.D. of this Manual.

Criminal Proceedings
If the government prosecutes a defendant who is also a party to a

pending civil case, the parallel proceedings raise their own set of issues:
Advantages
• The victim's private civil enforcement action brings additional

statutory and equitable remedies to bear on a defendant.
• The victim's allocation of resources to the investigation may

conserve government resources. Moreover, as discussed in Section
X.C. of this Chapter, the victim's independent reasons for
providing resources to advance the civil case may lessen the
appearance of any potential conflict of interest.

• In the civil case, the plaintiff victim can compel discovery, which
the prosecution can use and discuss with the victim without grand
jury secrecy or operational concerns.
• A civil case presents the defendant with a difficult Fifth

Amendment choice. If he submits to discovery, he may lock in his
story, provide leads, disclose strategy, or furnish false exculpatory
statements, all of which may assist the criminal prosecutor. If he
asserts his privilege against self-incrimination in the civil matter,
however, the jury in the civil case can be instructed that it may
draw an adverse inference from his silence. See, e.g., Baxter v.
Palmigiano, 425 U.S. 308, 318 (1976) (adverse inference from
silence permissible in prison disciplinary proceedings); ePlus
Tech., Inc. v. Aboud, 313 F.3d 166, 179 (4th Cir. 2002) (adverse
inference permissible in civil RICO fraud case); LaSalle Bank Lake
View v. Seguban, 54 F.3d 387, 390-91 (7th Cir. 1995) (same).
• A criminal conviction typically ends the civil case in the victim's

favor, either because the victim can rely on the criminal court's
restitution order, collateral estoppel will conclusively establish the
defendant's wrongdoing in the civil case, or the conviction simply
renders the defendant less willing to contest the civil case.
Disadvantages
• Given the availability of private, civil enforcement mechanisms,

the court may view the criminal prosecution as a waste of judicial
resources.
• The government loses control of a component of the

investigation. Actions taken by private counsel and investigators
for the civil case may not be in the criminal case's best interests.
• If the grand jury is used to gather evidence, secrecy concerns may

require criminal investigators to withhold material information
from the parties to the civil proceeding, although collecting
evidence outside the grand jury, such as through search warrants
or administrative subpoenas, may allow the government to share
information without breaching grand jury secrecy.
• The defendant can compel discovery in the civil case, which may
generate inconsistent witness statements and provide insight into
X. Victims 325
the prosecution's case. As a result, some prosecutors will seek to
stay the civil case while the criminal case proceeds.
X.B.3.c. Stays and Protective Orders to Delay Civil Proceedings

During Criminal Prosecution
If the disadvantages of parallel proceedings outweigh the advantages,

the government may seek a protective order or a stay of the civil
proceedings. There is ample authority for issuing a stay or protective
order, especially when liberal civil discovery would allow a criminal target
or defendant to interfere with the investigation or bypass restrictions on
criminal discovery. See, e.g., Degen v. United States, 517 U.S. 820, 825-
26 (1996) (holding that a stay may be sought in parallel civil forfeiture
action); United States v. Stewart, 872 F.2d 957, 961-63 (10th Cir. 1989)
(holding that a court handling a criminal case may have authority under
Fed. R. Crim. P. 16(d) or 18 U.S.C. § 1514(a) to prevent parties in a
parallel civil case from abusing witnesses or discovery procedures);
Securities & Exch. Comm'n v. Dresser Indus., 628 F.2d 1368, 1376 n.20
(D.C. Cir. 1980) (en banc) (noting that the government may seek
postponement of the noncriminal proceeding to prevent the criminal
defendant from broadening his rights of criminal discovery against the
government); Campbell v. Eastland, 307 F.2d 478, 490 (5th Cir. 1962)
(holding that the public interest in criminal prosecution with limited
discovery outweighed civil litigant's right to prepare case promptly); see
also U.S. Department of Justice, Federal Grand Jury Practice § 12.14, at
407-10 (Office of Legal Education 2000).
In seeking a stay or protective order, the government should be

prepared to address the following factors: (1) the extent to which issues
in the criminal case overlap with those presented in the civil case; (2) the
status of the criminal matter, especially whether the civil defendant has
been indicted; (3) the interest of the plaintiff in proceeding expeditiously,
as weighed against the prejudice caused by the delay; (4) the private
interests of and burden on the defendant; (5) the interest of the court in
case management and judicial resources; (6) the interest of non-parties;
and (7) the public interest. See Benevolence Int'l Found. v. Ashcroft, 200
F. Supp. 2d 935, 938 (N.D. Ill. 2002); Trustees of the Plumbers and
Pipefitters Nat'l Pension Fund v. Transworld Mech., Inc., 886 F. Supp.
1134, 1139 (S.D.N.Y. 1995).

X.C. Offers of Assistance From Victims
and Related Parties
IP rights-holders frequently offer to provide resources to assist the
government with criminal investigations. Traditionally, law enforcement
agencies have routinely accepted assistance from victims and citizens
willing to do so in discharge of their civic duty. However, offers of
assistance in investigations and litigation have increased in scope, variety,
and monetary value. This prompted the Department of Justice's Task
Force on Intellectual Property to recommend that the Department issue
guidance on the acceptance of resources from victims, related parties, and
third parties. Accordingly, Deputy Attorney General Paul J. McNulty
issued a memorandum to all United States Attorneys and Component
Heads entitled “Guidance for Acceptance of Assistance and Gifts from
Private Parties for Use in Connection with Investigations and Litigation”
(May 2006). This subsection tracks the Deputy Attorney General's
memorandum closely and highlights some of the issues addressed therein.
The reader is advised to refer to the memorandum itself before deciding
on an appropriate response to an offer of resources. The reader should
also refer to Appendix J of this Manual, which examines a variety of
specific hypothetical offers of resources, such as private investigators
offering information; victims offering meeting space, expert witnesses,
purchase money to obtain counterfeit items, and storage space for seized
items; and unrelated parties offering forensic tools and analysis, facilities
from which to conduct an investigation, and expert witness services.
An offer of donated resources generally raises three issues. The first is

whether the donation of resources is permitted by laws, regulations, and
Department directives limiting the acceptance of gifts. This will usually
turn on whether the offered resources constitute a gift or the type of
assistance traditionally provided by victims of crime, their related parties,
and third parties. The second issue is whether the assistance is permitted
by the rules of professional conduct regardless of whether the offered
resources are considered to be gifts or assistance. The third issue is
whether the assistance will have an adverse impact on the prosecution,
even if permissible under gift restrictions and rules of professional
conduct. All three issues are addressed below.
X. Victims 327
X.C.1. Gift Issues
X.C.1.a. Applicable Law
The Attorney General has authority to “accept, hold, administer, and

use gifts, devises, and bequests of any property or services for the purpose
of aiding or facilitating the work of the Department of Justice.” 28 U.S.C.
§ 524(d)(1). Gifts of money (including money derived from property)
must be deposited in the Treasury for the benefit of the Department and
may be distributed by order of the Attorney General. 28 U.S.C.
§ 524(d)(2).
In 1997, the Attorney General issued Department of Justice Order

2400.2, available at http://www.usdoj.gov/jmd/ethics/docs/doj-2400-2.htm,
which “sets forth the Department's policies and procedures regarding the
solicitation and acceptance of gifts, devises and bequests of property of all
kinds.” The Order states that no Departmental employee may solicit a gift
unless he or she has obtained the prior approval of the Attorney General
or the Deputy Attorney General. DOJ Order 2400.2 ¶ 3.a.(1).
Solicitations are rare and approved in only extraordinary circumstances.
In addition, the Assistant Attorney General for Administration

(AAG/A) has the exclusive authority to accept “gifts made to the
Department” or any component. Id. ¶ 3.b.(1). Before accepting any gift,
the AAG/A must consider: (1) whether the gift is appropriate for use; (2)
whether the conditions the donor has placed on acceptance or use, if any,
are “acceptable;” (3) whether any employee solicited the gift, and if so,
whether approval was obtained; and (4) whether acceptance is
“appropriate and advisable,” in light of conflict-of-interest and ethics
guidelines, including whether acceptance would “create the appearance of
impropriety.” Id. ¶ 3.b.(2).
The AAG/A has delegated to component heads the authority to

determine whether to accept certain case-specific gifts from private parties
in criminal and civil investigations, prosecutions, and civil litigation that
have a value of $50,000 or less. The component head for U.S. Attorneys'
Offices is the Director of the Executive Office for United States Attorneys.
The component head may accept the first offer from a source up to
$50,000. A second or subsequent offer in the same fiscal year from the
same source must be submitted to the Assistant AAG/A for approval when
the value combined with the first gift exceeds $50,000. Gifts that are not
case-specific, gifts of cash, gifts valued above $50,000, and extraordinary
case-specific gifts continue to require approval by the AAG/A.

X.C.1.b. Distinction Between “Assistance” and “Gifts”
Historically, the Department has distinguished a gift from traditional

forms of assistance provided by citizens during a criminal or civil
investigation, prosecution, or civil litigation. Matters that constitute
“assistance” are not gifts and, accordingly, are not subject to the
procedures applicable to gifts. If the offered resource constitutes
assistance, it may be accepted without approval, but if it is a gift, it
cannot be accepted without obtaining approval as described later in this
Chapter.
Law enforcement agencies routinely receive wide-ranging aid from

private parties in the investigation and prosecution of federal crimes. Such
aid has played an important and accepted role in the criminal process.
See, e.g., Commonwealth v. Ellis, 708 N.E.2d 644, 651 (Mass. 1999) (“It
is in the public interest that victims and others expend their time, efforts,
and resources to aid public prosecutors.”); see also Wilson v. Layne, 526
U.S. 603, 611-12 (1999) (noting that the use of third parties during the
execution of a warrant to identify stolen property “has long been approved
by this Court and our common-law tradition”). Victims and other private
parties are often in a unique position to provide information and other aid
in an investigation and litigation. Such private cooperation not only is
desirable, but often is critical to law enforcement and the government's
mission. In this vein, the vast majority of case-specific aid from private
parties, particularly from victims and related parties, constitutes assistance
and is not a gift.
A victim provides assistance when it offers services, equipment, or

logistical support that enhances the efficiency of the government's efforts
in relation to a case. Apart from cost savings, an offer of assistance
enhances the Department's efficiency when the offer gives an added
benefit that is unique because of the victim or related party's involvement.
Assistance generally will be distinguishable in some way from what the
Department could obtain through commercial obligations. For example,
use of a victim company's office space to conduct interviews of witnesses
constitutes assistance since that location provides accessibility to staff that
would not be possible in a hotel or other location. On the other hand, a
victim company's offer to Departmental employees of its fleet of cars for
local transportation, even if made in the course of a case, provides only a
convenience that is no different from what the Department would obtain
on the commercial rental market, and should not be accepted.
X. Victims 329
Aid provided by a victim will generally be classified as assistance,

rather than a gift. Examples of actions that constitute assistance when
provided by a victim include:
II. Providing factual or expert information in an investigation or fact

or expert testimony at trial
IV. Turning over the fruits of an internal investigation (e.g., collecting

and analyzing financial or transactional data)
VI. Consulting with law enforcement during the investigation (e.g.,

reviewing seized evidence to distinguish legitimate copyrighted
works from forgeries, identifying proprietary information in a
theft of trade secrets prosecution, or instructing professional staff
and contractors to respond to queries from Departmental
employees regarding technical subjects)
VIII. Permitting agents to use equipment, services or logistical

support in circumstances where such assistance provides a
unique benefit not available on the commercial market, such
as the use of office space for employee interviews, surveillance
or document review
X. Providing certain goods or services for use in the investigation or

a related undercover operation (e.g., a bank providing credit card
accounts in a credit card fraud investigation involving that bank)
Aid provided by a party that is related to the victim (“related party”)

will also generally constitute assistance. Related parties consist of those
parties that have a close association with the victim and a shared interest
with the victim in providing the particular assistance. Related parties can
include a victim's immediate family, an industry association, or agents or
contractors hired by the victim. For example, a computer security firm
hired by a victim to monitor its computer network would be a related
party in a case that involved the victim's computer network.
In certain circumstances, an entity may be an “indirect victim” of a

crime and also be in a unique position to offer assistance. For example, an
owner of an apartment building would be an indirect victim of a tenant
who used his rental apartment to sell and deliver controlled substances.
In addition, a package delivery company that suspects use to transport
and deliver illegal goods is also an indirect victim. Aid offered by an
indirect victim generally will be considered assistance. For example, the

landlord described above provides assistance with free use of an apartment
for surveillance, as does the package delivery company when it provides
its truck and uniform for an undercover agent to make a controlled
delivery. However, depending on the value of the aid offered, and the
potential appearance of impropriety that correlates to the value of the
offer, an indirect victim's offer may cross the line from being permissible
assistance to a gift that requires specific consideration before acceptance.
For example, a landlord's offer of free use of an apartment for one year
that has a market value of $25,000 in rent constitutes a gift.
X.C.1.b.ii. Private Investigators
Corporate victims and trade associations often retain private

investigators to gather evidence to be used in a civil lawsuit or for referral
to law enforcement authorities. Private investigators are in the class of
“related parties” who may provide assistance to the Department.
Intellectual property owners often outsource security and investigative
responsibilities to other entities on an ongoing basis. In these cases
especially, private investigators regularly turn up evidence of criminality
and share it with law enforcement. Moreover, their investigative
responsibilities do not end with the referral to authorities, as their clients
expect them to continue to uncover evidence in related or separate
matters, especially when the infringement or theft is committed by
organized groups.
Several principles should guide the acceptance of assistance from

private investigators. First, prosecutors and agents should not direct or
advise an entity or individual in its private investigation before a referral
is made to law enforcement authorities. Apart from issues regarding the
acceptance of gifts versus assistance, activity by a private investigator may
be imputed to the government for Fourth Amendment, entrapment, or
other purposes, depending on the extent to which government officials
direct or control those activities. Second, prosecutors and agents may not
relinquish control of investigative responsibilities to private investigators
after the Department has initiated an investigation. Third, if the private
investigator continues (post-referral) to investigate the case or related
matters and turns up additional evidence or information, employees may
accept the continued assistance, but should be careful to avoid the
appearance of implicit approval or direction. In fact, attorneys and other
employees should evaluate whether the parallel private investigation
would interfere with the criminal matter and if so, whether the victim and
X. Victims 331
private investigator should be asked to immediately cease any further
investigation after the referral is made.
There may, however, be instances when a private investigator is in a

unique position to assist the Department. If the investigator's assistance
is within the scope of the work for which he was originally retained by the
victim, the government may accept his assistance while he remains
employed by the victim, and without payment from the Department. For
example, if a private investigator has developed expertise in identifying
the victim's property, or genuine products, he may assist in examining
materials to determine whether they have been stolen from the victim or
are counterfeit. If a private investigator made controlled buys of
counterfeit products from a suspect prior to referring the case to a federal
agency, and the Department believes a federally-supervised controlled
transaction is warranted, the private investigator may continue to assist
the Department at the victim's expense if his involvement is needed to
conduct the transaction and it is within the scope of the work for which
he was originally retained.
X.C.1.b.iii. Cash
A direct contribution of money to the government to help fund the

costs of law enforcement activities, either generally or in a particular case
or cases, will almost always be a gift, not assistance. The private funding
of federal law enforcement activities traditionally has not been considered
assistance, and such direct funding raises serious ethical and other
concerns, and would not be accepted by the Department. See, e.g., People
v. Eubanks, 927 P.2d 310 (Cal. 1996) (victim paying cost of experts
working for the district attorney's office created an actual conflict of
interest). But see Commonwealth v. Ellis, 708 N.E.2d 644 (Mass. 1999)
(funding of prosecution costs by insurance association permitted because
authorized by statute). To the extent cash is used for mission-related
functions, the Department may not augment its resources in this manner.
There is one exception to the principle that a direct contribution of

money is an impermissible gift. When the government serves as a conduit
for funds from the victim (or a related party) that are used for the
purchase of the victim's stolen property, the payment of ransom, or a
similar demand, the government's receipt of those funds does not
constitute a gift. Accordingly, when an IP victim or a related party
provides a Departmental employee funds to purchase the victim's stolen
property or pirated goods, the government is serving as a conduit for the

funds and the funds are considered assistance. In these circumstances, the
goods must be returned to the victim after completion of the government's
case. Similarly, the government serves as a conduit when it uses funds
from a victim or a related party to pay ransom or extortion on behalf of
the victim. The Department has an established practice of accepting funds
in these circumstances.

Products Cases
A company that owns intellectual property has a significant

independent interest in keeping counterfeit or infringing goods out of the
stream of commerce. If federal law enforcement has seized offending
products, it is likely that the victim would seek to impound and destroy
the offending articles even if prosecution were declined. See 15 U.S.C.
§§ 1116(d)(1)(A) and 1118 (allowing for court-authorized seizure and
destruction of trademark-infringing articles at the rights holder's request);
17 U.S.C. § 503 (allowing court to authorize impoundment and
destruction of copyright-infringing articles and instrumentalities). When
a victim has sought a court's approval to seize and retain counterfeit or
infringing products and chooses to do so, the Department may accept the
offer of “assistance” to store offending articles that may also be relevant
to the Department's investigation.
There also may be instances when the victim will not choose to seek
court approval of authority to retain and destroy illegal goods, yet offers
the Department free storage at its facilities or elsewhere during the
pendency of the Department's case. It generally is permissible to accept
such an offer. However, depending on the amount of time and space used
for storage, the company's offer to pay for storage may cross the line from
being permissible assistance to an impermissible gift if the market value
of the storage space is so exorbitant that continuing acceptance of free
storage could raise a question of an appearance of impropriety. In such
circumstances, a Department employee should consult with the assigned
attorney and the employee or attorney's Deputy Designated Agency
Ethics Official (DDAEO) before continuing to accept the free use of
storage space.
X. Victims 333
Enforcement
Resources provided by a victim or related party will generally be

considered to be a gift if its use is not restricted to the investigation(s) or
prosecution(s) in which the provider is a victim or related party. For
example, a package delivery company that gives the government free use
of one of its delivery trucks for an undercover operation to investigate the
hijacking of its trucks provides assistance. In contrast, the company's offer
to the government of free use of its trucks for any undercover operation,
regardless of the subject matter of the investigation, constitutes a gift.
Similarly, a computer company that provides computers for the
government to use in investigating and prosecuting the theft of trade
secrets from that company gives assistance. But if the company permits
the government to use those computers for additional purposes not
related to that case, either for continued use after its conclusion or for an
unrelated matter, the computers become a gift.
As a general rule, “assistance” is provided by a victim or related party

for use in an investigation or litigation involving that person or entity.
However, there may be limited circumstances in which a third party
provides aid that is unique and not available on the open market in much
the same way as a victim or related party's assistance. For example, the
DEA and FBI have longstanding, ongoing relationships with private
package delivery companies that are akin to assistance. During an
investigation, the FBI and DEA sometimes execute controlled deliveries
of packages that contain illegal goods. Given safety, evidentiary, and other
concerns, an agent will use the company's truck and uniform rather than
have the package delivery company and its employee perform this task.
Of course, the delivery company uniforms and vehicles are not available
on the open market. Yet their appearance is what is expected by the
recipient, and it, therefore, provides the Department unique access to and
identification of the intended recipient. The agent (in the package
delivery uniform) may need to arrest the recipient of the package at the
time of delivery. Given these unique and multiple factors, this type of aid
is considered assistance.
X.C.1.b.vi. Assistance from Private Third Parties
The distinction between “assistance” and “gift” is also critical in cases

involving resources donated by a private third party—that is, any person
or entity that is neither a victim nor a related party. If the assistance

provided by the third party is uniquely necessary to provide relevant
information to the investigators, grand jury, judge, or jury, then it should
generally be treated as assistance. If not, then it should generally be
treated as a gift.
In many cases this determination will be simple. The most

fundamental and traditional types of aid that citizens have always
provided in criminal investigations and prosecutions—such as answering
agents' and prosecutors' questions, identifying suspects, and providing
factual information and testimony—constitute assistance. This includes
not only factual information gathered from individual citizens but also
information that corporations and others provide from their records and
databases. For example, an airline might provide information from
passenger manifests, or a credit history service might provide credit
information. Even though these activities may involve a cost to the third
party in terms of time, effort, and expense and may provide a material
benefit to the government, no one would suggest that such cooperation
constitutes a gift; it is simply one of the responsibilities of citizenship.
In dealing with assistance provided by third parties, it may be helpful

to consider whether the assistance could be obtained by compulsory
process. For example, if the information could be obtained by grand jury
subpoena without cost, it should not be considered to be a gift merely
because the cooperating third party elects to volunteer the required
information rather than be compelled by legal process to produce it.
The Department also may receive offers of free or reduced-fee

consultation and testimony by experts or consultants. Individuals may be
interested in sharing their expertise without a fee for a variety of reasons.
Some experts or consultants may see the opportunity to testify on behalf
of the United States, and be qualified as an expert, as a substantial benefit
to their curriculum vitae or resume. In addition, an expert may charge an
exorbitant market rate for his services to the general public that the
Department cannot afford, and therefore, the expert may offer services for
a reduced fee.
The Department may accept free expert or consultative services under

its gift acceptance authority, 28 U.S.C. § 524(d), or 5 U.S.C. § 3109.
Both statutes provide separate mechanisms to accept these services.
Neither statute, however, obviates the necessity for Departmental
attorneys and staff to assess whether it is appropriate to accept the
services for free. The same issues that govern the propriety of acceptance
of items apply to the offer of consultative services and testimony. An
attorney in consultation with an agent or other employee and the
X. Victims 335
DDAEO must decide whether free expert services are appropriate to
accept, and whether the government's impartiality may or will be
questioned in these circumstances.
For additional examples of what constitutes traditional assistance or

a gift, please refer to Appendix J, which examines a variety of specific
hypothetical offers of resources, such as private investigators offering
information; victims offering meeting space, expert witnesses, purchase
money to obtain counterfeit items, and storage space for seized items; and
unrelated parties offering forensic tools and analysis, facilities from which
to conduct an investigation, and expert witness services.

Acceptance of Gifts and Assistance
X.C.1.c.i. Consultative Process for Acceptance of Assistance

and Gifts
A law enforcement officer or Departmental employee who receives

any offer of assistance by a victim, related party, or witness beyond
traditional assistance or access to company records should consult with
the AUSA or Main Justice attorney who is assigned to the case or, if none,
agency counsel, and the Deputy Designated Agency Ethics Official
(DDAEO) who provides advice either to the law enforcement officer (or
employee's) component or the attorney's office and component. The agent
or employee in consultation with the appropriate counsel and DDAEO
may determine that the offer is one of assistance (rather than a gift), and
acceptance is appropriate. Disagreement among employees regarding these
determinations should be submitted to the relevant component head(s)
or designee and the Departmental Ethics Office, Justice Management
Division (DEO) for resolution. Again, the component head for U.S.
Attorneys' Offices is the Director of the Executive Office for United States
Attorneys.
X.C.1.c.ii. Solicitation of Gifts
No Department employee may solicit gifts or encourage the

solicitation of gifts to the Department unless the solicitation has been
approved in advance by the Attorney General or the Deputy Attorney
General. Solicitations will rarely be appropriate and accordingly, rarely
approved. There may, however, be unusual circumstances in which it

would be appropriate to solicit a gift to the Department in connection
with a particular investigation, prosecution, or litigation. In that instance,
the appropriate office first should consult with the DEO, and then present
the matter to the Office of the Deputy Attorney General for a
determination.
X.C.1.c.iii. Acceptance of Gifts
Any gift of goods or services accepted from a private party in

connection with a criminal or civil investigation, prosecution, or litigation
must be approved in accordance with procedures set forth below. Except
in extraordinary circumstances, that approval must be obtained before the
gift is accepted. If approval cannot be obtained before the gift is accepted,
approval must be obtained no later than seven days after acceptance.
• Certain gifts may be accepted only by the AAG/A.
Only the AAG/A may approve acceptance of a gift of goods or services

that is valued in excess of $50,000. If a component or office is uncertain
whether a gift is valued in excess of $50,000, it may consult with the
Departmental Ethics Office, Justice Management Division, regarding the
reasonable value of the gift. If an office cannot determine adequately
whether a gift exceeds $50,000 in value, approval must be obtained from
the AAG/A.
The AAG/A also must approve gifts of cash and gifts that are not case-
specific, including gifts that will be used by the Department for purposes
in addition to or after the conclusion of a particular investigation,
prosecution, or litigation.
• The AAG/A has delegated his authority to accept gifts from

private parties for use by the Department in connection with a
criminal or civil investigation, prosecution, or litigation.
Component heads have been delegated authority to approve for their

components the acceptance of a gift from a private party to be used in
connection with a criminal or civil investigation, prosecution, or litigation
that is (1) case-specific and (2) has a value of $50,000 or less. Component
heads may further delegate this authority to one other individual at the
Deputy Assistant Attorney General (or equivalent) level within his or her
component.
X. Victims 337
• Approval of acceptance must be coordinated among the
relevant offices.
If a law enforcement agent or other non-attorney employee receives

an offer of a gift, that employee must notify and consult with an attorney,
if any, who is assigned to the matter. The attorney, in conjunction with
his or her component head, will determine whether to accept the offer. If
no attorney has been assigned, the investigating component may decide
whether to accept the offer of the gift. If an attorney from more than one
office, Board, or Division is assigned a matter (e.g., an AUSA and attorney
in the Criminal Division), both relevant component heads (or designees)
must concur in the recommendation to accept a gift before it may be
accepted. Disagreement among component heads may be resolved, upon
request, by the AAG/A.
Component heads must ensure that a Gift Donation Form and a Gift
Acceptance Form are completed for each gift acceptance approved by their
respective component. The completed forms must be forwarded to
Property Management Services, Facilities and Administration Services
Staff, Justice Management Division.
Any questions regarding gift issues should be directed to the

Departmental Ethics Office, Justice Management Division.
X.C.2. Professional Responsibility Issues
Several specific professional responsibility rules are implicated when

the government accepts either assistance or gifts from outside parties. For
ease of discussion, we refer here to the ABA Model Rules of Professional
Conduct, but note that a different set of professional conduct rules may
apply, depending on the circumstances of each case and the rules in the
attorney's state of licensure.
First, a prosecutor represents the United States and has a duty of

confidentiality to that client. Rule 1.6(a) requires a lawyer to protect
confidential client information and prohibits disclosure of such
information unless impliedly authorized, or the client consents, or some
other enumerated exception applies. The prohibition applies to privileged
information, “matters communicated in confidence by the client [and]
also to all information relating to the representation, whatever its source.”
Rule 1.6 cmt. [3]. When an investigator is hired or paid for by a victim to
assist on a case and is working with government agents, the privately paid
investigator might naturally expect to obtain information from the

government in return for information he or she has disclosed to the
government. However, a prosecutor must limit disclosures made about the
case by him or herself and by the agents. See Rule 5.3(b), (c) (requiring
lawyer to take reasonable steps to ensure that the conduct of non-lawyer
assistants is compatible with the professional obligations of the lawyer and
will be held responsible for the noncompliance of non-lawyer assistants in
some circumstances). Some disclosures may be impliedly authorized,
while others would require the consent of the client; in most instances the
United States Attorney or the Assistant Attorney General (or his or her
designee) would provide the necessary consent for the United States. Of
course, there are other limits on sharing of confidential grand jury
information under Fed. R. Crim. P. 6(e).
When a prosecutor plans to disclose confidential information to the

persons providing assistance or gifts, the attorney should seek written
agreement from the person that he or she will not use or disclose the
information except in relation to the case without the express written
consent of the appropriate official within the Department of Justice. Also,
the prosecutor should consider whether sharing privileged information
would waive the privilege.
The rules may require that assistance by third parties be disclosed to

the court and/or to the defense, either to ensure that all representations
to the court are accurate and complete, Rule 3.3 (candor toward the
tribunal), or to clarify when the assistance or gifts provided by a private
party might be seen as affecting the credibility of an important
government witness, Rule 3.8(d) (special responsibilities of a prosecutor).
Moreover, there may be conflict of interest issues to resolve under

Rule 1.7(a)(2), which recognizes that a lawyer may have a conflict of
interest if “there is a significant risk that the representation of one or
more clients will be materially limited by the lawyer's responsibilities to
. . . a third person or by a personal interest of the lawyer.” In these
circumstances, a lawyer may nevertheless represent the client if the client
gives informed written consent. The United States Attorney or the
Assistant Attorney General (or his or her designee) would have the
authority to provide consent to the attorney's work on a case
notwithstanding the conflict. One could imagine a scenario in which a
continuing relationship with a victim/witness who is providing assistance
in one case might raise concerns about the lawyer's representation of the
United States in that or another case, particularly one involving the
victim/witness.
X. Victims 339
Other professional conduct issues may arise because of assistance and
gifts provided to the government. Each issue will require individual
analysis, and questions may be directed to the Professional Responsibility
Officer (PRO) in each office or to the Department's Professional
Responsibility Advisory Office (PRAO).
X.C.3. Strategic and Case-Related Issues
Even if the resources offered by the victim or related parties are

acceptable under both gift laws and policies and the rules of professional
responsibility, an attorney must still consider whether accepting the
assistance will adversely affect the case. Just because it might be
permissible to accept an offer of either assistance or a gift does not make
it advisable to do so in all instances. Depending on the scope, nature, or
value of the assistance or gift, the public may question the Department's
impartiality. Assistance that is extensive, unusual, or is, in fact or
perception, of significant monetary value is more likely to raise questions
about the Department's impartiality and independence than assistance or
a gift that is more discreet, of modest value, and routine.
The government must exercise independent and impartial judgment

in the conduct of all criminal and civil matters. See Young v. United
States ex rel. Vuitton et Fils S.A., 481 U.S. 787, 803 (1987) (“The United
States Attorney is the representative not of an ordinary party to a
controversy, but of a sovereignty whose obligation to govern impartially
is as compelling as its obligation to govern at all ....”) (quoting Berger v.
United States, 295 U.S. 78, 88 (1935)). When working with victims and
other private parties, a Departmental employee must be aware that an
entangled or intimate relationship with a private party can negatively
affect a matter and the standing or respect accorded the Department. For
example, a highly-paid, aggressive private investigator could be portrayed
as a bounty hunter willing to entrap a defendant. The government might
be portrayed as a pawn of wealthy corporate interests. The defense might
claim that the victim's investigators were agents of the government and
thereby seek to impute their conduct to the government for 4th
Amendment or entrapment purposes. The defense might seek to dismiss
the case based on a claim of prosecutorial misconduct or conflict of
interest. These questions or doubts can affect the Department's ability to
successfully prosecute or litigate a matter.
An employee should consider, among other things, whether the

offeror has an independent reason to offer the gift or assistance. Especially

in parallel civil and criminal investigations, the fact that the victim would
prefer to pay for expenses deemed important to the victim in pursuit of
its civil claim tends to reduce the likelihood that a conflict of interest will
be found. See Hambarian v. Superior Court, 44 P.3d 102, 109 (Cal.
2002) (finding no conflict presented by prosecution's use of a victim-
retained consultant hired by the victim to support an anticipated civil
suit).
An employee also should consider who the donor is. If the donor is an
industry leader, the employee should avoid actions that appear to create
a competitive advantage for that entity. If the donor is a trade association
or combination of affected entities that is involved in ongoing monitoring
or investigation to protect the industry as a whole, the offer may be
considered more impartial. See Commonwealth v. Ellis, 708 N.E.2d 644,
649 (Mass. 1999) (holding that likelihood of influence on a prosecutor's
charging decisions is reduced when the resources are devoted to
investigating industry-related offenses rather than for the benefit of one
particular victim).
The acceptance of donated resources is most problematic for courts

when the resources are provided directly to the prosecutor or prosecutorial
entity. See People v. Eubanks, 927 P.2d 310, 322 (Cal. 1997) (holding
district attorney disqualified, and state attorney general substituted, after
victim paid an invoice submitted to the prosecutor for expert services,
among other expenses); cf. Young v. United States ex rel. Vuitton et Fils
S.A., 481 U.S. at 809 (holding that private counsel representing the
beneficiary of a court order cannot be appointed to prosecute the
defendant for violating the order). The less direct the benefit to the
prosecution, the less likely the defendant will be able to obtain relief. See
Marshall v. Jerrico, Inc., 446 U.S. 238 (1980) (finding no realistic
possibility that prospect of institutional benefit would unfairly influence
decision to impose civil penalties by a Department of Labor administrator
functioning as a prosecutor); Calderon v. Superior Court of California,
No. C97-1448 MJJ, 2001 WL 940904 (N.D. Cal. 2001) (finding victim's
contribution of resources to police investigation unlikely to influence
prosecutor's decisions). However, for the reasons discussed more fully
herein, although a court may distinguish when aid is offered directly to a
prosecutor or prosecutorial entity, as compared to an investigator or law
enforcement agent, this distinction is not determinative for purposes of
assessing whether the offer should be accepted in the first instance.
In addition, the Department's acceptance of a single, extraordinary

gift from a victim or related party may impact the public, or more
specifically, a jury's, perception of the Department's motivations and
X. Victims 341
activities. If it appears that the Department's actions are influenced
heavily by a private party, the Department's litigating posture and the
public's respect will be weakened. A jury may vote against the
Department's position because it perceives the Department is acting on
behalf of a private party rather than as a representative of the United
States' interests. In extreme cases, a court may conclude that the
Department's acceptance of a gift created a conflict of interest and
impaired the prosecutor's independence. Cf. Eubanks, 927 P.2d at 322.
Of course, the standard of appropriate behavior is not whether a matter
will be dismissed, but whether the appearance of impropriety or the lack
of independence outweighs the benefit of the proffered gift or assistance.
The Department, by its actions, must maintain the public's confidence in
and respect for the criminal process, and the Department's reputation for
fairness generally.
A Justice Department employee needs to balance the need for, or

importance of, the aid against any negative perception by a jury or the
public that can influence adversely a particular case. Employees should
evaluate whether the assistance or gift is likely to call into question their
independence and impartiality, or create an appearance of impropriety.
This analysis does not lend itself to clear or measured parameters. The
decision whether to accept assistance or a gift often can involve difficult
and nuanced issues. Given the potential ramifications, these decisions
should be made through the consultative process among law enforcement
personnel, other investigators, and attorneys before the matter is resolved.
The trial attorney is in the best position to assess these concerns, and he
must be consulted before any employee may accept an offer of resources.
The assigned attorney also should consult with an ethics officer to
determine whether the offer constitutes assistance or a gift that may be
accepted under the gift procedures, and the offer conforms with the rules
of professional responsibility.
X.C.4. Help and Advice
Each component (including each United States Attorney's Office) has

qualified specialists to provide guidance, including a Deputy Designated
Agency Ethics Official who can provide advice on gift and assistance
issues. The General Counsel's Office of the Executive Office for United
States Attorneys provides guidance to U.S. Attorneys' offices on matters
of government ethics, including recusal, outside employment and conflicts
of interest. The office number is (202) 514-4024. Department employees

also may seek guidance from the Departmental Ethics Office, Justice
Management Division. The office number is (202) 514-8196.
For professional responsibility advice, an Assistant United States

Attorney should first consult his or her supervisor and office Professional
Responsibility Officer (PRO), who may then seek advice from the
Professional Responsibility Advisory Office, telephone number (202) 514-
3365.
X. Victims 343
Appendix A
Commonly Charged
Intellectual Property Crimes
This overview provides the elements, defenses, penalties, and

sentencing guideline sections concerning most of the intellectual property
crimes and alternative charges discussed in this Manual, as well as an
index indicating which section of the Manual that discusses each crime.
Trafficking in Counterfeit Trademarks, Service Marks, or

Certification Marks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 344
Criminal Copyright Infringement (Felony & Misdemeanor) . . . . 346
Unauthorized Recording of a Motion Picture (Camcording) . . . . 349
Trafficking in Illicit Labels or Counterfeit Labels, Documentation or

Packaging for Copyrighted Works . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350
Trafficking in Recordings of Live Musical Performances (Bootlegging)

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351
Digital Millennium Copyright Act (Anti-Circumvention) . . . . . . . 352
Commercial Theft of Trade Secrets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 354
Foreign Economic Espionage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 356
Unauthorized Access of a Computer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 357
Interstate Transportation, Sale, or Receipt of Stolen Property . . . 359
Mail and Wire Fraud . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 360
Prohibition on Devices to Intercept Communications . . . . . . . . . 362
Unauthorized Reception of Cable Service . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363
Trafficking in Satellite Decryption Devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 364
343
Trafficking in Counterfeit Trademarks, Service Marks, or
Certification Marks
18 U.S.C. § 2320(a)
Chapter III
Elements
1. That the defendant trafficked, or attempted to traffic, in

[goods] [services]
[offenses committed on or after March 16, 2006, can

include labels, patches, stickers, wrappers, badges,
emblems, medallions, charms, boxes, containers, cans,
cases, hangtags, documentation, or packaging of any type
or nature]
2. That such trafficking, or attempt to traffic, was intentional;
3. That the defendant
[knowingly used a counterfeit mark on or in connection

with the [goods] [services]]
[offenses on or after March 16, 2006, can also include:

knew that counterfeit marks had been applied to the labels,
patches, stickers, wrappers, badges, emblems, medallions,
charms, boxes, containers, cans, cases, hangtags,
documentation, or packaging]
in which the defendant trafficked, or attempted to traffic; and
4. That the use of the counterfeit marks was likely to cause

confusion, to cause mistake, or to deceive
Counterfeit mark: “a spurious mark—(I) that is used in connection

with trafficking in any goods, services, labels, patches, stickers,
wrappers, badges, emblems, medallions, charms, boxes, containers,
cans, cases, hangtags, documentation, or packaging of any type or
nature; (ii) that is identical with, or substantially indistinguishable
from, a mark registered for those goods or services on the principal
register in the United States Patent and Trademark Office and in use,
whether or not the defendant knew such mark was so registered; (iii)
that is applied to or used in connection with the goods or services for

which the mark is registered with the United States Patent and
Trademark Office, or is applied to or consists of a label patch, sticker,
wrapper, badge, emblem, medallion, charm, box, container, can, case,
hangtag, documentation, or packaging of any type or nature that is
designed, marketed, or otherwise intended to be used on or in
connection with the goods or services for which the mark is registered
in the United States Patent and Trademark Office; and (iv) the use of
which is likely to cause confusion, to cause mistake, or to deceive”
Defenses
Overrun goods: Had authorization but exceeded it (i.e., authorized to

make 1,000 copies but made 5,000)
Gray market goods: Goods legitimately manufactured and sold overseas

and then imported into U.S. outside traditional distribution channels
Repackaging genuine goods: Genuine goods repackaged with genuine

marks or reproduced marks, with no intent to deceive or confuse
Statutory maximum penalties
First offense: 10 years' imprisonment and fine of $2,000,000 or twice

the gain/loss (individual); fine of $5,000,000 or twice the gain/loss
(organization)
Subsequent offense: 20 years' imprisonment and $5,000,000 fine or

twice the gain/loss (individual); $15,000,000 fine or twice the gain/loss
(organization)
Guideline section: United States Sentencing Guideline § 2B5.3
App A. Commonly Charged IP Crimes 345

Criminal Copyright Infringement (Felony & Misdemeanor)
17 U.S.C. § 506(a) & 18 U.S.C. § 2319
Chapter II
Elements for prosecutions under subsections 506(a)(1)(A) and

(a)(1)(B)
1. That the works that the defendant is alleged to have

[reproduced] [distributed] were protected by copyright
2. That the defendant infringed the copyrights of the works by

[reproducing] [distributing to the public] one or more copies of
[each of] the copyrighted works
3. That the defendant willfully infringed the copyrights [and]
4. That the defendant, during a 180-day period, reproduced or

distributed ten (10) or more copies of one or more copyrighted
works which have a total retail value of more than $2,500
[and]
[5. [optional] That the act of infringement was for the purpose of
commercial advantage or private financial gain]
Elements for prosecutions under subsection 506(a)(1)(C)
1. That copyrights exist for the works that the defendant is

alleged to have distributed
2. That the defendant infringed the copyrights of the works by

distributing to the public one or more copies of [each of] the
copyrighted works
3. That the defendant willfully infringed the copyrights
4. That the works distributed by the defendant were being

prepared for commercial distribution
5. That the defendant knew or should have known that the works
were intended for commercial distribution [and]
6. That the defendant distributed the works by making them

available on a computer network accessible to members of the
public [and]

[7. Optional: That the act of infringement was for the purpose of
commercial advantage or private financial gain]
Elements for Misdemeanor Copyright Infringement
Elements 1, 2 & 3 are the same as the base felony elements except that
any infringement of the copyright is covered, not just infringement by
reproduction or distribution.
4. The defendant infringed EITHER
(a) for purposes of commercial advantage or private financial

gain,(17 U.S.C.§ 506(a)(1)(A)(numbered § 506(a)(1) by the
Apr. 27, 2005 amendments) & 18 U.S.C. § 2319(b)(3)); OR
(b) by reproduction or distribution of one or more copyrighted

works with a total retail value of more than $1,000 within a
180-day period, (17 U.S.C. § 506(a)(1)(B) & 18
U.S.C. § 2319(c)(3)).
Defenses
First sale: The first purchaser and any subsequent purchaser of a

specific copy of a copyrighted work may sell, display (privately), or
dispose of their copy, but may not reproduce and distribute additional
copies made from that work.
Fair use: Allows otherwise infringing use of a work for purposes such as
(but not limited to) criticism, comment, news reporting, teaching
(including multiple copies for classroom use), scholarship, or research.
Archival exception for computer software: Owner of a copy of a

computer program may copy the program as necessary to use the
program or do machine maintenance or repair, and as an archival
backup, subject to certain limitations.
Section 506(a)(1)(A)
First offense: 5 years' imprisonment and fine of $250,000 or twice

the gain/loss (individual); fine of $500,000 or twice the gain/loss
(organization)
Subsequent offense: 10 years imprisonment and fine of $250,000

or twice the gain/loss (individual); fine of $500,000 or twice the
gain/loss (organization)

Section 506(a)(1)(B)
First offense: 3 years' imprisonment and fine of $250,000 or twice

(organization)
Subsequent offense: 6 years' imprisonment and fine of $250,000 or

twice the gain/loss (individual); fine of $500,000 or twice the
gain/loss (organization)
Section 506(a)(1)(C)
First offense: Same as § 506(a)(1)(A) if purpose was for commercial

advantage or private financial gain; if not, same as § 506(a)(1)(B)
Misdemeanor: 1 year's imprisonment and fine of $100,000 or twice the

gain/loss

Unauthorized Recording of a Motion Picture (Camcording)
18 U.S.C. § 2319B
Section II.F.
Elements
1. That the defendant used, or attempted to use, an audiovisual

recording device to transmit or make a copy of a motion
picture or other audiovisual work from a performance of such
work in a motion picture facility, specifically [describe use or
attempted use]
2. That such use, or attempted use of the device, was done

knowingly
3. That such use, or attempted use of the device, was without the
authorization of the copyright owner
4. That [describe motion picture or audiovisual work] is protected

by copyright
First offense: 3 years' imprisonment and fine of $250,000 or twice the

gain/loss (individual); fine of $500,000 or twice the gain/loss
(organization)
Subsequent offense: 6 years' imprisonment and fine of $250,000 or

twice the gain/loss (individual); fine of $500,000 or twice the gain/loss
(organization)

Trafficking in Illicit Labels or Counterfeit Labels, Documentation or
Packaging for Copyrighted Works
18 U.S.C. § 2318
Chapter VI
Elements
1. That the defendant trafficked in
[labels affixed to/enclosing/accompanying/ designed to be

affixed to, to enclose, to accompany] [describe
work/documentation/ packaging;]
[documentation/packaging]
2. That the
[labels were counterfeit/illicit]
[documentation/packaging was counterfeit]
3. That the defendant acted knowingly
4. Federal jurisdiction is satisfied because:
the offense occurred in special maritime territories or other

areas of special jurisdiction of the United States;
the offense used or intended to use the mail or a facility of

interstate or foreign commerce;
the counterfeit or illicit labels were affixed to, enclosed, or

accompanied copyrighted materials (or were designed to);
or
the documentation or packaging is copyrighted.
Statutory maximum penalties: 5 years' imprisonment and fine of

$250,000 or twice the gain/loss (individual); fine of $500,000 or twice
the gain/loss (organization)

Trafficking in Recordings of Live Musical Performances (Bootlegging)
18 U.S.C. § 2319A
Section II.F.
Offense
Whoever, without the consent of the performer or performers

involved, knowingly and for purposes of commercial advantage or
private financial gain—
(1) fixes the sounds or sounds and images of a live musical

performance in a copy or phonorecord, or reproduces copies or
phonorecords of such a performance from an unauthorized
fixation;
(2) transmits or otherwise communicates to the public the

sounds or sounds and images of a live musical performance; or
(3) distributes or offers to distribute, sells or offers to sell, rents

or offers to rent, or traffics in any copy or phonorecord fixed as
described in paragraph (1), regardless of whether the fixations
occurred in the United States.

(organization)
Second offense: 10 years' imprisonment and fine of $250,000 or twice

(organization)

Digital Millennium Copyright Act (Anti-Circumvention)
17 U.S.C. §§ 1201(a)(1)(A), 1204(a)
Section V.B.
Elements for Unauthorized Circumvention of Access Controls
1. The defendant acted willfully
2. The defendant circumvented a technological measure
3. The technological measure effectively controls access (i.e.,

access control)
4. The access control was to a copyrighted work
5. The act of circumvention was for the purpose of commercial

advantage or private financial gain
Defenses
Regulatory: The Librarian of Congress promulgates regulatory

exemptions every three years that apply only to § 1201(a)(1)(A)'s
prohibitions against circumventing access controls.
Certain nonprofit entities: Nonprofit libraries, archives, educational

institutions, or public broadcasting entities exempted from criminal
prosecution in many cases.
Information security: “[A]ny lawfully authorized investigative,

protective, information security, or intelligence activity of an officer,
agent, or employee” or contractor of the federal government or a state
government is exempt from all three of § 1201's prohibitions for
information security work on “government computer, computer
system, or computer network.”
Reverse engineering and interoperability of computer programs: Three

reverse engineering or “interoperability” defenses for individuals using
circumvention technology are provided by statute. These defenses are
limited to computer programs.
Encryption research: Activities necessary to identify and analyze flaws

and vulnerabilities of encryption technologies applied to copyrighted
works, if these activities are conducted to advance the state of
knowledge in the field of encryption technology or to assist in the
development of encryption products.

Restricting minors' access to internet: Courts may waive violations of
subsections 1201(a)(1)(A) and 1201(a)(2) to allow parents to protect
their children from inappropriate material available on the Internet, or
to prohibit manufacturers from producing products designed to enable
parents to protect their children.
Protection of personally identifying information: Circumventing an

access control to disable files that collect personally identifiable
information.
Security testing: No violation of § 1201(a)(1)(A) occurs if testing does

not constitute copyright infringement or a violation of other applicable
law such as the Computer Fraud and Abuse Act of 1986.

gain/loss
Second offense: 10 years' imprisonment and $1,000,000 fine or twice

the gain/loss
Guideline Section: United States Sentencing Guideline § 2B5.3

Commercial Theft of Trade Secrets
18 U.S.C. § 1832
Chapter IV
Elements
1. The defendant misappropriated a trade secret from its owner
2. The defendant knew or had a firm belief that the

item/information was a trade secret
3. The item/information was in fact a trade secret (except in cases

of attempt or conspiracy)
4. The defendant intended to convert the trade secret to the

economic benefit of anyone other than the owner
5. The defendant intended or knew the theft would injure the

owner of the trade secret
6. The trade secret was related to or was included in a product

that was produced for or placed in interstate or foreign
commerce
Defenses
Parallel development: Others may discover information underlying a

trade secret through their own independent efforts.
Reverse engineering: Others may discover information underlying a

trade secret by taking a thing that incorporates the trade secret apart to
determine how it works or how it was made or manufactured.
Impossibility: Impossibility is no defense to charges of attempt or

conspiracy.
Advice of counsel: May negate mens rea.
Claim of right—public domain and proprietary rights: Mens rea might

be negated if defendant believed in good faith that he had a right to
use the information, either because it was in the public domain or
because it belonged to him.
Trade secret: All forms and types of financial, business, scientific,

technical, economic, or engineering information, if (A) the owner

thereof has taken reasonable measures to keep such information secret;
and (B) the information derives independent economic value, actual or
potential, from not being generally known to, and not being readily
ascertainable through proper means by, the public.
Secrecy: Courts required to take any action necessary to protect the

confidentiality of the trade secret during litigation.

$250,000 or twice the gain/loss (individual); $5,000,000 fine or twice

Foreign Economic Espionage
18 U.S.C. § 1831
Chapter IV
Elements
1. The defendant misappropriated a trade secret from its owner
2. The defendant knew or had a firm belief that the

item/information was a trade secret
3. The item/information was in fact a trade secret (except in cases

of attempt or conspiracy)
4. The defendant intended or knew the theft would benefit any

foreign government, foreign instrumentality or foreign agent
Defenses: See Commercial Theft of Trade Secrets (18 U.S.C. § 1832).
Pre-Indictment Approval Required
Statutory maximum penalty: 15 years' imprisonment and fine of

$500,000 or twice the gain/loss (individual); $10,000,000 fine or twice

Unauthorized Access of a Computer
18 U.S.C. § 1030(a)(2), (a)(4)
Section IV.F.
Offense under § 1030 (a)(2)—Unlawfully accessing or attempting to

access a computer to obtain information
Whoever intentionally accesses [or attempts to access] a computer

without authorization or exceeds authorized access, and thereby
obtains—
(A) information contained in a financial record of a financial

institution, or of a card issuer as defined in section 1602(n) of
title 15, or contained in a file of a consumer reporting agency
on a consumer, as such terms are defined in the Fair Credit
Reporting Act (15 U.S.C. 1681 et seq.)
(B) information from any department or agency of the United

States OR
(C) information from any protected computer if the conduct

involved an interstate or foreign communication ....
Enhancement pursuant to 18 U.S.C. § 1030(c)(2)(B)
(I) the offense was committed for purposes of commercial

advantage or private financial gain;
(ii) the offense was committed in furtherance of any criminal or

tortious act in violation of the Constitution or laws of the United
States or of any State; or
(iii) the value of the information obtained exceeds $5,000.
Statutory maximum penalty: 1 year's imprisonment and fine of

$100,000
Enhanced statutory maximum penalties: 5 years' imprisonment (second

offense: 10 years' imprisonment) and fine of $250,000 or twice the
(organization)

Offense under § 1030 (a)(4) —Unlawfully accessing or attempting to
access a protected computer to further a fraud
Whoever knowingly and with intent to defraud, accesses [or

attempts to access] a protected computer without authorization, or
exceeds authorized access, and by means of such conduct furthers
the intended fraud and obtains anything of value, unless the object
of the fraud and the thing obtained consists only of the use of the
computer and the value of such use is not more than $5,000 in any
1-year period ....

$250,000 or twice the gain/loss (first offense), 10 years' imprisonment
and fine of $250,000 (second offense)

Appendices B-F
Sample Indictments and
Jury Instructions
Appendix B. Copyright Infringement
Appendix C. Trademark Counterfeiting
Appendix D. Theft of Trade Secrets and Foreign Economic Espionage
Appendix E. Digital Millennium Copyright Act
Appendix F. Trafficking in Counterfeit or Illicit Labels and

Counterfeit Documentation and Packaging
Sample indictments and jury instructions for these offenses are

available on DOJNET at http://10.173.2.12/usao/eousa/ole/usabook
/ipma/appx.htm.
365
Appendix G
Intellectual Property
Contact List
1. Federal Law Enforcement Contacts
2. Federal International Contacts
3. Trademark Organization Contacts
4. Copyright Organization Contracts
1. Federal Law Enforcement Contacts

Computer Crime and Intellectual Property Section (CCIPS)
Criminal Division, U.S. Department of Justice
1301 New York Avenue NW, Suite 600
Washington, DC 20530
Tel: 202-514-1026
Fax: 202-514-6113
http://www.cybercrime.gov
http://www.usdoj.gov
Prosecution of, and guidance, support, resources, and materials for

prosecuting domestic and international criminal intellectual
property offenses; development of intellectual property
enforcement policy; and support and oversight of the federal
prosecution of intellectual property crimes.
367
National Intellectual Property Rights Coordination Center
U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement (ICE)
1300 Pennsylvania Avenue NW, Room 3.5A
http://www.ice.gov
Tel: 202-344-2410
Fax: 202-344-1920
E-mail: iprcenter@dhs.gov
Joint center to coordinate interagency efforts on criminal

intellectual property enforcement by ICE and the FBI.
Federal Bureau of Investigation
Cyber Crime Fraud Unit
Leslie Bryant - Chief
J. Edgar Hoover FBI Building
935 Pennsylvania Avenue NW
http://www.fbi.gov
Tel: 202-324-5613
Fax: 202-324-9197
E-mail: leslie.bryant@ic.fbi.gov
Responsible for all IPR and Internet fraud investigations; support

and oversight of the FBI's IPR enforcement program.
Department of Homeland Security (DHS)
Customs and Border Patrol (CBP)
1300 Pennsylvania Avenue NW

http://www.cbp.gov/
• Office of Regulations and Rulings—IPR Branch
Tel: 202-572-8710
Fax: 202-572-8744
E-mail: hqiprbranch@dhs.gov
Develops and administers legal and policy components of

the agency's IPR enforcement program.
• IPR E-Recordation (IPRR) Application
E-mail: iprr.questions@dhs.gov
http://www.cbp.gov/xp/cgov/import/commercial_enforcement/ip
r/iprr_intro.xml
Online application for intellectual property owners to

record their trademarks and copyrights with CBP to protect
against the importation of infringing products.
• Office of Trade Relations
Tel: 202-344-1440
Fax: 202-344-1969
E-mail: traderelations@dhs.gov
http://www.cbp.gov/xp/cgov/toolbox/about/organization/comm_
staff_off/trade_relations.xml
Liaison between industry and Customs officials. Reviews

concerns voiced by individuals or trade groups and
furnishes recommendations to resolve justified complaints.
App G. Intellectual Property Contact List 369

• Cyber Crime Center
Cyber Crimes Unit
1320 Random Hills Road, Suite 400
Fairfax, VA 22030
Tel: 703-293-8005
Fax: 703-293-9127
Investigates and coordinates investigation of Internet

crimes, including intellectual property rights violations.
U.S. Postal Inspection Service
Mail Fraud Group
475 L'Enfant Plaza SW, Room 3411
Tel: 202-268-4267
Fax: 202-268-7316
http://www.usps.com/postalinspectors/
Support and oversight of Postal Inspection Service's mail fraud

enforcement nationwide, including investigation of intellectual
property crimes committed by use of the mails.
Food and Drug Administration (FDA)
Office of Criminal Investigations
7500 Standish Place, Suite 250N
Rockville, MD 20855
Tel: 301-294-4030
Fax: 301-594-1971

http://www.fda.gov/ora/
Support and oversight of FDA's enforcement of violations of laws

related to mislabeled foods, drugs, and cosmetics.
Consumer Product Safety Commission (CPSC)
4330 East West Highway
Bethesda, MD 20814
Tel: 301-504-7923; 800-638-2772
Fax: 301-504-0124
http://www.cpsc.gov
E-mail: info@cpsc.gov
Dennis Blasius
Special Assistant to the Deputy Director
Office of Compliance and Field Operations
U.S. Consumer Product Safety Commission
2331 Silvernail Road #24
Pewaukee, WI 53072
Tel: 262-650-1216
Fax: 262-650-1217
Cell: 414-899-8802
E-mail: dblasius@cpsc.gov
Has jurisdiction over approximately 15,000 types of consumer

products, including coffee makers, electrical cords, toys, baby seats
and cribs. Investigates leads into possible hazardous products;
develops voluntary standards with industry, issues and enforces
mandatory standards; and bans products if no feasible standard will
adequately protect the public.

National White Collar Crime Center (NW3C)
Internet Crime Complaint Center (IC3)
1 Huntington Way
Fairmont, WV 26554
Tel: 800-251-3221; 304-363-4312; complaint center: 800-251-7581
Fax: 304-363-9065
http://www.ic3.gov
Partnership between NW3C and FBI. Allows victims to report

fraud over the Internet; alerts authorities of suspected criminal or
civil violations; offers law enforcement and regulatory agencies a
central repository for complaints related to Internet fraud.
2. Federal International Contacts

U.S. Department of Justice
• International Coordinator in Each U.S. Attorney's Office
Office of International Affairs, Department of Justice
Tel.: 202-514-0000
• Computer Crime & Intellectual Property Section
Tel.: 202-514-1026
• Office of International Affairs, Department of Justice
Legal Attache program
Tel.: 202-514-0000
• Office of Overseas Prosecutorial Development & Training
Resident Legal Advisor program
Tel.: 202-514-1323

• Federal Bureau of Investigation Legal Attache Program
http://www.fbi.gov/contact/legat/legat.htm
State Department Information on Mutual Legal Assistance Treaties
http://travel.state.gov/law/info/judicial/judicial_690.html
U.S. Trade Representative's List of Nations that Fail to Provide

Adequate IP Protection
Annual Special 301 Report
http://ustr.gov/Trade_Sectors/Intellectual_Property/Section_Index.html
3. Trademark Organization Contacts

United States Patent and Trademark Office (USPTO)
Director of the USPTO
P.O. Box 1450
Alexandria, VA 22313-1450
Tel.: 800-786-9199
http://www.uspto.gov/
Provides information on obtaining certified copies of trademark

registration. To obtain a copy of a certified trademark registration:
• Office of Public Records
South Tower Building, 2nd Floor
2900 Crystal Drive
Arlington, VA 22202
Tel.: 800-972-6382

Fax: 571-273-3250
http://www.uspto.gov
International Anti-Counterfeiting Coalition (IACC)
Niles Montan
President
1725 K Street NW, Suite 411
Tel.: 202-223-6667
Fax: 202-223-6668
http://www.iacc.org
Represents trademark industries affected by counterfeiting.
International Trademark Association (INTA)
Saisal Daudpota
External Relations Coordinator, Anti-Counterfeiting
655 Third Avenue, 10th Floor
New York, NY 10017-5617
Tel.: 212-642-1739
Fax: 212-768-7796
http://www.inta.org
Represents trademark owners in all industries.
4. Copyright Organization Contacts

Library of Congress Copyright Office

Certifications & Documents
LM 402
101 Independence Avenue SW
Tel.: 202-707-6787
http://www.loc.gov/
Retains files of registered copyrights and unpublished works;

provides information on obtaining copies of copyright registrations.
The Independent Film & Television Alliance (I.F.T.A.)
Susan Cleary
Vice President & General Counsel
10850 Wilshire Boulevard, 9th Floor
Los Angeles, CA 90024-4321
Tel.: 310-446-1000
Fax: 310-446-1600
http://www.ifta-online.org/
Represents the independent motion picture and television industry.
Association of American Publishers (AAP)
Patricia L. Judd
Executive Director
International Copyright Enforcement and Trade Policy
50 F Street NW, 4th Floor
Tel.: 202-220-4541

Fax: 202-347-3690
http://www.publishers.org
Represents publishers of reference works; scientific medical,

technical, professional, and scholarly books and journals; and
classroom instructional and testing materials in print and electronic
formats.
Business Software Alliance (BSA)
John Wolfe
Director Internet Enforcement
1150 18th Street NW, Suite 700
Tel.: 202-872-5500; 202-872-5122
Fax: 202-872-5501
E-mail: johnw@bsa.org
http://www.bsa.org
Represents major software and e-commerce developers. Assists in

identifying and locating victims, identifying and valuing infringing
products; technical assistance with copyright and copyright
protection technologies; assists in obtaining copyright registration
certificates.
Entertainment Software Association (ESA)
Chun T. Wright
Senior Anti-Piracy Counsel
575 7th Street NW, Suite 300
Tel.: 202-223-2400 ext. 108

Fax: 202-223-2401
E-mail: chun@theESA.com
New York office
Tel.: 917-522-3250
http://www.theESA.com
Represents companies that publish video and computer games for

video consoles, personal computers and the Internet. Assists in
certificates.
International Intellectual Property Alliance (IIPA)
Steve Metalitz
Senior Vice President
1747 Pennsylvania Avenue NW, Suite 825
Washington, DC 20006-4637
Tel.: 202-833-4198
Fax: 202-872-0546
http://www.iipa.com
Coalition of seven U.S. associations working to improve

international copyright protection and enforcement.

International Intellectual Property Institute (IIPI)
Eric Garduno
Executive Director
1100 H Street NW, Suite 1100
Tel.: 202-544-6610
Fax: 202-478-1955
http://www.iipi.org
Organization dedicated to improving intellectual property systems

around the world.
Intellectual Property Owners Association (IPO)
Mr. Dana Robert Colarulli
Government Relations and Legislative Counsel
1255 23rd Street NW, Suite 200
E-mail: dana@ipo.org
Tel.: 202-466-2396
Fax: 202-466-2893
http://www.ipo.org
E-mail: info@ipo.org
Represents owners of intellectual property.
Motion Picture Association of America (MPAA)
Mike Robinson
Director of U.S. Anti-Piracy

Appendix H
Victim Referral and
Witness Interview Forms
The forms on the following pages were first published in the

Department of Justice's Report of the Department of Justice's Task Force
on Intellectual Property (Oct. 2004), and are adapted below with minor
additions. The forms are useful as a checklist for prosecutors and
investigators to gather information from victims or for victims to fill out
on their own. There are two forms: one that can be used in copyright and
trademark/service mark/certification mark cases, and another that can be
used in trade secret cases. They can be adapted for use in other
intellectual property offenses as well, and are available in electronic format
on DOJNET at http://10.173.2.12/usao/eousa/ole/usabook/ipma/
appxh.wpd.
A. Checklist for Copyright Infringement

and Counterfeit Trademark/Service
Mark/Certification Mark Offenses
Background and Contact Information
1. Victim's Name:
2. Primary Address:
3. Nature of Business:
4. Contact:
Phone: Fax:
E-mail: Pager/Mobile:
Description of the Intellectual Property

5. Describe the copyrighted material or trademark/service
mark/certification mark (e.g., title of copyrighted work, identity of
logo), including any factors that make its infringement specially
problematic (e.g., pre-release piracy, threats to public health and
safety).
379
6. Is the work or mark registered with the U.S. Copyright Office or on
the principal register of the U.S. Patent and Trademark Office?
___ YES ___NO
a. If so, please provide the following:
i. Registration Date:
ii. Registration Number:
iii. Do you have a copy of the certificate of registration?
iv. Has the work or mark been the subject of a previous civil or
criminal enforcement action? If so, please provide a general
description.
b. If not, state if and when you intend to register.
7. What is the approximate retail value of the infringed work, good,
or service?
Description of the Intellectual Property Crime

8. Describe how the theft or counterfeiting was discovered.
9. Do you have any examination reports of the infringing or

counterfeit goods?
___YES ___NO
If so, please provide those reports to law enforcement.
10. Describe the scope of the infringing operation:
a. Estimated quantity of illegal distribution:
b. Estimated value of illegal distribution:
b. Estimated time period of illegal distribution:
c. Is the illegal distribution national or international? Which
states or countries?

11. Identify where the infringement or counterfeiting occurred, and
describe the location.
12. Identify the name(s) or location(s) of possible suspects, including

the following information:
Name (Suspect #1):
Phone number:
E-mail address:
Physical address:
Current employer, if known:
Reason for suspicion:
Name (Suspect #2):
Phone number:
E-mail address:
Physical address:
13. If the distribution of infringing or counterfeit goods involves the
Internet (e.g., World Wide Web, FTP, e-mail, chat rooms), identify
the following:
a. The type of Internet theft:
b. Internet address, including linking sites (domain name, URL,
IP address, e-mail):
c. Login or password for site:
d. Operators of site, if known:
14. If you have conducted an internal investigation into the theft or
counterfeiting activities, please describe any evidence acquired and
submit, if possible, any investigative reports:
App H. Victim and Witness Forms 381

Civil Enforcement Proceedings
15. Has a civil enforcement action been filed against the suspects
identified above?
___YES ___NO
a. If so, identify the following:
i. Name of court and case number:
ii. Date of filing:
iii. Names of attorneys:
iv. Status of case:
b. If not, is a civil action contemplated? What type and when?
16. Please provide any information concerning the suspected crime not
described above that you believe might assist law enforcement.
B. Checklist for Trade Secret Offenses

NOTE ON CONFIDENTIALITY: Federal law provides that courts
"shall enter such orders and take such action as may be necessary and
the Federal Rules of Evidence, and all other applicable laws." 18 U.S.C. §
1835. Prosecutors utilizing any of the information set forth below will
generally request the court to enter an order to preserve the status of the
information as a trade secret and prevent its unnecessary and harmful
disclosure.
1. Victim's Name:
2. Primary Location and Address:
3. Nature of Primary Business:

4. Law Enforcement Contact:
Phone: Fax:
Description of the Trade Secret

5. Generally describe the trade secret (e.g., source code, formula,
technology, device).
Provide an estimated value of the trade secret identifying ONE of

the methods and indicating ONE of the ranges listed below:
Estimated value Method
______________ Cost to develop the trade secret
______________ Acquisition cost (identify date and source
of acquisition)
______________ Fair market value if sold
Identify a person knowledgeable about valuation, including
that person's contact information.
General Physical Measures Taken to Protect the Trade Secret

6. Describe the general physical security precautions taken by the
company, such as fencing the perimeter of the premises, visitor
control systems, using alarming or self-locking doors or security
personnel.
7. Has the company established physical barriers to prevent

unauthorized viewing or access to the trade secret, such as locked
storage facilities or "Authorized Personnel Only" signs at access
points? (See below if computer-stored trade secret.)
___YES ___NO
8. Does the company require sign in/out procedures for access to and
return of trade secret materials?
___YES ___NO

9. Are employees required to wear identification badges?
___YES ___ NO
10. Does the company have a written security policy?
___YES ___NO
a. How are employees advised of the security policy?
b. Are employees required to sign a written acknowledgment of
the security policy?
___YES ___NO
c. Identify the person most knowledgeable about matters relating
to the security policy, including title and contact information.
11. How many employees have access to the trade secret?

12. Was access to the trade secret limited to a "need to know" basis?
___YES ___NO
If so, describe how "need to know" was maintained in any ways not
identified elsewhere (e.g., closed meetings, splitting tasks between
employees and/or vendors to restrict knowledge, etc.):
Confidentiality and Non-Disclosure Agreements

13. Does the company enter into confidentiality and non-disclosure
agreements with employees and third parties concerning the trade
secret?
___YES ___NO
14. Has the company established and distributed written
confidentiality policies to all employees?
___YES ___NO
15. Does the company have a policy for advising company employees
regarding the company's trade secrets?
___YES ___NO

Computer-Stored Trade Secrets
16. If the trade secret is computer source code or other
computer-stored information, how is access regulated (e.g., are
employees given unique user names, passwords, and computer
storage space, and was the information encrypted)?
17. If the company stores the trade secret on a computer network, is

the network protected by a firewall?
___YES ___NO
18. Is remote access permitted into the computer network?
___YES ___NO
19. Is the trade secret maintained on a separate computer server?
___YES ____NO
20. Does the company prohibit employees from bringing outside
computer programs or storage media to the premises?
___YES ___NO
21. Does the company maintain electronic access records such as
computer logs?
___YES ___NO
Document Control
22. If the trade secret consists of documents, were they clearly marked
"CONFIDENTIAL" or "PROPRIETARY"?
___YES ___NO
23. Describe the document control procedures employed by the
company, such as limiting access and sign in/out policies.

24. Was there a written policy concerning document control
procedures?
___YES ___NO
If so, how were employees advised of it?
25. Identify the person most knowledgeable about the document

control procedures, including title and contact information.
Employee Controls
26. Are new employees subject to a background investigation?
___YES ___NO
27. Does the company hold "exit interviews" to remind departing
employees of their obligation not to disclose trade secrets?
___YES ___NO
Description of the Theft of Trade Secret

Name (Suspect #1):
Phone number:
E-mail address:
Physical address:
Employer:
Name (Suspect #2):
Phone number:
E-mail address:
Physical address:
Employer:

29. Was the trade secret stolen to benefit a third party, such as a
competitor or another business?
___YES ___NO
If so, identify that business and its location.
30. Do you have any information that the theft of trade secrets were
committed to benefit a foreign government or instrumentality of a
foreign government?
___YES ___NO
If so, identify the foreign government or instrumentality and
describe that information.
31. If the suspect is a current or former employee, describe all

confidentiality and non-disclosure agreements in effect.
32. Identify any physical locations associated with the theft of trade
secret, such as where it may be currently stored or used.

provide any investigative reports that you can.

identified above?
___YES ___NO
ii. Date of filing:
iv. Status of case:
b. If not, is a civil action contemplated?
___YES ___NO
What type and when?

Appendix I
Maximum Statutory Penalties,
Forfeiture, and Restitution for
Fines are determined by the substantive criminal statutes in

conjunction with 18 U.S.C. § 3571 (“Sentence of fine”).The exact
forfeiture procedures for each criminal offense, and the types of property
those remedies reach, are listed in detail in Section VIII.E.2. of this
Manual. Restitution procedures are described in detail in Section VIII.D.
of this Manual.
No
Commercial Commercial No Commercial Commercial
Purpose1 Purpose Purpose Purpose
- 1st Offense - 2nd Offense - 1st Offense - 2nd Offense
Copyright • 5 years • 10 years

Infringement
• $250K or • $250K or
for Profit
twice the twice the
(Felony)2
gain/loss gain/loss
17 U.S.C. (individuals) (individuals)
§ 506(a)(1)(A)
• $500K or • $500K or
(formerly twice the twice the
§ 506(a)(1)) gain/loss gain/loss
(organizations) (organizations)
18 U.S.C.
§ 2319(b) • Forfeiture– • Forfeiture–
civ. & crim. civ. & crim.
• Restitution– • Restitution–
mandatory mandatory
389
No

Large-Scale
• $250K or • $250K or
Infringement,
twice the twice the
No Profit
gain/loss gain/loss
Motive (Felony)
(individuals) (individuals)
17 U.S.C.
• $500K or • $500K or
§ 506(a)(1)(B)
twice the twice the
(formerly gain/loss gain/loss
§ 506(a)(2)) (organizations) (organizations)
18 U.S.C. • Forfeiture– • Forfeiture–
§ 2319(c) civ. & crim. civ. & crim.
mandatory mandatory
Copyright • 5 years • 10 years • 3 years • 6 years

Pre-Release
• $250K or • $250K or • $250K or • $250K or
Distribution
twice the twice the twice the twice the
Over a Publicly-
gain/loss gain/loss gain/loss gain/loss
Accessible
(individuals) (individuals) (individuals) (individuals)
Computer
Network • $500K or • $500K or • $500K or • $500K or
17 U.S.C.
§ 506(a)(1)(C)
(organizations) (organizations) (organizations) (organizations)
18 U.S.C.
• Forfeiture– • Forfeiture– • Forfeiture– • Forfeiture–
§ 2319(d)
civ. & crim. civ. & crim. civ. & crim. civ. & crim.
• Restitution– • Restitution– • Restitution– • Restitution–
mandatory mandatory mandatory mandatory

No
Digital • 5 years • 10 years

Millennium
• $500K or • $1M or twice
Copyright Act
twice the the gain/loss
(DMCA)
gain/loss (individuals &
17 U.S.C. (individuals & organizations)
§ 1204 organizations)
• Forfeiture–
• Forfeiture– none
none
• Restitution–
• Restitution– none to
none to circumvention
circumvention victims; possible
victims; possible to copyright
to copyright victims
victims
Economic • 15 years
Espionage Act
• $500K or
(EEA)–
twice the
Trade Secret gain/loss
Theft to Benefit (individuals)
a Foreign
• $10M or
Government,
twice the
Instrumentality,
gain/loss
or Agent3
(organizations)
18 U.S.C.
• Forfeiture–
§ 1831
crim. only
• Restitution–
mandatory
Espionage Act
• $250K or
(EECA)–
twice the
Theft for (individuals)
Commercial
• $5M or twice
Purposes
the gain/loss
18 U.S.C. (organizations)
§ 1832
• Forfeiture–
crim. only
• Restitution–
mandatory
App I. Penalties and Restitution 391

No
Counterfeit/ • 5 years
Illicit Labels
• $250K or
and Counterfeit
twice the
Documentation
gain/loss
and Packaging
(individuals)
for Copyrighted
Works • $500K or
twice the
18 U.S.C.
gain/loss
§ 2318
(organizations)
• Forfeiture–
civ. & crim.
• Restitution–
mandatory
Bootleg • 5 years • 10 years

Recordings of
• $250K or • $250K or
Live Musical
twice the twice the
Performances
gain/loss gain/loss
§ 2319A
• $500K or • $500K or
twice the twice the
gain/loss gain/loss
• Forfeiture– • Forfeiture–
unclear unclear
Camcording • 3 years • 6 years

18 U.S.C. • $250K or • $250K or
§ 2319B twice the twice the
gain/loss gain/loss
• $500K or • $500K or
twice the twice the
gain/loss gain/loss
crim. only crim. only
mandatory mandatory

No
Counterfeit • 10 years • 20 years

Trademarks,
• $2M or twice • $5M or twice
Service Marks,
the gain/loss the gain/loss
and
Certification
Marks • $5M or twice • $15M or
the gain/loss twice the
18 U.S.C.
(organizations) gain/loss
§ 2320
(organizations)
• Forfeiture–
civ. & crim. • Forfeiture–
civ. & crim.
• Restitution–
mandatory • Restitution–
mandatory
1. “Commercial purpose” here is used as a generic term applicable to

criminal intellectual property statutes that variously require the
government to prove either trafficking for “consideration”; commercial
advantage or private financial gain; or engaging in a transaction for
economic benefit. The terms of the specific statutes control.
2. The copyright crimes in 17 U.S.C. § 506(a)(1)(A) and (B) can also be

charged as misdemeanors in certain circumstances.
3. Technically, to prove economic espionage to benefit a foreign

government, instrumentality, or agent under 18 U.S.C. § 1831, the
government need not prove that the benefit was economic, but in practice
the benefit will often have economic consequences.

15503 Ventura Boulevard
Encino, CA 91436
Tel.: 818-995-6600
Fax: 818-382-1795
Bill Shannon
Deputy Director U.S. Anti-Piracy
Tel.: 718-518-8800 ext. 108
Cell: 917-731-5783
http://www.mpaa.org
Represents the film and entertainment industry. Assists in

certificates.
Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA)
Jonathan Whitehead
Senior Vice President, Online Copyright Protection
Anti-Piracy Unit
1330 Connecticut Avenue NW, Suite 300
Tel.: 202-857-9602
Fax: 202-775-7253
http://www.riaa.org

Represents the United States recording industry. Assists in
certificates.
International Federation of the Phonographic Industry (IFPI)
Jeremy Banks
Vice President of Internet Anti-Piracy
IFPI Secretariat
54 Regent Street
London
W1B 5RE
United Kingdom
Tel.: 011-44-207-878-6804
E-mail: jeremy.banks@ifpi.org
http://www.ifpi.org/
Represents the worldwide recording industry's international

organizations, legal strategies, litigation, and public relations. Co-
ordinates international strategies in anti-piracy enforcement,
technology, and lobbying of governments. IFPI and RIAA work
closely together. RIAA recommends contacting it before contacting
the IFPI.
Software & Information Industry Association (SIIA)
1090 Vermont Avenue NW, 6th Floor
Washington, DC 20005-4095
Tel.: 202-289-7442
Fax: 202-289-7097

http://www.siia.net
Keith Kupferschmid
Vice President, Intellectual Property Policy & Enforcement
Tel.: 202-789-4442
E-mail: keithk@siia.net
Jason Allen
Manager, Internet Anti-Piracy
Tel.: 202-789-4477
E-mail: jallen@siia.net
SIIA represents software companies and publishers of magazines,

books, newspapers, databases and other digital publications. SIIA's
mission is to protect, promote, and inform the software and content
industry. Assists in identifying and locating victims, identifying and
valuing infringing products; technical assistance with copyright and
copyright protection technologies; assists in obtaining copyright
registration certificates.

Appendix H
Victim Referral and
Witness Interview Forms
The forms on the following pages were first published in the

Department of Justice's Report of the Department of Justice's Task Force
on Intellectual Property (Oct. 2004), and are adapted below with minor
additions. The forms are useful as a checklist for prosecutors and
investigators to gather information from victims or for victims to fill out
on their own. There are two forms: one that can be used in copyright and
trademark/service mark/certification mark cases, and another that can be
used in trade secret cases. They can be adapted for use in other
intellectual property offenses as well, and are available in electronic format
on DOJNET at http://10.173.2.12/usao/eousa/ole/usabook/ipma/
appxh.wpd.
A. Checklist for Copyright Infringement

and Counterfeit Trademark/Service
Mark/Certification Mark Offenses
1. Victim's Name:
2. Primary Address:
3. Nature of Business:
4. Contact:
Phone: Fax:
Description of the Intellectual Property

5. Describe the copyrighted material or trademark/service
mark/certification mark (e.g., title of copyrighted work, identity of
logo), including any factors that make its infringement specially
problematic (e.g., pre-release piracy, threats to public health and
safety).
379
6. Is the work or mark registered with the U.S. Copyright Office or on
the principal register of the U.S. Patent and Trademark Office?
___ YES ___NO
a. If so, please provide the following:
i. Registration Date:
ii. Registration Number:
iii. Do you have a copy of the certificate of registration?
iv. Has the work or mark been the subject of a previous civil or
criminal enforcement action? If so, please provide a general
description.
b. If not, state if and when you intend to register.
7. What is the approximate retail value of the infringed work, good,
or service?
Description of the Intellectual Property Crime

8. Describe how the theft or counterfeiting was discovered.
9. Do you have any examination reports of the infringing or

counterfeit goods?
___YES ___NO
If so, please provide those reports to law enforcement.
10. Describe the scope of the infringing operation:
a. Estimated quantity of illegal distribution:
b. Estimated value of illegal distribution:
b. Estimated time period of illegal distribution:
c. Is the illegal distribution national or international? Which
states or countries?

11. Identify where the infringement or counterfeiting occurred, and
describe the location.

Name (Suspect #1):
Phone number:
E-mail address:
Physical address:
Name (Suspect #2):
Phone number:
E-mail address:
Physical address:
13. If the distribution of infringing or counterfeit goods involves the
Internet (e.g., World Wide Web, FTP, e-mail, chat rooms), identify
the following:
a. The type of Internet theft:
b. Internet address, including linking sites (domain name, URL,
IP address, e-mail):
c. Login or password for site:
d. Operators of site, if known:
submit, if possible, any investigative reports:

identified above?
___YES ___NO
ii. Date of filing:
iv. Status of case:
b. If not, is a civil action contemplated? What type and when?
B. Checklist for Trade Secret Offenses

NOTE ON CONFIDENTIALITY: Federal law provides that courts
"shall enter such orders and take such action as may be necessary and
the Federal Rules of Evidence, and all other applicable laws." 18 U.S.C. §
1835. Prosecutors utilizing any of the information set forth below will
generally request the court to enter an order to preserve the status of the
information as a trade secret and prevent its unnecessary and harmful
disclosure.
1. Victim's Name:
2. Primary Location and Address:
3. Nature of Primary Business:

4. Law Enforcement Contact:
Phone: Fax:
Description of the Trade Secret

5. Generally describe the trade secret (e.g., source code, formula,
technology, device).
Provide an estimated value of the trade secret identifying ONE of

the methods and indicating ONE of the ranges listed below:
Estimated value Method
______________ Cost to develop the trade secret
______________ Acquisition cost (identify date and source
of acquisition)
______________ Fair market value if sold
Identify a person knowledgeable about valuation, including
that person's contact information.
General Physical Measures Taken to Protect the Trade Secret

6. Describe the general physical security precautions taken by the
company, such as fencing the perimeter of the premises, visitor
control systems, using alarming or self-locking doors or security
personnel.
7. Has the company established physical barriers to prevent

unauthorized viewing or access to the trade secret, such as locked
storage facilities or "Authorized Personnel Only" signs at access
points? (See below if computer-stored trade secret.)
___YES ___NO
8. Does the company require sign in/out procedures for access to and
return of trade secret materials?
___YES ___NO

9. Are employees required to wear identification badges?
___YES ___ NO
10. Does the company have a written security policy?
___YES ___NO
a. How are employees advised of the security policy?
b. Are employees required to sign a written acknowledgment of
the security policy?
___YES ___NO
c. Identify the person most knowledgeable about matters relating
to the security policy, including title and contact information.
11. How many employees have access to the trade secret?

12. Was access to the trade secret limited to a "need to know" basis?
___YES ___NO
If so, describe how "need to know" was maintained in any ways not
identified elsewhere (e.g., closed meetings, splitting tasks between
employees and/or vendors to restrict knowledge, etc.):
Confidentiality and Non-Disclosure Agreements

13. Does the company enter into confidentiality and non-disclosure
agreements with employees and third parties concerning the trade
secret?
___YES ___NO
14. Has the company established and distributed written
confidentiality policies to all employees?
___YES ___NO
15. Does the company have a policy for advising company employees
regarding the company's trade secrets?
___YES ___NO

Computer-Stored Trade Secrets
16. If the trade secret is computer source code or other
computer-stored information, how is access regulated (e.g., are
employees given unique user names, passwords, and computer
storage space, and was the information encrypted)?
17. If the company stores the trade secret on a computer network, is

the network protected by a firewall?
___YES ___NO
18. Is remote access permitted into the computer network?
___YES ___NO
19. Is the trade secret maintained on a separate computer server?
___YES ____NO
20. Does the company prohibit employees from bringing outside
computer programs or storage media to the premises?
___YES ___NO
21. Does the company maintain electronic access records such as
computer logs?
___YES ___NO
Document Control
22. If the trade secret consists of documents, were they clearly marked
"CONFIDENTIAL" or "PROPRIETARY"?
___YES ___NO
23. Describe the document control procedures employed by the
company, such as limiting access and sign in/out policies.

24. Was there a written policy concerning document control
procedures?
___YES ___NO
If so, how were employees advised of it?
25. Identify the person most knowledgeable about the document

control procedures, including title and contact information.
Employee Controls
26. Are new employees subject to a background investigation?
___YES ___NO
27. Does the company hold "exit interviews" to remind departing
employees of their obligation not to disclose trade secrets?
___YES ___NO
Description of the Theft of Trade Secret

Name (Suspect #1):
Phone number:
E-mail address:
Physical address:
Employer:
Name (Suspect #2):
Phone number:
E-mail address:
Physical address:
Employer:

29. Was the trade secret stolen to benefit a third party, such as a
competitor or another business?
___YES ___NO
If so, identify that business and its location.
30. Do you have any information that the theft of trade secrets were
committed to benefit a foreign government or instrumentality of a
foreign government?
___YES ___NO
If so, identify the foreign government or instrumentality and
describe that information.
31. If the suspect is a current or former employee, describe all

confidentiality and non-disclosure agreements in effect.
32. Identify any physical locations associated with the theft of trade
secret, such as where it may be currently stored or used.

provide any investigative reports that you can.

identified above?
___YES ___NO
ii. Date of filing:
iv. Status of case:
b. If not, is a civil action contemplated?
___YES ___NO
What type and when?

Appendix I
Maximum Statutory Penalties,
Forfeiture, and Restitution for
Fines are determined by the substantive criminal statutes in

conjunction with 18 U.S.C. § 3571 (“Sentence of fine”).The exact
forfeiture procedures for each criminal offense, and the types of property
those remedies reach, are listed in detail in Section VIII.E.2. of this
Manual. Restitution procedures are described in detail in Section VIII.D.
of this Manual.
No

Infringement
• $250K or • $250K or
for Profit
twice the twice the
(Felony)2
gain/loss gain/loss
§ 506(a)(1)(A)
• $500K or • $500K or
(formerly twice the twice the
§ 506(a)(1)) gain/loss gain/loss
18 U.S.C.
§ 2319(b) • Forfeiture– • Forfeiture–
mandatory mandatory
389
No

Large-Scale
• $250K or • $250K or
Infringement,
twice the twice the
No Profit
gain/loss gain/loss
Motive (Felony)
17 U.S.C.
• $500K or • $500K or
§ 506(a)(1)(B)
twice the twice the
(formerly gain/loss gain/loss
§ 506(a)(2)) (organizations) (organizations)
18 U.S.C. • Forfeiture– • Forfeiture–
§ 2319(c) civ. & crim. civ. & crim.
mandatory mandatory
Copyright • 5 years • 10 years • 3 years • 6 years

Pre-Release
• $250K or • $250K or • $250K or • $250K or
Distribution
Over a Publicly-
Accessible
(individuals) (individuals) (individuals) (individuals)
Computer
Network • $500K or • $500K or • $500K or • $500K or
17 U.S.C.
§ 506(a)(1)(C)
(organizations) (organizations) (organizations) (organizations)
18 U.S.C.
• Forfeiture– • Forfeiture– • Forfeiture– • Forfeiture–
§ 2319(d)
civ. & crim. civ. & crim. civ. & crim. civ. & crim.
• Restitution– • Restitution– • Restitution– • Restitution–
mandatory mandatory mandatory mandatory

No
Digital • 5 years • 10 years

Millennium
• $500K or • $1M or twice
Copyright Act
twice the the gain/loss
(DMCA)
gain/loss (individuals &
17 U.S.C. (individuals & organizations)
§ 1204 organizations)
• Forfeiture–
• Forfeiture– none
none
• Restitution–
• Restitution– none to
none to circumvention
circumvention victims; possible
victims; possible to copyright
to copyright victims
victims
Espionage Act
• $500K or
(EEA)–
twice the
Theft to Benefit (individuals)
a Foreign
• $10M or
Government,
twice the
Instrumentality,
gain/loss
or Agent3
(organizations)
18 U.S.C.
• Forfeiture–
§ 1831
crim. only
• Restitution–
mandatory
Espionage Act
• $250K or
(EECA)–
twice the
Theft for (individuals)
Commercial
• $5M or twice
Purposes
the gain/loss
18 U.S.C. (organizations)
§ 1832
• Forfeiture–
crim. only
• Restitution–
mandatory

No
Counterfeit/ • 5 years
Illicit Labels
• $250K or
and Counterfeit
twice the
Documentation
gain/loss
and Packaging
(individuals)
for Copyrighted
Works • $500K or
twice the
18 U.S.C.
gain/loss
§ 2318
(organizations)
• Forfeiture–
civ. & crim.
• Restitution–
mandatory
Bootleg • 5 years • 10 years

Recordings of
• $250K or • $250K or
Live Musical
twice the twice the
Performances
gain/loss gain/loss
§ 2319A
• $500K or • $500K or
twice the twice the
gain/loss gain/loss
unclear unclear
Camcording • 3 years • 6 years

18 U.S.C. • $250K or • $250K or
§ 2319B twice the twice the
gain/loss gain/loss
• $500K or • $500K or
twice the twice the
gain/loss gain/loss
crim. only crim. only
mandatory mandatory

No
Counterfeit • 10 years • 20 years

Trademarks,
• $2M or twice • $5M or twice
Service Marks,
the gain/loss the gain/loss
and
Certification
Marks • $5M or twice • $15M or
the gain/loss twice the
18 U.S.C.
(organizations) gain/loss
§ 2320
(organizations)
• Forfeiture–
civ. & crim. • Forfeiture–
civ. & crim.
• Restitution–
mandatory • Restitution–
mandatory
1. “Commercial purpose” here is used as a generic term applicable to

criminal intellectual property statutes that variously require the
government to prove either trafficking for “consideration”; commercial
advantage or private financial gain; or engaging in a transaction for
economic benefit. The terms of the specific statutes control.
2. The copyright crimes in 17 U.S.C. § 506(a)(1)(A) and (B) can also be

charged as misdemeanors in certain circumstances.
3. Technically, to prove economic espionage to benefit a foreign

government, instrumentality, or agent under 18 U.S.C. § 1831, the
government need not prove that the benefit was economic, but in practice
the benefit will often have economic consequences.

Appendix J
Examples of Traditional Assistance
and Gifts to Law Enforcement
The examples below of what constitutes a gift or traditional assistance

to law enforcement are based on the examples included with a
memorandum issued by Deputy Attorney General Paul J. McNulty
entitled Guidance for Acceptance of Assistance and Gifts from Private
Parties for Use in Connection with Investigations and Litigation (May
2006). These examples highlight certain factors to consider and address
the consultative process that should be followed. Please note that not
every factor that should be considered has been identified below for each
scenario. The examples are provided to highlight certain elements, but do
not reflect the entire analysis.
1. Scenario: The Department has received information from a private
investigator who has an ongoing contract with a motion picture
association to investigate pirated and counterfeit goods, including
pirated movie DVDs. The investigator provides information regarding
websites and points of contact for persons/entities that may have a
connection to the counterfeit materials.
Analysis: This information constitutes traditional assistance; no
particular consultation is required before a Departmental employee
may accept this information.
Continuing Scenario: The Department has initiated its own
investigation based on the initial information provided by the
association's private investigator. After the Department's investigation
has begun, and without any further communications or direction from
an FBI agent or the Criminal Division attorney assigned to the
matter, the private investigator uncovers another source that appears
to be involved with the counterfeit materials. The investigator reports
this new information to the FBI agent.
Analysis: This information also constitutes traditional assistance that
the FBI agent and attorney may accept. The attorney and agent may
need to consult with each other to determine whether the
investigator's efforts may interfere with the Department's activities,
and whether the investigator should be advised to alter his activities
395
in some manner in order to avoid any interference. Neither the agent
nor attorney should advise the investigator what types of evidence are
desired for the Department's investigation.
2. Scenario: A nationwide retail giant has its own security force and has
spent considerable resources to set up its own forensics laboratory to
fight shoplifting and other crimes against the company. The local FBI
office is investigating a matter that has no connection to the retail
company. The FBI office, however, believes that the equipment at the
retail company's laboratory is superior to the Department's
capabilities for enhancing photographs for identification. The FBI
office solicits the retail giant for help, and the business readily agrees
to provide forensic assistance without charge. The enhanced
photograph allows the FBI to continue its investigation with greater
efficiency.
Analysis: Initially, the FBI must obtain prior approval from the
Deputy Attorney General or the Attorney General before any
representative may contact the retail company to seek its services.
The free forensic services constitute a gift. Since the value of these
services is less than $50,000, the agent and attorney must seek the
component head's approval in order to accept these services for free.
In considering this offer, the component head must consider why the
Department is seeking outside forensics aid. The Department may
need a third party's gift because the Department does not own or have
at its disposal the same equipment. In addition, the time-sensitive
nature of the case might require immediate action, and the
Department might not gain access to such equipment with the same
speed as that offered as a gift. In this situation, with advance approval
of the solicitation the Department may accept the gift.
3. Scenario: Consider the same facts set forth in Scenario #2, but
assume that the retail giant informed the local FBI office that it had
a forensics laboratory with equipment capable of performing a variety
of functions, and that it was offering general access to its equipment
and staff for investigative purposes any time that the Department
determined the company's resources would benefit the Department.
Analysis: A retail giant's standing offer to allow the Department to use
its forensic facilities, whether for case-specific matters or general
investigative purposes, should be considered carefully. (Initially, this
company's offer does not trigger the same considerations set forth in
Scenario #2, where the Department solicited the gift.). As noted
above, there may be instances when private industry has forensic
resources that are not available to the Department, and the

immediacy of the situation may warrant the Department's use of
outside resources. However, the decision to use a third party's services
is distinct from the decision to accept such services free of cost. In
deciding whether to accept the services for free, counsel should
consider whether there are any pending matters in the Department in
which the retail giant is a party or could be affected directly by a
particular matter.
One-time gifts of free assistance may be permissible. However, it
is particularly important that the Department carefully scrutinize a
third party's offer to use its services for free on multiple occasions or
on a periodic basis for separate cases or matters (e.g., several times a
year). The Department should be circumspect in accepting more than
one gift from the same source within one fiscal year.
Again, while the donor may have resources unavailable to the
Department, the Department should consider paying for the services
provided. Even if the full cost is difficult to assess, the Department
and a third party can identify a reasonable value for the unique
services provided.
One reason for the Department's disinclination to accept multiple
offers from one source is that the costs of pursuing the Department's
mission must be fully identified and presented as part of its budget for
Congress to accept or reject. Accepting free services that are critical to
the Department's performance of its mission on a frequent or regular
basis masks the actual costs of its annual operations. Second, periodic
or regular acceptance of free services from an entity can raise an
appearance of a conflict of interest, particularly if any matter later
arises involving that donor.
The component head may accept the first offer from a source up
to $50,000. A second or subsequent offer in the same fiscal year from
the same source must be submitted to the Assistant Attorney General
for Administration (AAG/A) for approval when the value combined
with the first gift exceeds $50,000.
4. Scenario: A corporation's products are being counterfeited and its
computer network has been infiltrated. The corporation has hired a
computer security firm to evaluate the extent of the computer breach
and to recommend modifications to its system. The corporation has
told Departmental attorneys and investigators that they may speak
with its employees and the computer security firm's personnel about
the breach, and utilize their expertise as necessary. The corporation
is paying for the computer security firm's services throughout the
App J. Traditional Assistance and Gifts 397

Department's investigation, including time spent meeting with
Department employees. One computer firm employee has particular
proficiency in computer programming, and he would be an expert
witness in any litigation against the defendant to discuss the
unauthorized access and damage to the corporation's security and
computer privacy. The victim corporation also has provided office
space for Departmental employees to interview corporate staff and
the computer firm employees.
Analysis: The corporation is a victim. The computer firm is a “related
party” because it is retained by the corporation. Access to both
companies' personnel during the investigation is traditional assistance
that does not warrant any formal approval process. The corporate and
security firm employees are in a unique position to provide useful
information on behalf of their employer/contractor. The agent and
attorney should consult with each other, and potentially with the
Professional Responsibility Officer (PRO) and the Deputy Designated
Agency Ethics Official (DDAEO), to determine the extent to which
they will accept the corporation's offers. Using corporate space for
interviews does not raise any particular concerns. The computer
security expert who assessed the damage to the corporation has
distinct advantages over another computer expert who was not
involved in the assessment. Despite this favorable position, the trial
attorney should determine whether the potential appearance of the
corporation's self-interest in paying for the expert witness' testimony
does not outweigh the benefit of this expert's testimony before
accepting the services.
5. Scenario: The DEA is investigating a suspect for selling and delivering
drugs from his apartment. In order to enhance its surveillance and
consistent with its investigative procedures, DEA wants to rent an
apartment in the building where the suspect lives. DEA approaches
the owner of the building and offers to pay market rent for an
apartment. The owner has a vacant apartment in a desirable location
to conduct surveillance in the building. The owner is supportive of the
DEA's efforts and offers the apartment to DEA for three months free
of charge. The fair market value of the vacant apartment is
$1,500/month.
Analysis: The owner is an indirect victim since the suspect's illegal
activities have an adverse affect on the owner's property. Offers of aid
from an indirect victim generally constitute assistance, although the
value of the offer may be such that it should be considered a gift.
Given the short time frame (three months) and the value involved

($4,500), this offer constitutes assistance, and an agent in
consultation with an attorney may decide to accept the offer.
However, if the owner offered the DEA agent free use of the
apartment for nine months and that amount of time (or longer) was
necessary for a more complex investigation, the agent and attorney
should seek approval to accept the offer as a gift. Given that the
owner is taking the apartment off the market for an extended period
of time, the offer is more substantial than before, and higher-level
approval (by the component head for a gift) is warranted. There is no
clear line defining when assistance becomes a gift because of the
financial value or imposition involved. For offers that exceed three
months, an attorney should consult with the DDAEO to determine
whether the offer may be accepted as assistance, or considered a gift.
6. Scenario: The Criminal Division is investigating a highly technical
computer crimes case. A university professor has conducted research
in the narrow field at issue. A Criminal Division attorney contacted
the professor for general background information on this issue, saying
that the Department is willing to pay for his consultative services. The
professor is willing to provide advice, assistance, and testimony in
federal court for free. Although the professor has no prior experience
as a witness, the attorney intends to proffer the professor as an expert.
Analysis: The professor is a third party and he has offered the
attorney a gift. Assuming that the number of hours to prepare and
present testimony is limited, the value of the professor's services will
be below $50,000. Although the Department (and component's
budget) will always benefit from no-cost expert services, it is not
always appropriate to accept this type of offer. While the professor
will benefit professionally from his “expert” qualification, this
intangible benefit does not necessarily mean the Department should
avoid the costs of payment. The attorney should consult with the
PRO and DDAEO to determine the appropriate course of action.
7. Scenario: The FBI is investigating the sale of counterfeit goods. The
corporate maker of the true product has offered to give the FBI
$1 million to purchase the counterfeit goods from an identified
broker. The FBI, in consultation with the local United States
Attorney's Office, accepts the offer, and makes arrangements with the
corporation to provide the $1 million. The counterfeit goods are
purchased. The corporation arranged for the goods to be transported
and stored in its warehouse pending its initiation of a civil proceeding.
Analysis: Because the Department is serving as the conduit for cash
to recover counterfeit materials, the Department may accept the
App J. Traditional Assistance and Gifts 399

victim's offer of funds for this particular purpose. The agent should
seek approval from the AUSA prior to accepting the victim's funds.
Because the cost of storage to the company at its own facilities is
minimal, the Department may accept the company's offer to store the
goods at the victim's expense.
8. Scenario: An industry leader in the computer field has developed a
software program that can meld various databases and enhance search
capabilities for the law enforcement community. The company has
offered this program to the Department. While it is not available for
sale to the public, the program (including the technical support to
assist its operations) is valued over $800,000.
Analysis: Given the high value, this offer must be submitted to the
AAG/A for acceptance. Moreover, more concerns arise because this
program would enhance the Department's general capabilities, and
not just be used for a specific case investigation. Again, there are
appearance issues in accepting resources of such significant value from
an entity that may be the subject of Department action in another
arena. This type of offer also directly impacts the Department's
operations and mission. However, the company is also offering a
capability that is unparalleled. Given the magnitude of this offer,
high-level attention to determine whether this offer may be accepted
is warranted.

Index
ACCESS CONTROLS V.C.10.b.ii. "As Applied" First

V.A.2. Key Concepts: Access Controls Amendment Challenges to the
vs. Copy Controls, Circumvention DMCA
vs. Trafficking VIII.C.1.h. Decryption or
V.A.2.a. Access Controls vs. Copy/Use Circumvention of Access Controls
Controls Increases the Offense Level—
V.A.2.b. Circumvention vs. Trafficking U.S.S.G. § 3B1.3
in Circumvention Tools
ACCESSIBLE TO MEMBERS OF
V.A.3. Differences Between the DMCA
THE PUBLIC
and Traditional Copyright Law
II.B. Elements
V.B.1. Circumventing Access Controls,
II.B.3.c. Distribution of a Work Being
17 U.S.C. §§ 1201(a)(1) and
Prepared for Commercial
1204
Distribution, by Making It
V.B.1.a. Circumvented
Available on a Publicly-Accessible
V.B.1.b. Technological Measures That
Computer Network, If the
Effectively Control Access (an
Defendant Knew or Should Have
"Access Control")
Known the Work Was Intended
V.B.1.c. To a Copyrighted Work
for Commercial Distribution
V.B.1.d. How Congress Intended the
II.B.3.c.ii. Making the Work Available
Anti-Circumvention Prohibition
on a Computer Network
to Apply
Accessible to Members of the
V.B.1.e. Regulatory Exemptions to
Public
Liability under § 1201(a)(1)
V.B.2. Trafficking in Access Control ACTUAL CONFUSION
Circumvention Tools and III.B.4.b. The Counterfeit Mark Must
Services—17 U.S.C. Be Identical to or
§§ 1201(a)(2) and 1204 Indistinguishable from a Genuine
V.B.2.a. Trafficking Mark Owned by Another
V.B.2.b. In a Technology, Product, III.B.4.g. Likelihood of Confusion,
Service, or Part Thereof Mistake, or Deception
V.B.2.c. Purpose or Marketing of
ACTUAL DISSEMINATION
Circumvention Technology
V.B.2.c.1. Primarily Designed or
Produced
V.B.2.c.2. Limited Commercially ACTUAL LOSS
Significant Purpose Other Than VIII.C.2.c.i. Use Greater of Actual or
Circumvention Intended Loss
V.B.2.c.3. Knowingly Marketed for VIII.C.2.c.iii. Methods of Calculating
Circumvention Loss
V.C.2. Librarian of Congress
ADMINISTRATIVE FORFEITURE
Regulations
VIII.E.2.a. Administrative Forfeiture
V.C.5. Reverse Engineering and
Proceedings
Interoperability of Computer
VIII.E.2.b. Civil and Criminal
Programs
Proceedings
VIII.E.2.c. Table of Forfeiture
V.C.10.a. Congress's Constitutional
Provisions Arranged by Criminal
Authority to Enact § 1201 of the
IP Statute
DMCA
401
VIII.E.3. Choosing a Forfeiture VI.E.5.a. Retail Value of Copyrighted
Procedure Goods vs. Counterfeit Labels,
VIII.E.4.b. Infringing Items, Other Documentation, and Packaging
Contraband, and Facilitating VIII.E.5.b. Infringing Items, Other
Property Contraband, and Facilitating
see also FORFEITURE Property
ADVICE OF COUNSEL DEFENSE AIDING OR ABETTING
IV.C.4. Advice of Counsel II.C.4.d. Special Rules for Rental,
IV.C.5. Claim of Right—Public Lease, and Lending
Domain and Proprietary Rights II.E.2. Sentencing Guidelines
see also IGNORANCE OF THE LAW III.B.3.b.i. General Definition
III.B.3.c. Goods and Services [after
AFFIRMATIVE DEFENSES
March 16, 2006: and Labels,
II.B. Elements
Patches, Stickers, Wrappers,
II.C.4.b. Affirmative Defense or Part of
Badges, Emblems, Medallions,
the Government's Case-in-Chief?
Charms, Boxes, Containers, Cans,
Cases, Hangtags, Documentation,
III.C.5. Statute of Limitations
or Packaging of Any Type or
V.C.10.d. Fair Use
Nature]
AFFIXED III.B.4.e. Use of the Counterfeit Mark
III.B.4.a. Definition of Counterfeit "On or In Connection With"
Mark Generally: Not Genuine or Goods or Services
Authentic III.B.4.f. The Counterfeit Mark Must
III.B.4.b. The Counterfeit Mark Must Have Been Used for the Same
Be Identical to or Type of Goods or Services for
Indistinguishable from a Genuine Which the Genuine Mark Was
Mark Owned by Another Registered
VI.B. Elements III.E.5. Sentencing Guidelines
VI.B.1. The Defendant Acted III.F. Other Charges to Consider
"Knowingly" VI.D.1. Electronic Copies of Labels,
VI.B.2. The Defendant Trafficked Documentation, or Packaging
VI.B.3. Trafficking in Labels Affixed to, VI.F. Other Criminal Charges to
Enclosing, or Accompanying (or Consider
Designed to be Affixed to, VIII.C.1.e. Manufacturing, Importing,
Enclose, or Accompany) a or Uploading Infringing Items
Phonorecord, Computer Program, Increases the Offense Level by 2—
Motion Picture or other U.S.S.G. § 2B5.3(b)(3) [Before
Audiovisual Work, Literary, October 24, 2005: § 2B5.3(b)(2)]
Pictorial, Graphic, or Sculptural VIII.E.5.b. Infringing Items, Other
Work, or Work of Visual Art, or Contraband, and Facilitating
Documentation or Packaging for Property
Such Works (i.e., Trafficked
ARCHIVAL EXCEPTION
Either in Documentation or
II.A.6. The Rights Protected by
Packaging for Such Works Itself,
Copyright
or in Labels for Such
Documentation or Packaging)
II.C.6. "Archival Exception" for
VI.B.4. The Labels, Documentation, or
Computer Software—17 U.S.C.
Packaging Materials are
§ 117
VI.B.5. Federal Jurisdiction ATTORNEYS' FEES
VI.E.4. Forfeiture II.A.5. When Copyright Protection
Begins and Ends

II.B.1.d.ii. Unpublished or Pre-Release VIII.C.1. Offenses Involving Copyright
Works (Including Bootleg Music,
VIII.D.3. Determining a Restitution Camcorded Movies, and the
Figure Unauthorized Use of Satellite,
VIII.E.3. Choosing a Forfeiture Radio, and Cable
Procedure Communications), Trademark,
IX.B.2. The Nature and Seriousness of Counterfeit Labeling, and the
the Offense DMCA
IX.D. The Adequacy of Alternative VIII.C.1.a. Applicable Guideline is
Non-Criminal Remedies § 2B5.3
X.B.3.a. Private Civil Remedies VIII.C.1.e. Manufacturing, Importing,
or Uploading Infringing Items
AUDIOVISUAL RECORDING
Increases the Offense Level by 2—
DEVICE
U.S.S.G. § 2B5.3(b)(3) [Before
October 24, 2005: § 2B5.3(b)(2)]
VIII.E.5.b. Infringing Items, Other
VIII.D.1. Restitution is Available—and
Contraband, and Facilitating
Often Required—in Intellectual
Property
Property Prosecutions
AUTHORIZED-USE DEFENSE VIII.E.2.c. Table of Forfeiture
III.C.1. Authorized-Use Defense: Provisions Arranged by Criminal
Overrun Goods IP Statute
III.C.2. Authorized-Use Defense— VIII.E.4.a. Proceeds
Gray Market Goods VIII.E.5. Criminal Forfeiture in IP
Matters
AUTOMOBILE AND AIRLINE
PARTS
Property
BERNE CONVENTION
BUSINESS ORGANIZATIONS
IMPLEMENTATION ACT OF 1988
IV.B.4. Additional 18 U.S.C. § 1831
(BCIA)
Element: Intent to Benefit a
Foreign Government, Foreign
V.A.1. DMCA's Background and
Instrumentality, or Foreign Agent
Purpose
IX.E. Special Considerations in
BOAT HULLS Deciding Whether to Charge
IV.B.3.a.vii. Reasonable Measures to Corporations and Other Business
Maintain Secrecy Organizations
V.A.4. Other DMCA Sections That Do
CABLE AND SATELLITE SERVICE
Not Concern Prosecutors
BOOTLEGGING II.E.2. Sentencing Guidelines
I.A. Why Is Intellectual Property VIII.C.1. Offenses Involving Copyright
Enforcement Important? (Including Bootleg Music,
II.E.2. Sentencing Guidelines Camcorded Movies, and the
V.C.10.a. Congress's Constitutional Unauthorized Use of Satellite,
Authority to Enact § 1201 of the Radio, and Cable
DMCA Communications), Trademark,
VI.B.4. The Labels, Documentation, or Counterfeit Labeling, and the
Packaging Materials are DMCA
Counterfeit or Illicit VIII.C.1.a. Applicable Guideline is
VI.F. Other Criminal Charges to § 2B5.3
Consider VIII.C.1.c.iii. Retail Value
Index 403
VIII.D.1. Restitution is Available—and IX.B.1. Federal Law Enforcement
Often Required—in Intellectual Priorities
CIRCUMVENTION
VIII.D.2. Victims Include Owners of
Intellectual Property and
Purpose
CAMCORDING V.A.2. Key Concepts: Access Controls
II.E.2. Sentencing Guidelines vs. Copy Controls, Circumvention
II.F. Other Charges to Consider vs. Trafficking
VIII.E.2.c. Table of Forfeiture V.A.2.b. Circumvention vs. Trafficking
Provisions Arranged by Criminal in Circumvention Tools
IP Statute V.A.3. Differences Between the DMCA
VIII.E.5. Criminal Forfeiture in IP and Traditional Copyright Law
Matters V.A.4. Other DMCA Sections That Do
VIII.E.5.b. Infringing Items, Other Not Concern Prosecutors
Contraband, and Facilitating V.B. Elements of Anti-Circumvention
Property and Anti-Trafficking Provisions
CASH
17 U.S.C. §§ 1201(a)(1) and
1204
X.C.1.b.iii. Cash
CERTIFICATION MARKS "Access Control")
II.E.2. Sentencing Guidelines V.B.1.c. To a Copyrighted Work
III. Trafficking In Counterfeit V.B.1.d. How Congress Intended the
Trademarks, Service Marks, and Anti-Circumvention Prohibition
Certification Marks—18 U.S.C. to Apply
§ 2320 V.B.1.e. Regulatory Exemptions to
III.A.1. Overview of the Chapter Liability under § 1201(a)(1)
III.A.2. Why Criminal Law Protects V.B.2. Trafficking in Access Control
Trademarks, Service Marks, and Circumvention Tools and
Certification Marks Services—17 U.S.C.
III.F. Other Charges to Consider §§ 1201(a)(2) and 1204
VIII.D.1. Restitution is Available—and V.B.2.a. Trafficking
Often Required—in Intellectual V.B.2.b. In a Technology, Product,
Property Prosecutions Service, or Part Thereof
VIII.E. Forfeiture V.B.2.c. Purpose or Marketing of
VIII.E.1. Property Subject to Forfeiture Circumvention Technology
VIII.E.4.b. Infringing Items, Other V.B.2.c.1. Primarily Designed or
Contraband, and Facilitating Produced
Property V.B.2.c.2. Limited Commercially
Significant Purpose Other Than
CHILDREN
Circumvention
V.B.2.c.3. Knowingly Marketed for
III.A.2. Why Criminal Law Protects
Circumvention
Trademarks, Service Marks, and
V.B.3. Trafficking in Tools, Devices,
Certification Marks
and Services to Circumvent Copy
Controls—17 U.S.C.
§§ 1201(b)(1) and 1204
CHIP UNITS V.B.3.a. Circumventing
I.C. Why Criminal Enforcement? V.B.3.b. Technological Measure That
Effectively Protects a Right of a

Copyright Owner Under This COMMERCIAL SPEECH
Title ("Copy Control") V.B.2.c.3. Knowingly Marketed for
V.B.5. Falsifying, Altering, or Circumvention
Removing Copyright Management
COMPUTER CRIME
IV.F. Other Charges to Consider
V.C. Defenses
V.C.2. Librarian of Congress
Regulations COMPUTER HACKING AND
V.C.3. Certain Nonprofit Entities INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY (CHIP)
V.C.5. Reverse Engineering and COORDINATORS
Interoperability of Computer see CHIP UNITS
Programs
COMPUTER NETWORKS
II. Criminal Copyright Infringement—
17 U.S.C. § 506 and 18 U.S.C.
§ 2319
DMCA
II.B. Elements
V.C.10.b.ii. "As Applied" First
Amendment Challenges to the
II.B.3.a. Infringement by Reproduction
DMCA
or Distribution
V.C.10.c. Vagueness
V.C.10.d. Fair Use
VIII.C.1.a. Applicable Guideline is
§ 2B5.3
VIII.C.1.e. Manufacturing, Importing,
October 24, 2005: § 2B5.3(b)(2)]
VIII.C.1.h. Decryption or
Circumvention of Access Controls
Increases the Offense Level—
Public
U.S.S.G. § 3B1.3
VIII.C.1.c.v. Cross-Reference to Loss
Table in U.S.S.G. § 2B1.1
COLLECTIVE MARKS X.C.1.b.i. Assistance from Victims and
III.A.1. Overview of the Chapter Related Parties
COMMERCE CLAUSE CONSCIOUS AVOIDANCE
see INTERSTATE AND FOREIGN III.B.5. The Defendant Used the
COMMERCE Counterfeit Mark "Knowingly"
VI.B.1. The Defendant Acted
COMMERCIAL ADVANTAGE
"Knowingly"
see PURPOSES OF COMMERCIAL
ADVANTAGE OR PRIVATE CONSPIRACY
FINANCIAL GAIN II.B.3.a.ii. Distribution
II.B.3.b.ii. Definition of "Retail Value"
COMMERCIAL ECONOMIC
in this Context
ESPIONAGE
II.C.2. Jurisdiction
see ECONOMIC ESPIONAGE
II.C.3. Venue
II.C.4.d. Special Rules for Rental,
Lease, and Lending
Index 405
II.E.2. Sentencing Guidelines U.S.S.G. § 2B5.3(b)(3) [Before
III.B.3.b.i. General Definition October 24, 2005: § 2B5.3(b)(2)]
III.B.3.c. Goods and Services [after VIII.C.2.a. Applicable Guideline is
March 16, 2006: and Labels, § 2B1.1, Except for Attempts and
Patches, Stickers, Wrappers, Conspiracies
Badges, Emblems, Medallions, VIII.C.2.c.iii. Methods of Calculating
Charms, Boxes, Containers, Cans, Loss
Cases, Hangtags, Documentation, VIII.D.2. Victims Include Owners of
or Packaging of Any Type or Intellectual Property and
Nature] Consumers Who Were Defrauded
III.B.4.d. The Genuine Mark Must
CONTRABAND
Have Been in Use by the
III.B.3.b.iii. Making and Obtaining
Counterfeits vs. Possession with
III.B.4.e. Use of the Counterfeit Mark
Intent to Traffic
"On or In Connection With"
Goods or Services
III.B.4.f. The Counterfeit Mark Must
Have Been Used for the Same
Type of Goods or Services for
IP Statute
Which the Genuine Mark Was
Registered
III.B.6. Venue
Property
Property
IV.B.1. Overview
IV.B.3. Elements Common to 18 COOKIE FILES
U.S.C. §§ 1831, 1832 V.C.6. Encryption Research
COPY CONTROLS
IV.B.3.a.ii. Employee's General
IV.B.3.a.vi. Disclosure's Effects
Knowledge, Skill, or Abilities Not
Covered
V.A.2. Key Concepts: Access Controls
vs. Copy Controls, Circumvention
IV.B.3.b.v. Mere Risk of
vs. Trafficking
Misappropriation Not
V.A.2.a. Access Controls vs. Copy/Use
Prosecutable, but Attempts and
Controls
Conspiracies Are
V.A.2.b. Circumvention vs. Trafficking
IV.B.6. Attempts and Conspiracies,
Including the Impossibility
Defense
VI.D.1. Electronic Copies of Labels,
17 U.S.C. §§ 1201(a)(1) and
Documentation, or Packaging
1204
VI.E.5.a. Retail Value of Copyrighted
Goods vs. Counterfeit Labels,
Documentation, and Packaging
VI.F. Other Criminal Charges to
§§ 1201(b)(1) and 1204
Consider
VIII.C.1.c.ii. Number of Infringing
V.B.3.b. Technological Measure That
Items
Copyright Owner Under This
Title ("Copy Control")

V.B.4. Alternate § 1201(b) Action— V.B.1.b. Technological Measures That
Trafficking in Certain Analog Effectively Control Access (an
Videocassette Recorders and "Access Control")
Camcorders V.B.1.c. To a Copyrighted Work
V.C.5. Reverse Engineering and V.B.1.d. How Congress Intended the
Interoperability of Computer Anti-Circumvention Prohibition
Programs to Apply
V.C.10.a. Congress's Constitutional V.B.1.e. Regulatory Exemptions to
Authority to Enact § 1201 of the Liability under § 1201(a)(1)
DMCA V.B.2. Trafficking in Access Control
V.C.10.c. Vagueness Circumvention Tools and
V.C.10.d. Fair Use Services—17 U.S.C.
VIII.C.1.h. Decryption or §§ 1201(a)(2) and 1204
Circumvention of Access Controls V.B.2.c.1. Primarily Designed or
Increases the Offense Level— Produced
U.S.S.G. § 3B1.3 V.B.3. Trafficking in Tools, Devices,
COPYRIGHT
see generally Chapter II
§§ 1201(b)(1) and 1204
see also
V.B.4. Alternate § 1201(b) Action—
III.B.4.c. The Genuine Mark Must Be
Trafficking in Certain Analog
Federally Registered on the U.S.
Videocassette Recorders and
Patent and Trademark Office's
Camcorders
Principal Register
V.B.5. Falsifying, Altering, or
IV.F. Other Possible Charges
V. Digital Millennium Copyright Act—
Programs
17 U.S.C. §§ 1201-1205
Purpose
DMCA
vs. Trafficking
V.C.10.b.ii. "As Applied" First
Amendment Challenges to the
Controls
DMCA
V.A.2.b. Circumvention vs. Trafficking
V.C.10.c. Vagueness
V.C.10.d. Fair Use
VI.A. Distinguished From Trademark
and Copyright Statutes
VI.B. Elements
"Knowingly"
17 U.S.C. §§ 1201(a)(1) and
VI.B.3.Trafficking in Labels Affixed to,
1204
Enclosing, or Accompanying (or
Designed to be Affixed to,
Index 407
Enclose, or Accompany) a § 2B5.3(b)(4) [before October 24,
Phonorecord, Computer Program, 2005: § 2B5.3(b)(3)]
Motion Picture or other VIII.C.1.i. Upward Adjustment for
Audiovisual Work, Literary, Harm to Copyright or
Pictorial, Graphic, or Sculptural Mark-Owner's Reputation,
Work, or Work of Visual Art, or Connection with Organized
Documentation or Packaging for Crime, or Other Unspecified
Such Works (i.e., Trafficked Grounds
Either in Documentation or VIII.D.1. Restitution is Available—and
Packaging for Such Works Itself, Often Required—in Intellectual
or in Labels for Such Property Prosecutions
Documentation or Packaging) VIII.D.2. Victims Include Owners of
VI.B.4. The Labels, Documentation, or Intellectual Property and
Packaging Materials are Consumers Who Were Defrauded
Counterfeit or Illicit VIII.D.3. Determining a Restitution
VI.B.5. Federal Jurisdiction Figure
VI.D.2. Advantages of Charging a VIII.E.1. Property Subject to Forfeiture
§ 2318 Offense VIII.E.2.a. Administrative Forfeiture
VI.E.5.a. Retail Value of Copyrighted Proceedings
Goods vs. Counterfeit Labels, VIII.E.2.c. Table of Forfeiture
Documentation, and Packaging Provisions Arranged by Criminal
VI.E.5.b. Number of Infringing IP Statute
Copyrighted Goods vs. Number of VIII.E.4. Civil Forfeiture in IP Matters
Labels, Documents, or Packaging VIII.E.4.a. Proceeds
Items VIII.E.4.b. Infringing Items, Other
VI.F. Other Criminal Charges to Contraband, and Facilitating
Consider Property
VII.A. Overview of Patent VIII.E.4.c.ii. Victims' Ability to Forfeit
VIII.C.1. Offenses Involving Copyright Property
(Including Bootleg Music, VIII.E.5. Criminal Forfeiture in IP
Camcorded Movies, and the Matters
Unauthorized Use of Satellite, VIII.E.5.b. Infringing Items, Other
Radio, and Cable Contraband, and Facilitating
Communications), Trademark, Property
Counterfeit Labeling, and the IX.C. Whether the Person is Subject to
DMCA Prosecution in Another
VIII.C.1.a. Applicable Guideline is Jurisdiction
§ 2B5.3 IX.D. The Adequacy of Alternative
VIII.C.1.c.ii. Number of Infringing Non-Criminal Remedies
Items X. Victims of Intellectual Property
VIII.C.1.c.iii. Retail Value Crimes—Ethics and Obligations
VIII.C.1.c.v. Cross-Reference to Loss X.B.3.a. Private Civil Remedies
Table in U.S.S.G. § 2B1.1 X.C.1.b.i. Assistance from Victims and
VIII.C.1.e. Manufacturing, Importing, Related Parties
or Uploading Infringing Items X.C.1.b.iv. Storage Costs in
Increases the Offense Level by 2— Counterfeit or Infringing Products
U.S.S.G. § 2B5.3(b)(3) [Before Cases
October 24, 2005: § 2B5.3(b)(2)]
COPYRIGHT ACT OF 1976
VIII.C.1.f. Offenses Not Committed
for Commercial Advantage or
II.C.1. Statute of Limitations: 5 years
Private Financial Gain Reduces
the Offense Level by 2—U.S.S.G.

COPYRIGHT MANAGEMENT II.B.4.b. Legal Standard
INFORMATION III.A.2. Why Criminal Law Protects
II.E.2. Sentencing Guidelines Trademarks, Service Marks, and
V.A.1. DMCA's Background and Certification Marks
Purpose III.B.3.b.i. General Definition
V.B.5. Falsifying, Altering, or III.B.3.c. Goods and Services [after
Removing Copyright Management March 16, 2006: and Labels,
Information—17 U.S.C. § 1202 Patches, Stickers, Wrappers,
COPYRIGHT NOTICE
II.B.1.b. Copyrights vs. Registrations
vs. Certificates
Nature]
III.B.4.g. Likelihood of Confusion,
Mistake, or Deception
III.B.5. The Defendant Used the
Counterfeit Mark "Knowingly"
COPYRIGHT PROTECTION III.B.6. Venue
SYSTEMS III.C.1. Authorized-Use Defense:
V.A.1. DMCA's Background and Overrun Goods
Purpose III.D.1. High-Quality and Low-Quality
V.A.2.a. Access Controls vs. Copy/Use Counterfeits
Controls III.D.2. Counterfeit Goods with
Genuine Trademarks
COPYRIGHT TREATY
Purpose
VI.E.5.b. Number of Infringing
COPYRIGHTABILITY Copyrighted Goods vs. Number of
II.B.1.a. Copyrightability Labels, Documents, or Packaging
II.B.1.d. Whether Registration or Items
Preregistration is Required to VIII.D.1. Restitution is Available—and
Prosecute Often Required—in Intellectual
II.B.3.c.iii. Work Being Prepared for Property Prosecutions
Commercial Distribution VIII.E.1. Property Subject to Forfeiture
COST OF REPAIRS
VIII.C.2.c.iii. Methods of Calculating
Property
Loss
IX.B.2. The Nature and Seriousness of
COUNTERFEIT DOCUMENTATION the Offense
AND PACKAGING
COUNTERFEIT LABELS
see generally Chapters III and VI
see generally Chapters III and VI
see also
see also
VIII.D.1. Restitution is Available— and
VIII.C.1. Offenses Involving Copyright
Often Required— in Intellectual
(Including Bootleg Music,
Camcorded Movies, and the
Unauthorized Use of Satellite,
Radio, and Cable
Property
Communications), Trademark,
COUNTERFEIT GOODS OR Counterfeit Labeling, and the
SERVICES DMCA
I.A. Why Is Intellectual Property VIII.C.1.a. Applicable Guideline is
Enforcement Important? § 2B5.3
Index 409
VIII.C.1.c.iii. Retail Value IV.B.3.a.i. Generally
VIII.C.1.e. Manufacturing, Importing, IV.B.3.a.viii. Independent Economic
or Uploading Infringing Items Value
DE MINIMIS NON CURAT LEX
October 24, 2005: § 2B5.3(b)(2)]
the Offense
VIII.E.5.b. Infringing Items, Other DECALS
Contraband, and Facilitating VI.D.1. Electronic Copies of Labels,
Property Documentation, or Packaging
DECRYPTION
COUNTERFEIT MARKS V.B.1.a. Circumvented
see generally Chapter III V.B.1.b. Technological Measures That
see also Effectively Control Access (an
I.B. What Is Intellectual Property? "Access Control")
II.B.3.b.ii. Definition of "Retail Value" V.B.1.d. How Congress Intended the
in this Context Anti-Circumvention Prohibition
VI.A. Distinguished From Trademark to Apply
and Copyright Statutes V.C.5. Reverse Engineering and
VI.B.2. The Defendant Trafficked Interoperability of Computer
VIII.C.1.c.ii. Number of Infringing Programs
Items V.C.10.b.ii. "As Applied" First
VIII.D.1. Restitution is Available—and Amendment Challenges to the
Often Required—in Intellectual DMCA
Property Prosecutions VIII.C.1.h. Decryption or
VIII.D.3. Determining a Restitution Circumvention of Access Controls
Figure Increases the Offense Level—
VIII.E.2.c. Table of Forfeiture U.S.S.G. § 3B1.3
Provisions Arranged by Criminal VIII.D.1. Restitution is Available—and
IP Statute Often Required—in Intellectual
VIII.E.4. Civil Forfeiture in IP Matters Property Prosecutions
VIII.E.4.b. Infringing Items, Other VIII.D.2. Victims Include Owners of
Contraband, and Facilitating Intellectual Property and
Property Consumers Who Were Defrauded
VIII.E.5. Criminal Forfeiture in IP see also ENCRYPTION
Matters
DEEP LINKS
Contraband, and Facilitating DELIBERATE IGNORANCE
Property III.B.5. The Defendant Used the
X.B.3.a. Private Civil Remedies Counterfeit Mark "Knowingly"
COUNTERFEIT
"Knowingly"
PHARMACEUTICALS
VIII.C.1.j. Vulnerable Victims— DEPOSITIONS
U.S.S.G. § 3A1.1(b) IV.B.3.a.iii. Specification of Trade
Secrets
COUNTERFEIT TRADEMARKS
IV.D.2. Confidentiality and the Use of
see TRADEMARKS
Protective Orders
CRIMINAL FORFEITURE VIII.E.3. Choosing a Forfeiture
see FORFEITURE Procedure
CUSTOMER LISTS DERIVATIVE WORKS
IV.A. Introduction I.B. What Is Intellectual Property?

II.A.6. The Rights Protected by VIII.D.1. Restitution is Available—and
Copyright Often Required—in Intellectual
II.B.1.d.iii. Registration of Particular Property Prosecutions
Versions of a Work VIII.D.2. Victims Include Owners of
II.B.3. Infringement of the Copyright Intellectual Property and
II.C.5. Fair Use Consumers Who Were Defrauded
V.A.2.a. Access Controls vs. Copy/Use VIII.E.2.c. Table of Forfeiture
Controls Provisions Arranged by Criminal
V.B.3.b. Technological Measure That IP Statute
Effectively Protects a Right of a VIII.E.4. Civil Forfeiture in IP Matters
Copyright Owner Under This VIII.E.5. Criminal Forfeiture in IP
Title ("Copy Control") Matters
V.C.10.a. Congress's Constitutional X.B.3.a. Private Civil Remedies
DISCLOSING GOVERNMENT
DMCA
TRADE SECRETS
DESTRUCTION IV.F. Other Possible Charges
see FORFEITURE AND
DISCLOSURES TO THE
DESTRUCTION
GOVERNMENT
DIGITAL AUDIO TRANSMISSION IV.B.3.a.vi. Disclosure's Effects
DISTANCE LEARNING
Copyright
II.B.5. Misdemeanor Copyright
Infringement
DMCA
DIGITAL IMAGE FILES
see DIGITAL MILLENNIUM
VI.D.1. Electronic Copies of Labels,
COPYRIGHT ACT
Documentation, or Packaging
DRUGS
DIGITAL LOCKS
see FOOD AND DRUG
ADMINISTRATION
Purpose
V.A.2.a. Access Controls vs. Copy/Use DONATED RESOURCES
Controls X.C. Offers of Assistance From Victims
and Related Parties
DIGITAL MILLENNIUM
X.C.3. Strategic and Case-Related
COPYRIGHT ACT (DMCA)
Issues
see generally Chapter V
see also E-BOOKS
II.B.3.a.ii. Distribution V.B.1.e. Regulatory Exemptions to
II.E.2. Sentencing Guidelines Liability under § 1201(a)(1)
ECONOMIC ESPIONAGE
IV.A. Introduction
Unauthorized Use of Satellite,
IV.B. The Economic Espionage Act of
Radio, and Cable
1996, 18 U.S.C. §§ 1831-1839
Communications), Trademark,
IV.B.1. Overview
Counterfeit Labeling, and the
DMCA
IV.B.5.a. Economic Benefit to a Third
§ 2B5.3
Party
VIII.C.1.c.ii. Number of Infringing
IV.B.5.c. Product Produced for or
Items
Placed in Interstate or Foreign
Commerce
Index 411
IV.B.6. Attempts and Conspiracies, V.B.3.a. Circumventing
Including the Impossibility V.C.6. Encryption Research
Defense V.C.10.b.ii. "As Applied" First
IV.E.1.a. Imprisonment and Fines Amendment Challenges to the
VIII.C. Sentencing Guidelines DMCA
VIII.C.1.a. Applicable Guideline is VIII.C.1.a. Applicable Guideline is
§ 2B5.3 § 2B5.3
VIII.C.2. Offenses Involving the see also DECRYPTION
Economic Espionage Act
EPHEMERAL REPRODUCTIONS
VIII.E.2.c. Table of Forfeiture ETHICS
Provisions Arranged by Criminal X. Victims of Intellectual Property
IP Statute Crimes— Ethics and Obligations
VIII.E.4. Civil Forfeiture in IP Matters X.B.2. Ethical Concerns When the
VIII.E.5.a. Proceeds Criminal Prosecution Results in
VIII.E.5.b. Infringing Items, Other an Advantage in a Civil Matter
Contraband, and Facilitating X.B.2.a. Victims Who Seek Advantage
Property By Threats of Criminal
Prosecution
ECONOMIC ESPIONAGE
X.B.2.b. Global Settlement
SPONSORED BY A FOREIGN
Negotiations
GOVERNMENT
X.C.1.b.iii. Cash
ELECTRONIC TRANSMISSION OF X.C.1.b.iv. Storage Costs in
A GENUINE CERTIFICATE Counterfeit or Infringing Products
VI.D.1. Electronic Copies of Labels, Cases
Documentation, or Packaging X.C.1.c.i. Consultative Process for
Acceptance of Assistance and Gifts
EMOTIONAL HARM
VIII.C.2.f. Upward Departure
Considerations—U.S.S.G. § 2B1.1
Issues
cmt. n.19(A)
X.C.4. Help and Advice
EMULATORS
EXPERT WITNESSES
IV.B.3.a.iii. Specification of Trade
Secrets
Programs
ENCRYPTION Protective Orders
IV.A. Introduction X.C. Offers of Assistance From Victims
IV.B.3.a.vii. Reasonable Measures to and Related Parties
Maintain Secrecy X.C.1.b.vi. Assistance from Private
V.A.2.a. Access Controls vs. Copy/Use Third Parties
Controls
EXTRADITION
IX.B.5. The Individual's Willingness to
Cooperate in the Investigation or
Prosecution of Others
"Access Control")
V.B.1.d. How Congress Intended the EXTRATERRITORIALITY
Anti-Circumvention Prohibition II.C.2. Jurisdiction
to Apply IV.B.1. Overview
V.B.2.c.1. Primarily Designed or IV.D.3. Extraterritoriality
Produced

FAIR MARKET VALUE Available on a Publicly-Accessible
VIII.C.2.c.iii. Methods of Calculating Computer Network, If the
Loss Defendant Knew or Should Have
FAIR USE
II.A.2. Legal Basis for Copyright and
II.B.3.c.iii. Work Being Prepared for
Related Laws
Copyright
II.B.2.a. Legal Standard FDA
II.B.3. Infringement of the Copyright see FOOD AND DRUG
II.B.3.a.i. Reproduction ADMINISTRATION
II.B.4.a. History
FEDERAL PREEMPTION
II.C.5. Fair Use
see PREEMPTION
II.C.5.b. Fair Use in Criminal Cases FEDERAL REGISTRATION
II.E.2. Sentencing Guidelines see REGISTRATION
FINANCIAL GAIN
II.B. Elements
17 U.S.C. §§ 1201(a)(1) and
1204
or Distribution
II.B.4. Additional Element for
to Apply
Enhanced Sentence: Purpose of
Commercial Advantage or Private
Financial Gain
II.B.4.a. History
Infringement
Programs
V.C.10.c. Vagueness
II.E.1. Statutory Penalties
V.C.10.d. Fair Use
FALSE MARKING III.B.3.b.i. General Definition
VII.A. Overview of Patent III.B.3.b.iii. Making and Obtaining
VII.C. False Marking of Patent—35 Counterfeits vs. Possession with
U.S.C. § 292 Intent to Traffic
FAMILY ENTERTAINMENT AND
COPYRIGHT ACT OF 2005
II.B. Elements
vs. Trafficking
II.B.1.c. New Procedure for
"Preregistration"
17 U.S.C. §§ 1201(a)(1) and
II.B.1.d. Whether Registration or
1204
Preregistration is Required to
V.B.2. Trafficking in Access Control
Prosecute
Circumvention Tools and
II.B.1.d.ii. Unpublished or Pre-Release
Services—17 U.S.C.
Works
§§ 1201(a)(2) and 1204
in this Context
§§ 1201(b)(1) and 1204
Index 413
V.C.10.b.i. Facial Challenges FOOD
VIII.C.1.a. Applicable Guideline is see MISBRANDED FOOD, DRUGS,
§ 2B5.3 AND COSMETICS
VIII.C.1.f. Offenses Not Committed
FOOD AND DRUG
ADMINISTRATION (FDA)
§ 2B5.3(b)(4) [before October 24, FOREIGN AGENTS
2005: § 2B5.3(b)(3)] IV.B.1. Overview
FIRST AMENDMENT
II.C.5. Fair Use
VIII.C.2.d. Intent to Benefit a Foreign
Circumvention
Government, Instrumentality, or
V.C.10.b. The First Amendment
Agent—U.S.S.G. § 2B1.1(b)(5)
V.C.10.b.ii. "As Applied" First FOREIGN COMMERCE
Amendment Challenges to the see INTERSTATE AND FOREIGN
DMCA COMMERCE
V.C.10.d. Fair Use
FOREIGN ECONOMIC ESPIONAGE
FIRST SALE DOCTRINE see ECONOMIC ESPIONAGE
II.A.2. Legal Basis for Copyright and
FOREIGN GOVERNMENTS
Related Laws
II.B. Elements
IV.B.1. Overview
II.C.4. The First Sale Doctrine—17
U.S.C. § 109
II.C.4.b. Affirmative Defense or Part of
VIII.C.2.d. Intent to Benefit a Foreign
the Government's Case-in-Chief?
Government, Instrumentality, or
II.C.4.c. Disproving First Sale at Trial
Agent—U.S.S.G. § 2B1.1(b)(5)
Lease, and Lending
§ 117 FOREIGN INSTRUMENTALITY
IV.B.1. Overview
FIXED IN ANY TANGIBLE
MEDIUM OF EXPRESSION
see TANGIBLE MEDIUM
FONT EMBEDDING BITS Instrumentality, or Foreign Agent
V.B.1.b. Technological Measures That VIII.C.2.d. Intent to Benefit a Foreign
Effectively Control Access (an Government, Instrumentality, or
"Access Control") Agent—U.S.S.G. § 2B1.1(b)(5)
FOREIGN LAW ENFORCEMENT
AGENCIES
IX.B.5. The Individual's Willingness to
Cooperate in the Investigation or
Prosecution of Others

FOREIGN VICTIMS VI.E.4. Forfeiture
III.F. Other Charges to Consider VIII.E.5.b. Infringing Items, Other
FOREIGN WORKS
Property
Preregistration is Required to GENERIC LABELS
Prosecute VI.B.4. The Labels, Documentation, or
FORFEITURE
III.D.6. Storage Costs and Destruction GIFTS
III.E.4. Forfeiture II.B.3.a.ii. Distribution
IV.E.1.b. Criminal Forfeiture III.C.3. Repackaging Genuine Goods
VI.E. Penalties X.C. Offers of Assistance From Victims
VI.E.4. Forfeiture and Related Parties
VIII. Penalties, Restitution, and X.C.1. Gift Issues
Forfeiture X.C.1.a. Applicable Law
VIII.A. Introduction X.C.1.b. Distinction Between
VIII.E. Forfeiture "Assistance" and "Gifts"
VIII.E.1. Property Subject to Forfeiture X.C.1.b.i. Assistance from Victims and
VIII.E.2. Overview of Forfeiture Related Parties
Procedures X.C.1.b.ii. Private Investigators
VIII.E.2.a. Administrative Forfeiture X.C.1.b.iii. Cash
Proceedings X.C.1.b.iv. Storage Costs in
VIII.E.2.b. Civil and Criminal Counterfeit or Infringing Products
Proceedings Cases
VIII.E.2.c. Table of Forfeiture X.C.1.b.v. Resources Donated for
Provisions Arranged by Criminal Ongoing Use by Law Enforcement
IP Statute X.C.1.b.vi. Assistance from Private
VIII.E.3. Choosing a Forfeiture Third Parties
Procedure X.C.1.c. Departmental Procedures for
VIII.E.4. Civil Forfeiture in IP Matters the Solicitation and Acceptance of
VIII.E.4.a. Proceeds Gifts and Assistance
VIII.E.4.b. Infringing Items, Other X.C.1.c.i. Consultative Process for
Contraband, and Facilitating Acceptance of Assistance and Gifts
Property X.C.1.c.ii. Solicitation of Gifts
VIII.E.4.c.i. Generally X.C.1.c.iii. Acceptance of Gifts
VIII.E.4.c.ii. Victims' Ability to Forfeit X.C.2. Professional Responsibility
Property Issues
VIII.E.5. Criminal Forfeiture in IP X.C.3. Strategic and Case-Related
Matters Issues
VIII.E.5.a. Proceeds X.C.4. Help and Advice
GLOBAL SETTLEMENTS
see PARALLEL PROCEEDINGS
Property
IX.D. The Adequacy of Alternative GOOD AND BAD FAITH
Non-Criminal Remedies II.B.2.a. Legal Standard
X.B.3.c. Stays and Protective Orders to II.B.2.b. Proof at Trial
Delay Civil Proceedings During II.C.5.b. Fair Use in Criminal Cases
Criminal Prosecution II.C.6. "Archival Exception" for
see also ADMINISTRATIVE Computer Software—17 U.S.C.
FORFEITURE § 117
FORFEITURE AND DESTRUCTION
Index 415
III.C.4. Lanham Act Defenses IGNORANCE OF THE LAW
IV.C.4. Advice of Counsel II.B.2.a. Legal Standard
IV.C.5. Claim of Right— Public IV.B.3.c. Knowledge
Domain and Proprietary Rights
ILLICIT LABELS
see generally Chapter VI
see also
VII.C. False Marking of Patent— 35
U.S.C. § 292
in this Context
GOODS AND SERVICES II.C.4.a. Operation of the Doctrine
II.E.2. Sentencing Guidelines II.E.2. Sentencing Guidelines
III.A.1. Overview of the Chapter III.F. Other Charges to Consider
III.A.2. Why Criminal Law Protects VIII.C.1.a. Applicable Guideline is
Trademarks, Service Marks, and § 2B5.3
Certification Marks VIII.C.1.c.ii. Number of Infringing
III.B.1. The Trademark Counterfeiting Items
Crime in General VIII.D.1. Restitution is Available—and
III.B.3.b.i. General Definition Often Required—in Intellectual
III.B.3.c. Goods and Services [after Property Prosecutions
March 16, 2006: and Labels, VIII.E.2.c. Table of Forfeiture
Patches, Stickers, Wrappers, Provisions Arranged by Criminal
Badges, Emblems, Medallions, IP Statute
Charms, Boxes, Containers, Cans, VIII.E.4. Civil Forfeiture in IP Matters
Cases, Hangtags, Documentation, VIII.E.4.c.ii. Victims' Ability to Forfeit
or Packaging of Any Type or Property
Nature] VIII.E.5. Criminal Forfeiture in IP
III.B.4.e. Use of the Counterfeit Mark Matters
"On or In Connection With" VIII.E.5.b. Infringing Items, Other
Goods or Services Contraband, and Facilitating
III.B.4.f. The Counterfeit Mark Must Property
Have Been Used for the Same X.B.3.a. Private Civil Remedies
IN PERSONAM
VIII.E.2.b. Civil and Criminal
Registered
Proceedings
III.C.1. Authorized-Use Defense:
VIII.E.5. Criminal Forfeiture in IP
Overrun Goods
Matters
III.D.5. Mark-Holder's Failure to Use—
Symbol IN REM
III.D.7. Units of Prosecution VIII.E.2.b. Civil and Criminal
VI.B.2. The Defendant Trafficked Proceedings
VIII.C.1.a. Applicable Guideline is VIII.E.4.b. Infringing Items, Other
§ 2B5.3 Contraband, and Facilitating
IX.B.2. The Nature and Seriousness of Property
the Offense VIII.E.5. Criminal Forfeiture in IP
Matters
GOVERNMENT TRADE SECRETS
IV.F. Other Possible Charges IN USE
III.B.1. The Trademark Counterfeiting
GRAY MARKET GOODS
Crime in General
III.C.2. Authorized-Use Defense—
III.B.4.a. Definition of Counterfeit
Gray Market Goods
Mark Generally: Not Genuine or
HOME PAGES Authentic

III.B.4.d. The Genuine Mark Must VIII.D.1. Restitution is Available—and
Have Been in Use by the Often Required—in Intellectual
Mark-Holder or Its Licensee Property Prosecutions
INAUTHENTIC LABELS AND INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY
MARKS PROTECTION AND COURTS
III.B.3.c. Goods and Services [after AMENDMENT ACT OF 2004
March 16, 2006: and Labels, VI.B.3. Trafficking in Labels Affixed to,
Patches, Stickers, Wrappers, Enclosing, or Accompanying (or
Badges, Emblems, Medallions, Designed to be Affixed to,
Charms, Boxes, Containers, Cans, Enclose, or Accompany) a
Cases, Hangtags, Documentation, Phonorecord, Computer Program,
or Packaging of Any Type or Motion Picture or other
Nature] Audiovisual Work, Literary,
Pictorial, Graphic, or Sculptural
INDEPENDENT ECONOMIC
Work, or Work of Visual Art, or
VALUE
IV.B.3.a.viii. Independent Economic
Value
INDICTMENTS Documentation or Packaging)
see Appendices B-F
INTENT TO DECEIVE
see also
INFORMATION SECURITY III.C.3. Repackaging Genuine Goods
V.C.4. Information Security Exemption VII.C. False Marking of Patent— 35
U.S.C. § 292
INJUNCTIONS
IV.B.1. Overview
IV.D.1. Civil Injunctive Relief for the INTERLOCUTORY APPEAL
United States IV.D.2. Confidentiality and the Use of
IX.B.2. The Nature and Seriousness of Protective Orders
the Offense
INTERNAL INVESTIGATIONS
IX.D. The Adequacy of Alternative
VIII.D.3. Determining a Restitution
Non-Criminal Remedies
Figure
X.C.1.b.i. Assistance from Victims and
INNOCENT OWNER DEFENSE Related Parties
VIII.E.4.c. Innocent Owner Defense
INTERNET PIRACY
INTELLECTUAL CAPITAL I.A. Why Is Intellectual Property
I.A. Why Is Intellectual Property Enforcement Important?
Enforcement Important? II.B.3.c. Distribution of a Work Being
INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY
CLAUSE
V.C.10. Constitutionality of the
DMCA
DMCA
II.B.4.a. History
Index 417
INTEROPERABILITY DEFENSE VII.D. No Prosecution for Interstate
V.C.5. Reverse Engineering and Transportation or Receipt of
Interoperability of Computer Stolen Property—18 U.S.C.
Programs §§ 2314, 2315
INTERSTATE AND FOREIGN
Loss
COMMERCE
II.A.2. Legal Basis for Copyright and JUDICIAL NOTICE
Related Laws II.B.1.e. Proof of Copyright at Trial
II.E.2. Sentencing Guidelines III.B.4.c. The Genuine Mark Must Be
III.B.4.b. The Counterfeit Mark Must Federally Registered on the U.S.
Be Identical to or Patent and Trademark Office's
Indistinguishable from a Genuine Principal Register
Mark Owned by Another
JURY INSTRUCTIONS
see APPENDICES B-F
Mark-Holder or Its Licensee JUSTICE FOR ALL ACT OF 2004
III.B.4.g. Likelihood of Confusion, X.A. Victims' Rights
KNOWINGLY
IV.B.1. Overview
Commerce
Crime in General
V.C.10. Constitutionality of the
DMCA
DMCA
VI.B. Elements
Nature]
III.B.4. The Defendant Used a
VI.B.6. Venue
"Counterfeit Mark" On or In
Connection With Those Goods or
Consider
Services [after March 16, 2006: or
a Counterfeit Mark Was Applied
to Labels, Documentation, or
Packaging for Those Goods or
Services]
October 24, 2005: § 2B5.3(b)(2)]
IV.B.1. Overview
VIII.E. Forfeiture
IV.B.3.c. Knowledge
X.C.1.b.iv. Storage Costs in
Counterfeit or Infringing Products
Cases
Commerce
INTERSTATE TRANSPORTATION IV.C.6. The First Amendment
AND RECEIPT OF STOLEN IV.F. Other Possible Charges
PROPERTY OR GOODS V.B.2.c. Purpose or Marketing of
II.E.2. Sentencing Guidelines Circumvention Technology
IV.A. Introduction V.B.2.c.3. Knowingly Marketed for
IV.F. Other Possible Charges Circumvention

V.B.5. Falsifying, Altering, or III.B.4.d. The Genuine Mark Must
Removing Copyright Management Have Been in Use by the
Information—17 U.S.C. § 1202 Mark-Holder or Its Licensee
VI.A. Distinguished From Trademark III.B.4.g. Likelihood of Confusion,
and Copyright Statutes Mistake, or Deception
VI.B. Elements III.B.5. The Defendant Used the
VI.B.1. The Defendant Acted Counterfeit Mark "Knowingly"
"Knowingly" III.C.1. Authorized-Use Defense:
VI.B.2. The Defendant Trafficked Overrun Goods
VI.B.4. The Labels, Documentation, or III.C.3. Repackaging Genuine Goods
Packaging Materials are III.C.4. Lanham Act Defenses
Counterfeit or Illicit IV.B.3.c. Knowledge
VI.B.5. Federal Jurisdiction IV.B.5.c. Product Produced for or
VII.B. Forgery of Letters Patent—18 Placed in Interstate or Foreign
U.S.C. § 497 Commerce
LANHAM ACT
see generally Chapter III
Defense
see also
III.E.2. Imprisonment
LEGISLATIVE HISTORY 17 U.S.C. §§ 1201(a)(1) and
II.B.1.d. Whether Registration or 1204
Preregistration is Required to V.C.5. Reverse Engineering and
Prosecute Interoperability of Computer
II.B.3.a.ii. Distribution Programs
II.B.3.b.ii. Definition of "Retail Value" VI.B.4. The Labels, Documentation, or
in this Context Packaging Materials are
II.B.3.c.iii. Work Being Prepared for Counterfeit or Illicit
LETTERS PATENT
VII.B. Forgery of Letters Patent—18
U.S.C. § 497
Trademarks, Service Marks, and LIBRARIAN OF CONGRESS
Certification Marks V.B.1.e. Regulatory Exemptions to
III.B.2. Relevance of Civil Trademark Liability under § 1201(a)(1)
Law in Criminal Cases V.C.2. Librarian of Congress
III.B.3.a. Intentionally Regulations
LIBRARIES AND ARCHIVES
vs. Trafficking
Nature]
III.B.4.b. The Counterfeit Mark Must
Be Identical to or LIKELIHOOD OF CONFUSION
Indistinguishable from a Genuine III.B.4.b. The Counterfeit Mark Must
Mark Owned by Another Be Identical to or
Index 419
Indistinguishable from a Genuine Patent and Trademark Office's
Mark Owned by Another Principal Register
III.B.4.g. Likelihood of Confusion, III.F. Other Charges to Consider
Mistake, or Deception IV.F. Other Possible Charges
LIMITED FEDERAL RESOURCES
Consider
VIII.C.1.k. No Downward Departure
the Offense
for the Victim's Participation in
LIMITED TIMES Prosecution
II.A.1. What Copyright Law Protects VIII.D.1. Restitution is Available—and
II.A.2. Legal Basis for Copyright and Often Required—in Intellectual
Related Laws Property Prosecutions
II.C.4.c. Disproving First Sale at Trial VIII.D.2. Victims Include Owners of
II.E.2. Sentencing Guidelines Intellectual Property and
V.C.10.a. Congress's Constitutional Consumers Who Were Defrauded
MAKING AVAILABLE
DMCA
II.B. Elements
LINUX II.B.3.c.i. Distribution
MANDAMUS
Produced
Protective Orders
Programs
MANDATORY RESTITUTION
LIVE MUSICAL PERFORMANCES
VI.E.3. Restitution
Consider
§ 2B5.3
Figure
see also RESTITUTION
IP Statute MANDATORY VICTIMS
VIII.E.4. Civil Forfeiture in IP Matters RESTITUTION ACT OF 1996
VIII.E.4.b. Infringing Items, Other (MVRA)
Contraband, and Facilitating IV.E.1.b. Criminal Forfeiture
Property VI.E.3. Restitution
VIII.E.5. Criminal Forfeiture in IP VIII.D.1. Restitution is Available—and
Matters Often Required—in Intellectual
VIII.E.5.b. Infringing Items, Other Property Prosecutions
Contraband, and Facilitating VI.E.3. Restitution
Property see also RESTITUTION
MARKET STRATEGIES
MAIL AND WIRE FRAUD I.B. What Is Intellectual Property?
MINIMAL NOVELTY
III.B.4.c. The Genuine Mark Must Be

MISAPPROPRIATION VIII.D.2. Victims Include Owners of
IV.B.1. Overview Intellectual Property and
IV.B.3.a.ii. Employee's General Consumers Who Were Defrauded
Knowledge, Skill, or Abilities Not IX.C. Whether the Person is Subject to
Covered Prosecution in Another
IV.B.3.a.iii. Specification of Trade Jurisdiction
Secrets
MISBRANDED FOOD, DRUGS,
AND COSMETICS
IV.B.3.a.vii. Reasonable Measures to
Maintain Secrecy
IV.B.3.b. Misappropriation
VIII.C.1.j. Vulnerable Victims—
U.S.S.G. § 3A1.1(b)
VIII.D.1. Restitution is Available— and
IV.B.3.b.iii. Lack of Authorization
Often Required— in Intellectual
IV.B.3.b.iv. Misappropriation of Only
Part of a Trade Secret
IV.B.3.b.v. Mere Risk of MISLABELED WOOL, FUR, AND
Misappropriation Not TEXTILE FIBER PRODUCTS
Prosecutable, But Attempts and III.F. Other Charges to Consider
Conspiracies Are
MISMARKING
IV.B.3.c. Knowledge
VII.C. False Marking of Patent—35
U.S.C. § 292
Foreign Government, Foreign MISREPRESENTATION
Instrumentality, or Foreign Agent II.E.2. Sentencing Guidelines
IV.B.5.a. Economic Benefit to a Third III.A.1. Overview of the Chapter
Party III.C.4. Lanham Act Defenses
IV.B.5.b. Intent to Injure the Owner of III.D.2. Counterfeit Goods with
the Trade Secret Genuine Trademarks
IV.B.5.c. Product Produced for or VII.C. False Marking of Patent—35
Placed in Interstate or Foreign U.S.C. § 292
Commerce VIII.D.3. Determining a Restitution
IV.B.6. Attempts and Conspiracies, Figure
MONEY LAUNDERING
Defense
IV.C.4. Advice of Counsel
IV.C.5. Claim of Right—Public
Prosecution
Domain and Proprietary Rights
VIII.E. Forfeiture
IP Statute
§ 2B1.1, Except for Attempts and
VIII.E.4.c.i. Generally
Conspiracies
VIII.E.5. Criminal Forfeiture in IP
VIII.C.2.c. Loss—U.S.S.G.
Matters
§ 2B1.1(b)(1)
Loss MOTION FOR A NEW TRIAL
VIII.C.2.i. Use of Special Skill— X.A. Victims' Rights
U.S.S.G. § 3B1.3
MOVIES AND MOTION PICTURES
VIII.D. Restitution
Index 421
II.B.1.c. New Procedure for Camcorded Movies, and the
"Preregistration" Unauthorized Use of Satellite,
II.B.1.d.ii. Unpublished or Pre-Release Radio, and Cable
Works Communications), Trademark,
II.B.3.a. Infringement by Reproduction Counterfeit Labeling, and the
or Distribution DMCA
II.B.3.a.i. Reproduction VIII.C.1.a. Applicable Guideline is
II.B.3.a.ii. Distribution § 2B5.3
II.B.3.b.ii. Definition of "Retail Value" VIII.C.1.c.iii. Retail Value
in this Context VIII.C.1.c.v. Cross-Reference to Loss
II.B.3.c.iii. Work Being Prepared for Table in U.S.S.G. § 2B1.1
Commercial Distribution VIII.C.1.e. Manufacturing, Importing,
II.C.4.a. Operation of the Doctrine or Uploading Infringing Items
II.C.4.c. Disproving First Sale at Trial Increases the Offense Level by 2—
II.E.2. Sentencing Guidelines U.S.S.G. § 2B5.3(b)(3) [Before
III.F. Other Charges to Consider October 24, 2005: § 2B5.3(b)(2)]
V.A.2.a. Access Controls vs. Copy/Use VIII.D.1. Restitution is Available— and
Controls Often Required— in Intellectual
V.B.1.a. Circumvented Property Prosecutions
V.B.1.b. Technological Measures That VIII.E.5. Criminal Forfeiture in IP
Effectively Control Access (an Matters§ VIII.E.2.c. Table of Forfeiture
"Access Control") Provisions Arranged by Criminal
V.B.1.d. How Congress Intended the IP Statute
Anti-Circumvention Prohibition VIII.E.5.b. Infringing Items, Other
to Apply Contraband, and Facilitating
V.B.2.c.1. Primarily Designed or Property
Produced
MULTIPLE CRIME VICTIMS
Programs NO ELECTRONIC THEFT (NET)
VI.A. Distinguished From Trademark ACT
and Copyright Statutes II.B. Elements
VI.B. Elements II.B.2.a. Legal Standard
VI.B.3.Trafficking in Labels Affixed to, II.B.4.a. History
Enclosing, or Accompanying (or II.B.4.b. Legal Standard
Designed to be Affixed to, II.C.1. Statute of Limitations: 5 years
Enclose, or Accompany) a
NONPROFIT USE
Phonorecord, Computer Program,
Motion Picture or other
Lease, and Lending
Audiovisual Work, Literary,
II.C.5. Fair Use
vs. Trafficking
or in Labels for Such NUMBER OF INFRINGING ITEMS
Documentation or Packaging) VI.E.5. Sentencing Guidelines
VI.B.5. Federal Jurisdiction VI.E.5.b. Number of Infringing
VI.F. Other Criminal Charges to Copyrighted Goods vs. Number of
Consider Labels, Documents, or Packaging
VIII.C.1. Offenses Involving Copyright Items

VIII.C.1.c.ii. Number of Infringing OVERBREADTH
Items V.C.10.b. The First Amendment
VIII.C.1.c.iv. Determining Amounts V.C.10.b.i. Facial Challenges
and Values—Reasonable
OVERRUN GOODS
Estimates Allowed
OLYMPIC CHARTER ACT Overrun Goods
III.B.4.a. Definition of Counterfeit III.C.2. Authorized-Use Defense—
Mark Generally: Not Genuine or Gray Market Goods
Authentic
PACKING SLIPS
OLYMPIC SYMBOLS Packaging Materials are
III.B.4.c. The Genuine Mark Must Be Counterfeit or Illicit
PARALLEL IMPORTS
III.C.2. Authorized-Use Defense—
Principal Register
Gray Market Goods
Have Been in Use by the PARALLEL PROCEEDINGS
Mark-Holder or Its Licensee VIII.E.3. Choosing a Forfeiture
III.B.4.f. The Counterfeit Mark Must Procedure
Have Been Used for the Same VIII.E.4.c.ii. Victims' Ability to Forfeit
Type of Goods or Services for Property
Which the Genuine Mark Was X.B.2.b. Global Settlement
Registered Negotiations
III.B.4.g. Likelihood of Confusion, X.B.3. Parallel Civil Suits
Mistake, or Deception X.B.3.b. Advantages and Disadvantages
III.D.8. Olympic Symbols of Parallel Civil and Criminal
Proceedings
ONLINE INFRINGEMENT OF
X.B.3.c. Stays and Protective Orders to
PRE-RELEASE WORKS
Delay Civil Proceedings During
Criminal Prosecution
Issues
Defendant Knew or Should Have PAROLE PROCEEDINGS
Known the Work Was Intended X.A. Victims' Rights
PASSWORDS
ORIGINAL WORK FIXED IN A II.B.3.c.ii. Making the Work Available
TANGIBLE MEDIUM on a Computer Network
see TANGIBLE MEDIUM Accessible to Members of the
Public
ORIGINAL WORK OF
AUTHORSHIP
Maintain Secrecy
II.B.1.b. Copyrights vs. Registrations
vs. Certificates
Controls
DMCA
"Access Control")
OUTSOURCING V.B.1.d. How Congress Intended the
X.C.1.b.ii. Private Investigators Anti-Circumvention Prohibition
to Apply
Index 423
PATENT PERFORMANCES AND
see generally Chapter VII PHONOGRAMS TREATY
see also V.A.1. DMCA's Background and
I.A. Why Is Intellectual Property Purpose
PHONORECORDS
II.B. Elements
II.B.1.a.i. Original Work Fixed in a
Tangible Medium
or Distribution
II.B.1.a.iii. Expression of an Idea vs.
Idea Itself
Commerce
Lease, and Lending
PATENT APPLICATIONS V.B.5. Falsifying, Altering, or
IV.B.3.a.vi. Disclosure's Effects Removing Copyright Management
IV.B.5.c. Product Produced for or Information—17 U.S.C. § 1202
Placed in Interstate or Foreign V.C.6. Encryption Research
Commerce VI.B. Elements
VII.A. Overview of Patent VI.B.3.Trafficking in Labels Affixed to,
VII.C. False Marking of Patent—35 Enclosing, or Accompanying (or
U.S.C. § 292 Designed to be Affixed to,
PATENT APPLIED FOR
U.S.C. § 292
PATENT PENDING Pictorial, Graphic, or Sculptural
VII.C. False Marking of Patent—35 Work, or Work of Visual Art, or
U.S.C. § 292 Documentation or Packaging for
PEER-TO-PEER FILE-TRADING
Computer Network, if the
Property
Public PLAIN ERROR
II.B.4.b. Legal Standard II.B.3.b.ii. Definition of "Retail Value"
II.C.5.b. Fair Use in Criminal Cases in this Context
Figure

PORNOGRAPHY PRIOR APPROVALS
II.C.6. "Archival Exception" for III.F. Other Charges to Consider
Computer Software—17 U.S.C. IV.D.2. Confidentiality and the Use of
§ 117 Protective Orders
V.C.6. Encryption Research IV.D.4. Department of Justice
Oversight
POST-SALE CONFUSION
Mistake, or Deception PRIVATE FINANCIAL GAIN
see PURPOSES OF COMMERCIAL
PRE-RELEASE PIRACY
ADVANTAGE OR PRIVATE
II.B. Elements
FINANCIAL GAIN
Works PRIVATE INVESTIGATORS
II.B.3.b.ii. Definition of "Retail Value" VIII.D.3. Determining a Restitution
in this Context Figure
II.D. Special Issues IX.B.4. The Individual's History of
VIII.C.1.c.iii. Retail Value Criminal Offenses and Civil
VIII.C.1.c.v. Cross-Reference to Loss Intellectual Property Violations
Table in U.S.S.G. § 2B1.1 X.B.3.a. Private Civil Remedies
PREEMPTION
and Related Parties
X.C.1.b.vi. Assistance from Private
Third Parties
Issues
Prosecution in Another PRODUCT TAMPERING
Jurisdiction see TAMPERING
PREREGISTRATION PROSECUTORIAL PRIORITIES
II.B.1.c. New Procedure for IX.B.1. Federal Law Enforcement
"Preregistration" Priorities
PROTECTING AMERICAN GOODS
Preregistration is Required to
AND SERVICES ACT OF 2005
Prosecute
III.A.1. Overview of the Chapter
Works
in this Context PROTECTIVE ORDERS
II.B.3.c.iii. Work Being Prepared for IV.B.3.a.vii. Reasonable Measures to
Commercial Distribution Maintain Secrecy
see also REGISTRATION IV.D.2. Confidentiality and the Use of
Protective Orders
PRESCRIPTION DRUGS
Criminal Prosecution
Trademarks, Service Marks, and PUBLIC COURT PROCEEDING
Certification Marks X.A. Victims' Rights
PRINCIPLES OF FEDERAL PUBLIC DISTRIBUTION
PROSECUTION II.A.6. The Rights Protected by
IX.A. Introduction Copyright
Index 425
PUBLIC DOMAIN III.B.3.b.iii. Making and Obtaining
II.B.1.f. Copyright Notice Counterfeits vs. Possession with
IV.B.3.a.v. Secrecy Intent to Traffic
IV.B.3.a.vi. Disclosure's Effects IV.B.5.b. Intent to Injure the Owner of
IV.C.5. Claim of Right—Public the Trade Secret
Domain and Proprietary Rights IV.F. Other Possible Charges
IV.D.2. Confidentiality and the Use of V.A.2. Key Concepts: Access Controls
Protective Orders vs. Copy Controls, Circumvention
V.B.1.c. To a Copyrighted Work vs. Trafficking
V.C.10.a. Congress's Constitutional V.B.1. Circumventing Access Controls,
Authority to Enact § 1201 of the 17 U.S.C. §§ 1201(a)(1) and
DMCA 1204
V.C.10.d. Fair Use V.B.2. Trafficking in Access Control
VII.C. False Marking of Patent—35 Circumvention Tools and
U.S.C. § 292 Services—17 U.S.C.
§§ 1201(a)(2) and 1204
PUBLIC PERFORMANCE
Copyright
§§ 1201(b)(1) and 1204
PUBLIC HEALTH AND SAFETY Information—17 U.S.C. § 1202
III.A.2. Why Criminal Law Protects V.C.10.b.i. Facial Challenges
Trademarks, Service Marks, and VIII.C.1.a. Applicable Guideline is
Certification Marks § 2B5.3
IX.B.2. The Nature and Seriousness of VIII.C.1.f. Offenses Not Committed
the Offense for Commercial Advantage or
PUBLICALLY ACCESSIBLE
COMPUTER NETWORK
§ 2B5.3(b)(4) [before October 24,
see ACCESSIBLE TO THE GENERAL
2005: § 2B5.3(b)(3)]
PUBLIC
QUI TAM
PURPOSES OF COMMERCIAL
ADVANTAGE OR PRIVATE
U.S.C. § 292
FINANCIAL GAIN
II.A.7. When Infringement is Criminal QUID PRO QUO
II.B. Elements III.B.3.b.i. General Definition
RACKETEER INFLUENCED AND
CORRUPT ORGANIZATIONS
or Distribution
(RICO)
II.B.4. Additional Element for
Enhanced Sentence: Purpose of
Commercial Advantage or Private
Financial Gain
Consider
II.B.4.a. History
X.B.3.b. Advantages and Disadvantages
of Parallel Civil and Criminal
Infringement
Proceedings
II.E.1. Statutory Penalties READ-ALOUD
II.E.2. Sentencing Guidelines V.B.1.e. Regulatory Exemptions to
III.B.3.b.i. General Definition Liability under § 1201(a)(1)

READILY ASCERTAINABLE BY THE III.B.3.c. Goods and Services [after
PUBLIC March 16, 2006: and Labels,
IV.B.3.a.v. Secrecy Patches, Stickers, Wrappers,
IV.B.3.a.viii. Independent Economic Badges, Emblems, Medallions,
Value Charms, Boxes, Containers, Cans,
REASONABLE MEASURES
Nature]
Maintain Secrecy
Be Identical to or
Indistinguishable from a Genuine
REASONABLE ROYALTY Mark Owned by Another
VIII.C.2.c.iii. Methods of Calculating III.B.4.c. The Genuine Mark Must Be
Loss Federally Registered on the U.S.
REASONABLY FORESEEABLE
Principal Register
PECUNIARY HARM
VIII.C.2.c.i. Use Greater of Actual or
Intended Loss
III.B.4.f. The Counterfeit Mark Must
Loss
RECKLESS DISREGARD Type of Goods or Services for
II.B.2.a. Legal Standard Which the Genuine Mark Was
Registered
REGISTER OF COPYRIGHTS
II.A.5. When Copyright Protection
III.D.5. Mark-Holder's Failure to Use—
Begins and Ends
Symbol
REGISTRATION V.B.1.c. To a Copyrighted Work
II.A.5. When Copyright Protection VI.A. Distinguished From Trademark
Begins and Ends and Copyright Statutes
II.B.1.b. Copyrights vs. Registrations VI.B.4. The Labels, Documentation, or
vs. Certificates Packaging Materials are
II.B.1.c. New Procedure for Counterfeit or Illicit
"Preregistration" VI.D.1. Electronic Copies of Labels,
II.B.1.d. Whether Registration or Documentation, or Packaging
Preregistration is Required to VI.E.5.a. Retail Value of Copyrighted
Prosecute Goods vs. Counterfeit Labels,
II.B.1.d.i. Liability for Infringement Documentation, and Packaging
Committed Prior to Registration see also PREREGISTRATION
RELATED PARTIES
Works
II.B.1.d.iii. Registration of Particular
and Related Parties
Versions of a Work
X.C.1.b. Distinction Between
"Assistance" and "Gifts"
in this Context
Related Parties
X.C.1.b.iii. Cash
X.C.1.b.v. Resources Donated for
Ongoing Use by Law Enforcement
Index 427
X.C.1.b.vi. Assistance from Private VICTIMS RESTITUTION ACT OF
Third Parties 1996
X.C.1.c.i. Consultative Process for
RETAIL VALUE
Acceptance of Assistance and Gifts
II.B. Elements
Issues
RENTAL OF SOFTWARE II.B.3.a. Infringement by Reproduction
II.B.3. Infringement of the Copyright or Distribution
II.B.3.b. Infringement of at Least 10
REPACKAGING OF AUTHENTIC
Copies of 1 or More Copyrighted
OR GENUINE GOODS
Works With a Total Retail Value
Exceeding $2,500 Within a
Mark Generally: Not Genuine or
180-Day Period
Authentic
REPEAT CRIMINAL OFFENDERS in this Context
IX.B.4. The Individual's History of II.B.3.c.iii. Work Being Prepared for
Criminal Offenses and Civil Commercial Distribution
Intellectual Property Violations II.B.5. Misdemeanor Copyright
Infringement
RESTITUTION
VI.E. Penalties
VI.E.3. Restitution
VI.E.5.b. Number of Infringing
VIII. Penalties, Restitution, and
Copyrighted Goods vs. Number of
Forfeiture
Labels, Documents, or Packaging
Items
VIII.D. Restitution
§ 2B5.3
VIII.C.1.c.i. Formula
VIII.C.1.c.iv. Determining Amounts
Estimates Allowed
Figure
Figure
the Offense REVERSE ENGINEERING
IX.D. The Adequacy of Alternative I.B. What Is Intellectual Property?
Non-Criminal Remedies II.B.3.b.i. Generally
X.A. Victims' Rights IV.C.2. Reverse Engineering
X.B.2. Ethical Concerns When the V.B.1.b. Technological Measures That
Criminal Prosecution Results in Effectively Control Access (an
an Advantage in a Civil Matter "Access Control")
X.B.2.b. Global Settlement V.C.5. Reverse Engineering and
Negotiations Interoperability of Computer
X.B.3.b. Advantages and Disadvantages Programs
REVERSE PASSING-OFF
Proceedings
III.D.4. Selling Another's Trademarked
see also MANDATORY
Goods As One's Own (Reverse
RESTITUTION, MANDATORY
Passing-Off)

RICO U.S.S.G. § 2B5.3(b)(3) [Before
see RACKETEER INFLUENCED AND October 24, 2005: § 2B5.3(b)(2)]
CORRUPT ORGANIZATIONS VIII.C.1.f. Offenses Not Committed
SATELLITE SERVICE
see CABLE AND SATELLITE
SERVICE
§ 2B5.3(b)(4) [before October 24,
SECRECY 2005: § 2B5.3(b)(3)]
IV.B.1. Overview VIII.C.2.a. Applicable Guideline is
IV.B.3.a.v. Secrecy § 2B1.1, Except for Attempts and
IV.B.3.a.vi. Disclosure's Effects Conspiracies
IV.B.3.a.vii. Reasonable Measures to VIII.C.2.c.iii. Methods of Calculating
Maintain Secrecy Loss
X.B.3.b. Advantages and Disadvantages VIII.C.2.e. Sophisticated Means—
of Parallel Civil and Criminal U.S.S.G. § 2B1.1(b)(9)(C)
Proceedings VIII.D.2. Victims Include Owners of
SECURITY TESTING
SENTENCING GUIDELINES the Offense
II.B.3.b.ii. Definition of "Retail Value" IX.B.4. The Individual's History of
in this Context Criminal Offenses and Civil
II.B.4.a. History Intellectual Property Violations
SERVICE MARKS
IV.E.2. Sentencing Guidelines
III. Trafficking In Counterfeit
VI.A. Distinguished From Trademark
and Copyright Statutes
Certification Marks—18 U.S.C.
VI.E.3. Restitution
§ 2320
Certification Marks
VIII.C. Sentencing Guidelines
VIII.E. Forfeiture
§ 2B5.3
VIII.C.1.c. Adjust the Offense Level
According to the "Infringement
Property
Amount"—U.S.S.G. § 2B5.3(b)(1)
VIII.C.1.c.ii. Number of Infringing SHAM USE
Items III.B.4.d. The Genuine Mark Must
VIII.C.1.c.iii. Retail Value Have Been in Use by the
VIII.C.1.c.iv. Determining Amounts Mark-Holder or Its Licensee
SHORT PHRASES
Estimates Allowed
II.B.1.a.ii. Short Phrases Are Not
Copyrightable
or Uploading Infringing Items SIDEWALK STANDS
Increases the Offense Level by 2— I.A. Why Is Intellectual Property
Index 429
SIMILARITY OF DESIGN VI.A. Distinguished from Trademark
III.B.4.g. Likelihood of Confusion, and Copyright Statutes
Mistake, or Deception VI.B.3.Trafficking in Labels Affixed to,
Enclosing, or Accompanying (or
SOFTWARE
Designed to be Affixed to,
Copyright
II.B.1.c. New Procedure for
"Preregistration"
II.B.1.d.iii. Registration of Particular
Versions of a Work
or Distribution
in this Context
VIII.C.1.c.iv. Determining Amounts
§ 117
Estimates Allowed
Loss
Maintain Secrecy
Property
Prosecution in Another
Jurisdiction
Effectively Control Access (an SOLICITATION OF GIFTS
"Access Control") see GIFTS
SOPHISTICATED MEANS
VIII.C.2.e. Sophisticated Means—
to Apply
U.S.S.G. § 2B1.1(b)(9)(C)
VIII.C.2.h. Abuse of a Position of
Trust—U.S.S.G. § 3B1.3
V.B.2.b. In a Technology, Product,
VIII.C.2.i. Use of Special Skill—
Service, or Part Thereof
U.S.S.G. § 3B1.3
Circumvention SOUND RECORDINGS
V.B.3.b. Technological Measure That I.B. What Is Intellectual Property?
Effectively Protects a Right of a II.A.4. Federal Preemption
Copyright Owner Under This II.A.6. The Rights Protected by
Title ("Copy Control") Copyright
V.C.4. Information Security Exemption II.B.1.c. New Procedure for
V.C.6. Encryption Research "Preregistration"

II.B.3. Infringement of the Copyright STATUTES OF LIMITATIONS
II.B.3.a. Infringement by Reproduction II.B.1.d. Whether Registration or
or Distribution Preregistration is Required to Prosecute
II.B.3.c.iii. Work Being Prepared for II.C.1. Statute of Limitations: 5 years
Commercial Distribution III.B.3.b.iii. Making and Obtaining
II.C.3. Venue Counterfeits vs. Possession with
II.C.4.d. Special Rules for Rental, Intent to Traffic
Lease, and Lending III.C.4. Lanham Act Defenses
VI.B.5. Federal Jurisdiction III.C.5. Statute of Limitations
VI.F. Other Criminal Charges to V.C.1. Statute of Limitations
Consider VI.C. Defenses—Statute of Limitations
STATUTORY DAMAGES
Prosecution in Another
Jurisdiction
Begins and Ends
SPECIAL SKILL II.B.1.d.ii. Unpublished or Pre-Release
VIII.C. Sentencing Guidelines Works
VIII.C.1.a. Applicable Guideline is II.B.2.a. Legal Standard
§ 2B5.3 VIII.D.3. Determining a Restitution
VIII.C.1.h. Decryption or Figure
Circumvention of Access Controls X.B.3.a. Private Civil Remedies
Increases the Offense Level—
STAYS
U.S.S.G. § 3B1.3
X.B.3.b. Advantages and Disadvantages
VIII.C.2.e. Sophisticated Means—
U.S.S.G. § 2B1.1(b)(9)(C)
Proceedings
VIII.C.2.i. Use of Special Skill—
U.S.S.G. § 3B1.3
SPECIALIZED FORMAT Criminal Prosecution
STING OPERATIONS
SPECIFIED UNLAWFUL ACTIVITY IV.C.6. The First Amendment
(SUA) IV.D.2. Confidentiality and the Use of
II.E.2. Sentencing Guidelines Protective Orders
VIII.E.4.a. Proceeds VIII.C.2.c.i. Use Greater of Actual or
VIII.E.4.b. Infringing Items, Other Intended Loss
STIPULATIONS
Property
see also MONEY LAUNDERING
Protective Orders
SPURIOUS MARKS VIII.D.2. Victims Include Owners of
III.B.4.a. Definition of Counterfeit Intellectual Property and
Mark Generally: Not Genuine or Consumers Who Were Defrauded
Authentic
STOP COUNTERFEITING IN
MANUFACTURED GOODS ACT
Be Identical to or
Indistinguishable from a Genuine
Mark Owned by Another
STATE AND LOCAL III.A.2. Why Criminal Law Protects
IV.F. Other Possible Charges Trademarks, Service Marks, and
IX.C. Whether the Person is Subject to Certification Marks
Prosecution in Another III.B.1. The Trademark Counterfeiting
Jurisdiction Crime in General
Index 431
III.B.3. Intentionally Trafficked or STUDIO OUT-TAKES
Attempted to Traffic in Goods or II.E.2. Sentencing Guidelines
Services [after March 16, 2006: or
SUA
Labels, Documentation, or
see SPECIFIED ULAWFUL
Packaging for Goods or Services]
ACTIVITY
March 16, 2006: and Labels, SUBPOENAS
Patches, Stickers, Wrappers, V.A.4. Other DMCA Sections That Do
Badges, Emblems, Medallions, Not Concern Prosecutors
SUBSTANTIAL STEP
Nature]
Defense
Mark Generally: Not Genuine or SUBSTANTIALLY OVERSTATES
Authentic THE SERIOUSNESS OF THE
III.B.4.e. Use of the Counterfeit Mark OFFENSE
"On or In Connection With" VIII.C.2.g. Downward Departure
Goods or Services Considerations—U.S.S.G. § 2B1.1
III.B.4.f. The Counterfeit Mark Must cmt. n.19(C)
TAMPERING WITH PRODUCTS
Registered
Mistake, or Deception TANGIBLE MEDIUM
III.B.5. The Defendant Used the I.B. What Is Intellectual Property?
Counterfeit Mark "Knowingly" II.A.1. What Copyright Law Protects
III.C.1. Authorized-Use Defense: II.B.1.a. Copyrightability
Overrun Goods II.B.1.a.i. Original Work Fixed in a
III.C.3. Repackaging Genuine Goods Tangible Medium
TECHNICAL JOURNALS
Documentation, and Packaging TECHNOLOGICAL MEASURES
VIII.C.1.a. Applicable Guideline is V.A.1. DMCA's Background and
§ 2B5.3 Purpose
VIII.D.1. Restitution is Available—and V.A.2. Key Concepts: Access Controls
Often Required—in Intellectual vs. Copy Controls, Circumvention
Property Prosecutions vs. Trafficking
VIII.E. Forfeiture V.A.2.a. Access Controls vs. Copy/Use
VIII.E.4.b. Infringing Items, Other Controls
Contraband, and Facilitating V.B.1. Circumventing Access Controls,
Property 17 U.S.C. §§ 1201(a)(1) and
VIII.E.5.a. Proceeds 1204
VIII.E.5.b. Infringing Items, Other V.B.1.a. Circumvented
Contraband, and Facilitating V.B.1.b. Technological Measures That
Property Effectively Control Access (an
"Access Control")
STORAGE COSTS
III.D.6. Storage Costs and Destruction
X.C.1.b.iv. Storage Costs in
to Apply
Counterfeit or Infringing Products
Cases

V.B.2.c.1. Primarily Designed or VIII.C.2.c.iii. Methods of Calculating
Produced Loss
V.B.2.c.2. Limited Commercially VIII.C.2.e. Sophisticated Means—
Significant Purpose Other Than U.S.S.G. § 2B1.1(b)(9)(C)
Circumvention VIII.C.2.f. Upward Departure
V.B.3. Trafficking in Tools, Devices, Considerations—U.S.S.G. § 2B1.1
and Services to Circumvent Copy cmt. n.19(A)
Controls—17 U.S.C. VIII.C.2.g. Downward Departure
§§ 1201(b)(1) and 1204 Considerations—U.S.S.G. § 2B1.1
V.B.3.a. Circumventing cmt. n.19(C)
V.B.3.b. Technological Measure That VIII.C.2.h. Abuse of a Position of
Effectively Protects a Right of a Trust—U.S.S.G. § 3B1.3
Copyright Owner Under This VIII.C.2.i. Use of Special Skill—
Title ("Copy Control") U.S.S.G. § 3B1.3
V.C.6. Encryption Research VIII.D.1. Restitution is Available—and
VIII.D.2. Victims Include Owners of Often Required—in Intellectual
Intellectual Property and Property Prosecutions
Consumers Who Were Defrauded VIII.D.2. Victims Include Owners of
THE GREATER OF ACTUAL LOSS
OR INTENDED LOSS
VIII.C.2.c.i. Use Greater of Actual or
Figure
Intended Loss
THOMPSON MEMO Provisions Arranged by Criminal
IX.E. Special Considerations in IP Statute
Deciding Whether to Charge VIII.E.5. Criminal Forfeiture in IP
Corporations and Other Business Matters
Organizations VIII.E.5.b. Infringing Items, Other
THREATS OF PROSECUTION
Property
X.B.2.a. Victims Who Seek Advantage
By Threats of Criminal
Related Parties
Prosecution
X.C.1.b.v. Resources Donated for
TIMELY NOTICE OF ANY PUBLIC Ongoing Use by Law Enforcement
COURT PROCEEDING
TRADE SHOWS
TRADE SECRETS
TRADEMARK COUNTERFEITING
see generally Chapter IV
ACT OF 1984
see also
Certification Marks
II.B.1.a.iii. Expression of an Idea vs.
Crime in General
Idea Itself
II.E.2. Sentencing Guidelines TRADEMARKS
VII.A. Overview of Patent see generally Chapter III
VIII.C.1.k. No Downward Departure see also
for the Victim's Participation in I.A. Why Is Intellectual Property
Prosecution Enforcement Important?
VIII.C.2.a. Applicable Guideline is I.B. What Is Intellectual Property?
§ 2B1.1 Except for Attempts and I.C. Why Criminal Enforcement?
Conspiracies II.A.1. What Copyright Law Protects
Index 433
II.B.1.a.ii. Short Phrases Are Not VIII.E.2.a. Administrative Forfeiture
Copyrightable Proceedings
II.C.3. Venue VIII.E.4.a. Proceeds
II.E.2. Sentencing Guidelines VIII.E.4.b. Infringing Items, Other
VI.A. Distinguished From Trademark Contraband, and Facilitating
and Copyright Statutes Property
VI.B.4. The Labels, Documentation, or VIII.E.4.c.ii. Victims' Ability to Forfeit
Packaging Materials are Property
Counterfeit or Illicit IX.D. The Adequacy of Alternative
VI.D.2. Advantages of Charging a Non-Criminal Remedies
§ 2318 Offense X. Victims of Intellectual Property
VI.E.5.a. Retail Value of Copyrighted Crimes— Ethics and Obligations
Goods vs. Counterfeit Labels, X.B.3.a. Private Civil Remedies
Documentation, and Packaging X.C.1.b.iv. Storage Costs in
VI.E.5.b. Number of Infringing Counterfeit or Infringing Products
Copyrighted Goods vs. Number of Cases
Labels, Documents, or Packaging
TRAFFICKING IN ACCESS
Items
CONTROL CIRCUMVENTION
TOOLS AND SERVICES
Consider
V.B.2. Trafficking in Access Control
Circumvention Tools and
Services—17 U.S.C.
§§ 1201(a)(2) and 1204
Unauthorized Use of Satellite, TREBLE DAMAGES
Radio, and Cable X.B.2.b. Global Settlement
Communications), Trademark, Negotiations
Counterfeit Labeling, and the
UNAUTHORIZED DISCLOSURE OF
DMCA
GOVERNMENT INFORMATION
IV.A. Introduction
§ 2B5.3
VIII.C.1.c.ii. Number of Infringing UNIFORM TRADE SECRETS ACT
Items IV.A. Introduction
VIII.C.1.c.iv. Determining Amounts IV.B.2. Relevance of Civil Cases
and Values—Reasonable IV.B.3.a.viii. Independent Economic
Estimates Allowed Value
VIII.C.1.e. Manufacturing, Importing, IV.C.6. The First Amendment
or Uploading Infringing Items VIII.C.2.c.iii. Methods of Calculating
Increases the Offense Level by 2— Loss
U.S.S.G. § 2B5.3(b)(3) [Before see also TRADE SECRETS
October 24, 2005: § 2B5.3(b)(2)]
UNITS OF PROSECUTION
VIII.D.1. Restitution is
Available—and Often
Required—in Intellectual Property UNPUBLISHED COPYRIGHTED
Prosecutions WORK
VIII.D.2. Victims Include Owners of II.C.5.a. Unpublished Works
UPLOADING
Figure
VIII.E. Forfeiture
§ 2B5.3

Increases the Offense Level by 2— VIDEO GAMES
U.S.S.G. § 2B5.3(b)(3) [Before II.B.1.d.ii. Unpublished or Pre-Release
October 24, 2005: § 2B5.3(b)(2)] Works
USAGE CONTROLS
Controls
to Apply
Produced
see also COPY CONTROLS
VULNERABLE VICTIMS
USE IN COMMERCE
VIII.C.1.j. Vulnerable Victims—
U.S.S.G. § 3A1.1(b)
Mark-Holder or Its Licensee WILLFUL BLINDNESS
see also INTERSTATE AND III.B.5. The Defendant Used the
FOREIGN COMMERCE Counterfeit Mark "Knowingly"
UTILITY PATENTS
"Knowingly"
WORK BEING PREPARED FOR
VAGUENESS
COMMERCIAL DISTRIBUTION
II. Criminal Copyright Infringement—
17 U.S.C. § 506 and 18 U.S.C.
§ 2319
Overrun Goods
II.B. Elements
Maintain Secrecy
V.C.10.c. Vagueness
VENUE Distribution, by Making It
II.C.3. Venue Available on a Publicly-Accessible
III.B.1. The Trademark Counterfeiting Computer Network, If the
Crime in General Defendant Knew or Should Have
III.B.6. Venue Known the Work Was Intended
III.C. Defenses for Commercial Distribution
VI.B.6. Venue II.B.3.c.iii. Work Being Prepared for
VICTIM AND WITNESS
PROTECTION ACT OF 1982
VICTIM'S PARTICIPATION
WORKS MADE FOR HIRE
Begins and Ends
Prosecution
VIII.C.2.j. No Downward Departure WORLD INTELLECTUAL
for Victim's Participation in PROPERTY ORGANIZATION
Developing the Case (WIPO)
VICTIMS' RIGHTS
Purpose
Index 435
WRIT OF MANDAMUS
see MANDAMUS

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Computer Crime and

Michael M. DuBose Published by the

The contents of this book provide internal

Preface and Acknowledgments

iv Prosecuting Intellectual Property Crimes

III. Trafficking In Counterfeit Trademarks, Service Marks, and

vi Prosecuting Intellectual Property Crimes

Table of Contents vii

viii Prosecuting Intellectual Property Crimes

x Prosecuting Intellectual Property Crimes

xii Prosecuting Intellectual Property Crimes

Table of Contents xiii

xiv Prosecuting Intellectual Property Crimes

This Manual builds on the success of the editions published in 2001

xviii Prosecuting Intellectual Property Crimes

I.A. Why Is Intellectual Property Enforcement Important? . . . . 1

I.A. Why Is Intellectual Property

2 Prosecuting Intellectual Property Crimes

I.B. What Is Intellectual Property?

4 Prosecuting Intellectual Property Crimes

I.B.4. Trade Secrets

I.C. Why Criminal Enforcement?

6 Prosecuting Intellectual Property Crimes

I.A. Why Is Intellectual Property Enforcement Important? . . . . 1

I.A. Why Is Intellectual Property

2 Prosecuting Intellectual Property Crimes

I.B. What Is Intellectual Property?

4 Prosecuting Intellectual Property Crimes

I.B.4. Trade Secrets

I.C. Why Criminal Enforcement?

6 Prosecuting Intellectual Property Crimes

10 Prosecuting Intellectual Property Crimes

Willful copyright infringement is criminalized by 17 U.S.C. § 506(a)

II. Criminal Copyright Infringement 11

12 Prosecuting Intellectual Property Crimes

II.A.2. Legal Basis for Copyright and Related Laws

II. Criminal Copyright Infringement 13

II.A.3. Relevance of Civil Cases to Criminal Prosecutions

II.A.4. Federal Preemption

14 Prosecuting Intellectual Property Crimes

II.A.5. When Copyright Protection Begins and Ends

II.A.6. The Rights Protected by Copyright

II. Criminal Copyright Infringement 15

II.A.7. When Infringement is Criminal

16 Prosecuting Intellectual Property Crimes

II. Criminal Copyright Infringement 17

18 Prosecuting Intellectual Property Crimes

II.B.1. Existence of a Copyright

II.B.1.a.i. Original Work Fixed in a Tangible Medium

II. Criminal Copyright Infringement 19

II.B.1.a.ii. Short Phrases Are Not Copyrightable

II.B.1.a.iii. Expression of an Idea vs. Idea Itself

II.B.1.b. Copyrights vs. Registrations vs. Certificates

20 Prosecuting Intellectual Property Crimes

II.B.1.c. New Procedure for “Preregistration”

II. Criminal Copyright Infringement 21

II.B.1.d. Whether Registration or Preregistration is Required

22 Prosecuting Intellectual Property Crimes