MirrorsandLenses

Concavemirror
Note:Sherestandsfordistancebetweenobjectandmirror.

WhenS<F,theimageis:
Virtual
Upright
Magnified

WhenS=F,theimageisformedatinfinity
Notethatthereflectedlightraysareparallelanddonot
meettheothers.Inthisway,noimageisformedormore
properlytheimageisformedatinfinity.

WhenF<S<C,theimageis:
Real
Inverted
Magnified

WhenS=C,theimageis:
Real
Inverted
Samesize

WhenS>2F
Real
Inverted
Diminished(smaller)
ConvexMirror
Alwaysformavirtualimage,sincethefocusFandthecentreofcurvature2F
arebothimaginarypoints"inside"themirror,whichcannotbereached.

Theimageisalwaysvirtual(rayshaven'tactuallypassedthoughtheimage),
diminished(smaller),andupright.

U n
1
u
si ga formulainsteadofraytracing
Speedoflight
2.99792x10
8
ms
1
+
1

=
1
]
Magnification=
H
Ho
=

Virtual/RealImages
Avirtualimageisseenbecauselightappearstobecoming
fromit.Lightdoesntactuallypassthroughit.Thereforea
virtualimagecannotbecapturedonascreen.

Arealimageisonethroughwhichlightpasses.Arealimage
canbeseenonascreenplacedatthelocationoftheimage.

Describingimages
Orientationuprightorinverted
Naturewhethertheima pturedonascreen gecanbeca
Sizemagnification(m=
Icngth oI Imagc
Icngth oI objcct
)
Locationrelativetothelensesormirror

CompoundMicroscope
theobjectivelensmusthaveashorterfocallengththantheeyepiecelens
theobjectisplacedoutsidethefocallengthoftheobjectivelens
theeyepieceispositionedsothattheimagefromtheobjectivelensiswithinitsfocalpoint

LateralInversion
Lateralinversionistheapparentsidewaysreversalofanimageina
mirrorwhencomparedtotheobjectinfrontofthemirror.

Sphericalaberration
Distortionofanimageproducedbyaconcavemirrorthatissphericalratherthanparabolic.Insmallmirrorssphericalaberrationis
lessnoticeablethaninlargermirrors.Itoccursbecauseasphericalmirrordoesnotreflectparallelraystoasinglepoint.Thefocusis
spreadout.
Raymodel
Statesthatlighttravelsinastraightlinepathcalledaray(doesntexplainrefraction).
Newton'sparticalmodel
Suggestslightspeedsupgoingfromairtowater(whichiswrong).
Huygen'swavemodel
Suggeststhatlighttravelsinwaves(likewaterwaves).Thisexplainsrefractionasfollows:Whenawavefronthitsaboundaryatan
angle,thewaveslowsdown.Partsofthewavethathitstheboundarylatercatchuptotherestofthewavecausingthechangein
direction.

Reflectingtelescopes
Telescopesusinglenses:
canproducedistortionofcolours
lensaremoreexpensivethanmirrors
lenscanbeveryheavy,largelenscanbend

Planemirrorreflection
Theangleofincidenceistheanglebetweentheincidentrayandthenormal.
Theangleofreflection is theanglebetweenthe
0

= 0

onglc o inJicJcncc = onglc o rclcction

reflectedrayandthenormal.
Regularreflection
Reflectionfromasmoothsurface.
Diffusereflection
Reflectionoflightfromanunevenorgranularsurfacesuchthatanincidentrayisseeminglyreflectedatanumberofangles

Totalinternalreflect ion
Astheangleofincidenceincreases,theamountoflightreflectedincreases.Insomematerials,ahighenoughanglewillresultinan
angleofreflectionof 9u.Thisiscalledthecriticalangleandbeyondthisalllightisreflectedinaprocesscalledtotalinternal
reflection
Criticalangle
Thecriticalangleistheangleofincidenceforwhichtheangleofrefractionis90.Thecriticalangleexistsonlywhenlightpasses
econdsubstancewithalowerrefractiveindex. fromonesubstanceintoas
UsingSnellslaw,wecanfindthecriticalangleofdifferentmediums.
n
u
sin0o = n
b
sin0b
Mirages
Occurwhenhotairorcoldaircausestotalinternalreflectionoflight

slaw ApparentDepth
Rcrocti:c inJcx =
rcol Jcptb
opporcnt Jcptb

Snell'
n
u
sin0o = n
b
sin0b
sin0

sin0

= rcrocticc inJcx
i=angleofincidence,r=angleofrefraction,n=refractiveindex

Refractiveindex
Rcrocti:c inJcx =
spccJ o ligbt in :ocuum
spccJ o ligbt in motcriol

Opticalfibres
Usestotalinternalrefractiontobouncelightalongacurvedpath.
Modaldispersion
Distortionoflightduetothe
differentpathstakenbylight
throughanopticalfibre.
Compensatedby:
usingnarrowerfibres
usinggradedindexfibreswhen
lightneartheedgestravelfaster

Materialdispersion
Distortionofalightpulsedueto
theseparationofcoloursasa
resultofrefraction.
Compensatedby:
reducingtherangeoflight
frequenciessentdownthefibre

Humanandanimalvision
Whenrelaxed,theeyeisfocusedondistantobjects,tofocusonnearobjects,
theciliarymusclescontractstoincreasethethicknessofthelens.Thisadjustment
iscalledaccomodation.Theclosestdistancethatyoucanfocusoniscalledyournearpoint.
Accommodation
Adjustmenttothethicknessofthelens
intheeyetoensurethattheimageon
theretinaissharp.Whenthethickness
ofthelenschanges,sodoesitsfocal
length.

NearPoint
Theclosestanobjectcanbetoyour
eyesothatyoureyecanproducea
sharpimageofthe objectonitsretina.
Myopia
Thosewithmyopiaseenearbyobjects
clearlybutdistantobjectsappear
blurred.Theimagefocusestooearly
beforehittingtheretina.
Relievedbyplacingaconcavelensin
frontoftheeyethatspreadsthelight
raysapartslightlybeforetheyenter
theeye.
Hypermetropia
Thosewithhypermetropiaseedistantobjects
butnearbyobjectsappearblurred.Theimage
focusestoolate,pasttheretina.
Relievedbyplacingaconvexlensinfrontofthe
eyethatbringstheraystogetherslightlybefore
theyentertheeye.

Propertiesofwaves
Frequency
Num roduced persecond.MeasuredinHz. berofwavesp
f=
numbc o] wucs
numbc o] scconds
orf=
1
1
WhereT=period
Period
Thetimeittakesasourcetoproduceacompletewave.
Amplitude
Thesizeofthemaximumdisturbancefromthenormalstate.
Wavelength
Distancebetweensuccessivecorrespondingpartsofawave.
Crest
Thesectionofawavethatrisesaboveanundisturbed
position
Trough
Thelowestpointonawave
LensPower
Thepowerofalensisgivenbythe
formula:Powcr =
1
]

Theunitsforlenspoweraredioptic(D)

Speedofawave
speed=
dstuncc
tmc
=

1
=wavelength
v=f because T =
1
]

Interference
Occurswhentwotransversewavesarriveatthesamepointatthesametime.
Constructiveinterferenceoccurswhentwowavescombinetomakebiggerwaves
Destructiveinterferenceoccurswhenthetwowavescombinetomakeasmallerdisturbance.
Polarisation
Istheblockingoftransversewavesexceptforthosetravellinginasingleplane.
Chromaticaberration
Occurswhenlight ughalensisseparatedintocoloursduetodispersion. passingthro
Thiscanbemeasuredusingthe
Abbc Numbcr =
n
oIct
-n
cd
n
cIIow
Abbenumber.

Scattering Rainbows
Isthechangeindirectionoflightduetotheinteractionwith
particlesintheatmosphere.Thistypeofscatteringiscalled
Rayleighscattering.
Occurswhenlightfromthesunpassesthroughwater
dropletsintheair.

Radiation
Basicsofchemistry
*Nucleonsparticlesinsidethenucleus(protonsandneutrons)
*Typeofatomisdeterminedbyatomicnumber(numberofprotons)
*Elementisasubstancecontainingonlyonetypeofatomandcan'tbebrokendownfurther
*Massnumberisgivenbynumberofnucleons
*Atomscontainingthesamenumberofprotonsbutdifferentnumberofneutronsarecalledisotopes
*Radioisotopeisanunstableisotopethatcandecaytoastableformbyemitting/radiatingparticles

Daughternucleus Electronvolt
eVisaunitusedto
measuresmallamountsof
energy.1eV=1.6*10
19
J

Excitednucleus
Doesnothaveidealarrangementofprotonsandelectronsin
thenucleus.Anexcitednucleusemitsy(gamma)radiationto
becomemorestable.Anexcitednucleusisdenotedbyan
asterisk(*)afterthesymbolfortheelement.
Nucleusremainingafteranatom
undergoesradioactivedecayis
calledadaughternucleus.

Typesofnuclearradiation
Alphadecayanalphaparticleisthesameasaheliumnucleus(2protons,2neutrons).Alpha
particlesarelarge,heavyandslow.Theyhaveachargeof+2sotheycanbedeflectedbyan
electricormagneticfield.Theyhavekineticenergywhichisverysmall.

BetadecayOnlynegativebetaparticlesoccurinnature.Betaparticlesaresmall,lightandcantravelfast.They
arealsodeflectedbyelectricandmagneticfields.

GammadecayGammaraysaresmallpacketsofelectromagneticenergyknownasa
photon.Theseareformedbyanexcitednucleuswhichhasanimperfectarrangementof
protonsandneutrons.Gammarayshavenochargesoaren'tdeflectedbyelectricor
magneticfields.Theytravelatthespeedoflight.

Halflife
Thetimetakenforhalfagroupofunstablenucleitodecayiscalledthehalflife.Thecurvedefinedbythedecayofradioisotopesis
calle edecaycurve.Thisisgivenbytheformula: dth
A=A
0
2
-t
t
1
2
Aifthecurrentamountoftheisotope tisthetime
Aoistheoriginalamount t
1/2
isthehalflifeofthatisotope

particlesabsorbedinafewcmofair,sheetofpaper,deadskin

Pe
particlesabsorbedisabout100cmofair,afewcmofaluminum
netrationpower
o
[
yraysabsorbedinmanycmoflead
Ionising power
Io
particles - high ionising power
ns are atoms with an overall positive or negative
arge. ch
particles - less ionising power
o
[
y rays - very low ionising power
Radioactiveseries
Adecaychainoccurswhenanatommustgothroughseveralradioactivedecaysbeforereachingastableform.

Io isin
o,[, yandXraysemitneutronsfromthenucleusandarealltypesofionisingradiation.Otherradiationsuchasvisiblelight,
microwavesandradiowavesdonothavetheenergytomakeions,theyarenonionisingradiations.Whenanatominamoleculeis
ionisedthemoleculescanbreakintotwochargedhalvescalledfreeradicals.Ionsandfreeradicalsarehighlyreactiveandcan
damageorganiccell.Cellscandieordivideuncontrollablycausingcancer.
n gradiation
MeasuringRadioactivity
Theactivityofaradioactivesourceis
definedasthenumberofnucleardecays
persecond.Theunitofactivityisthe
becquerel(Bq)(1Bq=1decaypersecond).

Absorbeddose
Absorbeddose=
Lncg ubsobcd
Muss

Measu Gray(Gy) redin
1Gy=
1 ]ouIc
1 KIo

Doseequivalent
Doseequivalent=absorbeddose*qualityfactor
MeasureinSieverts(Sv)

Alternativeunitsofradiation
Rads 1rad=0.01Gy
Rems 1rem=0.01Sv

Exposuretoradiation
Acuteeffects
Delayedeffects
Increaseincancerrates
Increaseincataractsandcardiovascular
disease
Mentalillnessmorelikelytodevelopin
childrenirradiatedinthewomb
AverageannualdoseinAustralia=0.002Sv
0.75Sv=vomitingin10%ofpeople
1Sv=canceris5%ofpeopleaftermanyyears
3Sv=deathin50%ofpeoplewithin2monthsifleftuntreated
>10Sv=deathwithin10days
>40Sv=deathwithin2days

MedicalPhysics
Ultrasound
Ultrasoundisveryhighfrequencysound.Ultrasoundwavesaresoundwavesthathaveafrequencyabovetherangeofhuman
hearing;thatis,greaterthan20000hertz.
AcousticImpendence
Acousticimpedance(Z)isameasureofhowreadily undwillpassthroughamaterial. tismeasuredinkgm
2
s
1
. so I
Z=p:givesustheformulaforimpendence,wherep=densityofmedium(kgm
3
)and:=velocityofsoundinthematerial(ms
1
)
Reflectionofultrasound Piezoelectriceffect
Thepiezoelectriceffectistheconversionofelectrical
energytomechanicalenergyresultinginthechangein
shapeofapiezoelectriccrystalwhenitissubjectedtoa
voltage.
Ascan
AnAscanisarangemeasuringsystemthatrecordsthe
timeforanultrasonicpulsetotraveltoaninterfaceinthe
bodyandbereflectedback.
BScan
ABscandisplaysthereflectedultrasoundasaspot,thebrightnessofwhichisdeterminedbytheintensityoftheultrasound.
SectorScan
Asectorscanisascanintheshapeofasector.SectorscansaremadeupfromaseriesofBscans.
PhaseScan
Aphasescanisascanproducedusinganarrayoftransducers.Theshorttimeintervalbetweenthesignalsfromeachtransducer
maybevariedtoproducethisscan.
Dopplereffect
TheDopplereffectistheapparentchangeinfrequencyobservedwhenthereisrelativemovementbetweenasourceofasoundand
anobserver.

Xrays
Xraysareelectromagneticwavesofveryhighfrequencyand
veryshortwavelengthintherange0.001nmto10nm.
CathodeRay
ACathoderayisanarrowbeamofelectronsemittedfromahot
filamentthroughwhichanelectriccurrentflows.
Hard/SoftXrays
XrayscanbeclassifiedashardXraysorsoftXrays.HardXrays
haveahigherfrequencyandmoreenergythansoftXraysand
arethereforemorepenetrating.
Attenuationofasignal
AttenuationofasignallikeanXraybeamisthereductionin
intensityofthebeam.
CT/CATscans
ACATscannerconsistsofanXraytubethatisrotatedaround
thepatientbeingimaged.
Endoscopes
Anendoscopeisatubeusedtoviewtheinsideofthebody.It
transferslighttoandfromtheareabeingexamined.

Coherent/Noncoherentopticfibres
Acoherentopticfibrebundleisoneinwhichtheopticfibreskeepthesamepositionrelativetooneanother.Anoncoherentoptic
fibrebundleisoneinwhichthefibresarenotkeptinthesamepositionrelativetooneanother.
Keyholesurgery
Lasersusedinconjunctionwithendoscopeswhensurgeryisbeingcarriedout.
Thehighintensityofthebeammakeslasersusefulforcuttingthroughlivingtissuesuchasbloodvesselsandpartsoforgans.
Thetemperaturesproducedatthetargetareaaresohighthatbloodvesselsaresealedalmostinstantly,reducingbleedingduring
surgery.
Thenarrownessofthebeammakesitpossibletotargetverysmallareasandtocutordestroytissueinthetargetareawithout
damagingsurroundingtissue.Thecuttingprocessismoreprecisewithalaserthanwithascalpel.
Thenarrowrangeofwavelengthsofalaserbeamallowssurgeonstoselectalaserthatwillfulfilaparticularpurpose.
Otherusesoflasersinmedicaltreatment
theremovalofscarring
theeliminationofwrinklesandbirthmarks
theremovalofunwantedbloodvesselsfromthefaceandneck
hairremoval
lasereyesurgerycanbeusedtoreshapethecorneatoimprovevision
Radioactivelabelling
Theradioisotopechosenneedsawayofgettingtothetargetorgan.First,itmustbechemicallyattachedtoacompoundthatwould
normallybemetabolisedbytheorganofinterest.
Radiopharmaceutical
Aradiopharmaceuticalisacompoundthathasbeenlabelledwitharadioisotope.

Significantfigures
Whendowecountzeroes?
zeroesbetweenothernumbersaresignificant
zeroesbeforeothernumbersarenotsignificant
zeroesafterothernumbers:
*fordecimals:theyaresignificant
*fornondecimals,theyaresignificantunlessstatedotherwise
Calculatingwithsignificantnumbers
2rules:
formultiplicationofdivision:theresultshouldhavethenumberofsignificantfiguresoftheleastaccuratevalue.
foradditionandsubtraction:theresultshouldbeexpressedtotheminimumnumberofdecimalplacesusedinthedata.

SIunits