Copernicus 93: Institute of Automation, Denmark

Institute of Automation, Denmark
COPERNICUS 93
MSL
Mechatronics Simulink Library
Reference Manual
by
Anders Pjetursson and Ole Ravn
Motors Amplifiers Sensors Converters Preliminary Additional Mechanics
Reference manual
COPERNICUS PROJECT: CP 93:10119
Contents Page1
1.0 Contents
1.0 Contents..................................................................................................................1
2.0 Introduction ............................................................................................................4
2.1 General Simulink Features ................................................................................4
2.1.1 Masked Blocks ...........................................................................................4
2.1.2 Triggered Blocks ........................................................................................4
2.1.3 Algebraic Loops .........................................................................................5
2.1.4 Global Variables .........................................................................................5
3.0 Motors ....................................................................................................................6
3.1 The DC Motor....................................................................................................6
3.1.1 Theoretical Aspects of the DC Motor ........................................................6
3.1.1.1 Non-linear Conditions .........................................................................9
3.1.2 Experimental Verication of Parameters..................................................11
3.1.3 MSL Model of the DC-Motor ..................................................................12
3.1.3.1 Input/Output of the DC Motor Model ...............................................13
3.1.3.2 Granularity Possibilities with the DC Motor Model .........................14
3.1.3.3 Symbol and Mask of the DC Motor Model.......................................14
3.2 The AC-Motor .................................................................................................15
3.2.1 Field Vector Control of the AC-Motor .....................................................20
3.3 The Stepmotor .................................................................................................21
3.3.1 Theoretical Aspects of the Stepmotor ......................................................21
3.3.1.1 Dynamic Behaviour of the Stepmotor ...............................................24
3.3.2 Modelling the Stepmotor..........................................................................25
4.0 Ampliers.............................................................................................................26
4.1 The Pre-Amplier............................................................................................26
4.1.1 MSL Model of the Pre-Amplier.............................................................26
4.1.1.1 Input/Output of the Pre-Amplier Model..........................................26
4.1.1.2 Granularity Possibilities with the Pre-Amplier Model....................27
4.1.1.3 Symbol and Mask of the Pre-Amplier.............................................27
4.2 The Bridge Amplier.......................................................................................27
4.2.1 MSL Model of the Bridge Amplier .......................................................28
4.2.1.1 Input/Output of the Bridge Amplier Model ....................................28
4.2.1.2 Granularity Possibilities with the Bridge Amplier Model ..............28
4.2.1.3 Symbol and Mask of the Bridge Amplier .......................................28
4.3 The DC Amplier ............................................................................................29
4.3.1 Theoretical Aspects of the DC Amplier.................................................29
4.3.2 MSL Model of the DC Amplier.............................................................29
4.3.2.1 Input/Output of the DC Amplier Model..........................................30
4.3.2.2 Granularity Possibilities with the DC Amplier Model....................31
4.3.2.3 Symbol and Mask of the DC Amplier.............................................31
4.4 The Combined Amplier.................................................................................32
4.4.1 MSL Model of the Combined Amplier..................................................32
4.4.1.1 Input/Output of the Combined Amplier Model...............................33
4.4.1.2 Granularity Possibilities with the Combined Amplier Model.........33
4.4.1.3 Symbol and Mask of the Combined Amplier Model ......................33
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Contents Page2
4.5 The AC-Amplier............................................................................................34
4.6 The PWM Inverter ...........................................................................................36
4.6.1 Theoretical Aspects of the PWM Inverter................................................36
4.6.2 MSL Model of the PWM Inverter............................................................38
4.6.2.1 Input/Output of the PWM Inverter Model.........................................38
4.6.2.2 Symbol and Mask of the PWM Inverter............................................38
5.0 Sensors..................................................................................................................40
5.1 Tachometer.......................................................................................................40
5.1.1 Theoretical Aspects of the Tachometer....................................................40
5.1.2 MSL Model of the Tachometer ................................................................41
5.1.2.1 Input/Output of the Tachometer Model .............................................42
5.1.2.2 Granularity Possibilities with the Tachometer Model. ......................42
5.1.2.3 Symbol and Mask of the Tachometer Model.....................................42
5.2 Potentiometer...................................................................................................43
5.2.1 Theoretical Aspects of the Potentiometer ................................................43
5.2.2 MSL Model of the Potentiometer ............................................................43
5.2.2.1 Input/Output of the Potentiometer Model .........................................44
5.2.2.2 Symbol and Mask of the Potentiometer Model .................................44
5.3 Encoder ............................................................................................................44
5.3.1 Theoretical Aspects of the Encoder .........................................................45
5.3.2 MSL Model of the Encoder......................................................................45
5.3.2.1 Input/Output of the Encoder Model ..................................................46
5.3.2.2 Granularity Possibilities of the Encoder Model ................................46
5.3.2.3 Symbol and Mask of the Encoder Model ..........................................46
5.4 Strain Gauge ....................................................................................................47
5.4.1 Theoretical Aspects of the Strain Gauge..................................................47
5.4.2 MSL Model of the Strain Gauge..............................................................48
5.4.2.1 Input/Output of the Strain Gauge Model...........................................48
5.4.2.2 Symbol and Mask of the Strain Gauge Model ..................................49
6.0 Converters.............................................................................................................50
6.1 Digital to Analog Converter.............................................................................50
6.1.1 Theoretical Aspects of the Digital to Analog Converter..........................50
6.1.2 MSL Model of the Digital to Analog Converter ......................................51
6.1.2.1 Input/Output of the Digital to Analog Converter Model ...................51
6.1.2.2 Granularity Possibilities with the Digital to Analog Converter Model .
51
6.1.2.3 Symbol and Mask of the Digital to Analog Converter Model...........51
6.2 Analog to Digital Converter.............................................................................52
6.2.1 Theoretical Aspects of the Analog to Digital Converter..........................52
6.2.2 MSL Model of the Analog to Digital Converter ......................................53
6.2.2.1 Input/Output of the Analog to Digital Converter Model ...................53
6.2.2.2 Granularity Possibilities with the Analog to Digital Converter Model .
53
6.2.2.3 Symbol and Mask of the Analog to Digital Converter Model...........54
7.0 Mechanics.............................................................................................................55
7.1 Mechanical Gear..............................................................................................55
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Contents Page3
7.1.1 MSL Model of the Mechanical Gear .......................................................55
7.1.1.1 Input/Output of the Mechanical Gear Model ....................................55
7.1.1.2 Granularity Possibilities with the Mechanical Gear Model ..............56
7.1.1.3 Symbol and Mask of the Mechanical Gear Model ............................56
7.2 Flexible Link....................................................................................................57
7.2.1 Theoretical Aspects of the Flexible Link.................................................57
7.2.2 MSL Model of the Flexible Link .............................................................59
7.2.2.1 Input/Output of the Flexible Link Model ..........................................59
7.2.2.2 Symbol and Mask of the Flexible Link Model..................................60
8.0 Database File ........................................................................................................62
9.0 References ............................................................................................................63
Appendix AQuick Reference Guide ........................................................................... A-1
A.1 Inputs and Outputs of the Elements.............................................................. A-1
A.2 Levels of Complexity.................................................................................... A-2
A.3 Parameters..................................................................................................... A-3
A.4 Unity Transformation ................................................................................... A-4
Reference manual
Introduction Page4
2.0 Introduction
This manual is a reference manual to the Mechatronic Simulink Library (MSL) which is
a part of the Mechatronic Blockset Library (MBL) under Simulink. This report is in pre-
liminary form, and will be changed and extended pending the evaluation of the
Mechatronic Blockset Library. Other literature covering the MBL are [Pjetursson and
Ravn, 1995a], [Pjetursson and Ravn, 1995b], [Pjetursson and Ravn, 1995c], [Pjetursson
and Ravn, 1995d], [Ravn and Pjetursson, 1995] and [Szymkat et al., 1995]. The work
with this library has been carried out as a part of the EU project COPERNICUS.
This manual contains descriptions of a large number of different mechatronic compo-
nents. For the components there has been set up a mathematical description of the item,
and modelling aspects are discussed. Further more the Mechatronic Simulink Library
component is proposed and discussed. It is the authors hope that this manual will end-up
being a complete description of mechatronic devices.
2.1 General Simulink Features
Some general Simulink features has been utilized in order to make this blockset library
as exible as possible. The main functionality that has been used is the masked block.
2.1.1 Masked Blocks
Simulink offers the possibility of grouping and masking blocks of Simulink compo-
nents. By masking a block it becomes possible to draw an illustrative icon describing
what the block contains. The masked block functionality contains an initialisation entry
where it is possible to write several Matlab commands. This entry is in the MSL library
used to enter parameters in the library component either through a database or from the
dened mask entries. Further more masked blocks has local variables which are making
it possible to have variables with the same names in different blocks. A more intensive
description of masked blocks can be found in [Simulink, 1993].
2.1.2 Triggered Blocks
Triggered blocks is an undocumented feature in Simulink. A triggered block has almost
the same interface as a normal Simulink S-function block but unlike S-functions the trig-
gered block is not simulated when it is not triggered i.e. the block does not use CPU time
when it is non-triggered. Triggered blocks are used in the mechatronic blockset library
but due to the undocumented nature and some minor problems with the blocks they have
not been used intensively. One of the problems with triggered blocks is that it becomes
impossible to quit Matlab normally when triggered blocks are used.
Reference manual
Introduction Page5
2.1.3 Algebraic Loops
When systems are dened as many small blocks the nal model will often contain alge-
braic loops. In the Simulink manual [Simulink, 1993] it is proposed to remove these
algebraic loops by introducing a memory block with delay 0 in the loop, but in this
blockset it has been found that the memory block brought in small uctuations on the
involved signals and because of that decreased simulation speed dramatically. Due to
this problems memory blocks are not used in the mechatronic blockset library, and the
possibility of getting algebraic loops are still present. However if problems arises mem-
ory blocks can easily be introduced in the system.
2.1.4 Global Variables
It has been tried to avoid global variables in the mechatronic blockset library but a few
global variables has been necessary in order to make the model components react coor-
dinated. The global variables used in the library are
These variables has to be present when simulation systems with the mechatronic
blockset library. There has been made a matlab le (gstatus.m) which contains the
necessary declarations.
Table 1: Global variables
Variable name Variable description
Ts Sampling time of digital systems (Seconds)
Friction Friction on/off switch (0/1)
Saturation Saturation on/off switch (0/1)
Dynamic Level of dynamics (0/1/2)
Quantization Quantization on/off (0/1)
Noise Noise on/off (0/1)
Reference manual
Motors Page6
3.0 Motors
In this chapter the different motors in the Mechatronic Simulink Library (MSL) will be
described. For each motor the theory is described and after that modelling aspect are dis-
cussed. Finally the MSL symbols and models of the motors are illustrated and discussed.
3.1 The DC Motor
The DC-motor is often used in control systems. This is mainly because it is available in
many power sizes to a nice price and due to the fact that it is easy to control. In this chap-
ter the theory of the DC motor and the corresponding MSL model will be discussed.
3.1.1 Theoretical Aspects of the DC Motor
The constrains in the DC-motor are of both electrical and mechanical character. This is
described very well in [Andersen, 1987] and in [Leth, 1978].
The electrical constrains are as follows:
The link between the terminal voltage and the current in a phase is given by equa-
tion 3.1
(3.1)
When the motor is running with the shaft speed it generates a voltage which will lower
the resulting input voltage (counter voltage). This voltage is given by equation 3.2
(3.2)
using the laplace operator equation 3.1 and equation 3.2 can be combined into equation
3.3
(3.3)
where is the current in the motor, is the resistance of the motor, is the output
resistance of the amplier, is the inductance of the motor and is the inductance of
the amplier. In general the inductance of the amplier is so small that it can be ignored.
The electrical to mechanical constrain is given in equation 3.4
(3.4)
where is the generated torque and is the torque constant.
The mechanical constrain is given in equation 3.5
Va i
V
a
Ri L
t d
di
+ =
V
e
V
e

K
e
=
I
a
V
a
K
e
R Ls +
----------------------
V
a
K
e
R
a
R
g
+ ( ) L
a
L
g
+ ( )s +
------------------------------------------------------- = =
I
a
R
a
R
g
La L
g
T
d
I
a
K
t
=
T
d
K
t
Reference manual
Motors Page7
, (3.5)
where is total inertia, is torque load, is developed torque, and is the uid
friction constant.
If it is presumed that there is a stiff connection between the motor and the load the iner-
tia and uid friction from the load can be included in the motor equations. The total iner-
tia can the be written as in equation 3.6
(3.6)
where the index m referees to the motor, and the index lm referees to the load transferred
to the motor. The total uid friction becomes
(3.7)
This motor model is illustrated in the block diagram on gure 3.1.
By introducing the denitions
(3.8)
and
(3.9)
where is the electrical time constants and is the mechanical time constant, the
block diagram in gure 3.1 can be reduced to the one illustrated in gure 3.2.
The prior equations describes the static and dynamic relations between the shaft speed
and the inputs and . The input in gure 3.1 and gure 3.2 represents the unlin-
eary components which will be discussed later (See Non-linear Conditions on
page 9.).
Figure 3.1 Block diagram of DC-motor
T
acc
J
m
T
d
T
l
f
m
= =
J
m
T
l
T
d
f
m
J
J J
m
J
lm
+ =
f f
m
f
lm
+ =
1
R+sL
K
t
1
J
1
s
f
K
e
V
a
T
b
e
L
R
--- =
mek
J
f
--- =
e

mek
V
a
T
l
T
l
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Motors Page8
If it is assumed that it is possible to neglect the electrical time constant the system
becomes of rst order. This simplication will make is easy to transform the uid fric-
tion into an electrical equivalent (F).
(3.10)
By replacing f with f + F in equation 3.8 and equation 3.10 the result becomes
(3.11)
The time constant written in equation 3.11 is often called the motor time constant (or
mechanical time constant), and it is the most dominating dynamic parameter to charac-
terise the transfer function . From gure 3.2 it is also possible to nd a speed con-
stant that can be dened as
(3.12)
If extremely large uid friction loads are left out, and it is presumed that the motor is
supplied with a low output resistance amplier (compared to the motor), the equation
3.11 and equation 3.12 can be simplied to
(3.13)
(3.14)
This describes the static and dynamic connection between the shaft speed , the input
and the load from the non-linear input . Again under the consumption that the
electrical time-constant the shaft speed may be written as
Figure 3.2 Simplied block diagram of DC motor
1
R(1+
e
s)
K
t
1
f(1+
mek
s)
K
e
V
a
T
b
e
F
K
e
K
t
R
------------ =
m
J
f F +
-------------
J R
K
e
K
t
f R +
------------------------------ = =
V
a
K
vm
V
a
------
s 0 =
K
vm
K
t
f R
-----------
1
K
e
K
t
f R
------------ +
----------------------
K
t
K
e
K
t
f R +
------------------------------ = = =
m
J R
K
e
K
t
------------
J
F
--- =
K
vm
1
K
e
------
V
a
T
l
e
0
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Motors Page9
(3.15)
Under static conditions the shaft speed equation 3.15 can be simplied into equation
3.16
(3.16)
The model of the system described in equation 3.15 is illustrated in gure 3.3.
The parameters and uctuate as a function of the working point ( , ) and the
shaft angle . The uctuations occur due to the non-linear effects caused by the con-
stants , , and .
3.1.1.1 Non-linear Conditions
In the following different kinds of non-linear parameters in the DC motor will be dis-
cussed. In the different subjects there will be a proposal to how this parameter can be
modelled.
The amature resistance ( ) rises due to the resistance in the phases but also due to
resistance in the coals whom establish the connection between the amature and the shaft.
As the shaft rotates each coal will short-circuit two neighbour segments one time each
commutation part which means that the amature current and therefore the torque will be
corrupted with a ripple. This can indirectly be modelled as an amature resistance with a
average resistance but with an amplitude . The function depends on
the number of commutator segments, the pole pairs and the size of the segments with
respect to the size of the coals. Even for a motor of reasonable good quality the size of
the ripple is up to 10% of the average value of the amature resistance .
The torque constant is constant if the inuence of the amature reaction and the reac-
tion of the slot is ignored. The reaction of the slot is understood as the variation in the
Figure 3.3 Motor model
s ( )
K
vm
1
m
s +
------------------V
a
s ( )
1
F 1
m
s + ( )
---------------------------T
l
s ( ) =
K
vm
V
a
1
F
--- T
l
,
_
=
K
vm
m
.s+1
Transfer Fcn1
-
+
Sum
1
f*
m
.s+f)
Transfer Fcn2
1
Speed
2
Va
1
Tb
K
vm
F T
l
V
a
R
a
K
t
K
e
f
R
a
R
a
R
a
R
a
d ( ) + R
a
d ( )
R
a
K
t
Reference manual
Motors Page10
generated torque due to the fact that the active side of the poles are discretely divided
over the circumference of the rotor. is a function of the current ( ) and the position
of the rotor ( ). The reaction of the slot causes to decrease at high currents. As ama-
ture control always has the highest possible magnetisation eld extremely high currents
are needed before the amature reaction has any effect on . The conclusions must there-
fore be that there is no reason to model the variations in .
The counter voltage constant is equivalent to the torque constant and is also a
function of the current ( ) and the position of the rotor ( ). To analyse the effect of the
changes of on the shaft speed ( ) equation 3.16 and the primary constants dened in
equation 3.10 and equation 3.12 are used to form equation 3.17.
(3.17)
can be ignored as this is a correction of a correction which leads to the simpler equa-
tion 3.18
(3.18)
The inuence can be analysed by evaluating the derived of with respect to . This
may be written as
(3.19)
Which implies:
(3.20)
By using the relative variation equation 3.20 can be rewritten into equation
3.21
(3.21)
can be eliminated by using equation 3.18 and this gives
(3.22)
As illustrated the variation in the shaft speed has a constant part proportional to the aver-
age load ( ) and a part given directly by the relative variation ( ). These two parts
rises due to the variation in and . It can be proven that the rst part is dominating
K
t
I
a
K
t
K
t
K
t
K
e
K
t
I
a

K
e

K
t
K
e
K
e
f R +
-------------------------------V
a
R
K
e
K
e
-------------T
l
=
f R
1
K
e
------V
a
R
K
e
K
t
------------T
l
=
K
e
K
e
d
d
1
K
e
2
------V
a
2R
K
e
3
-------T
l
+ =
1
K
e
------
K
e
K
e
----------V
a
R
K
e
K
t
------------
2K
e
K
e
-------------T
l
+ =
K
K
e
K
e
=
1
K
e
------
K
V
a
1
F
--- 2
K
T
l
+ =
V
a
1
F
---
K
M
b

K
=
T
l

K
K
t
K
e
Reference manual
Motors Page11
when the amature voltage drop ( ) is large compared with the inducted volt-
age ( ), which again leads to equation 3.23.
(3.23)
In the normal working zone for the motor the equation 3.22 for the variation can be
rewritten because the ripple frequency is below the bandwidth of the motor. This simpli-
es equation 3.22 into equation 3.24
(3.24)
Which nally leads to the conclusion that the variation in can be modelled as a varia-
tion on the load .
Friction
The friction of the DC-motor rises due to the bearings but also due to the commutation
coals, as they work under a high pressure to be able to carry the desired current. The
mathematical description of friction is normally split into friction depending on the shaft
speed (uid friction).
(3.25)
and friction that is not (coulomb friction)
(3.26)
To this should be added the static friction (stiction) given by the torque . Due to the
stiction the shaft will not start to rotate before the motor generates the torque
, but while turning only the torque is needed to keep the shaft
rotating.
All these different non-linear components can be added to the model of the DC motor
generating a more accurate but also more complex model. A complete model of the DC
motor summarizing all the previous considerations is illustrated in gure 3.1.
3.1.2 Experimental Verication of Parameters
Many of the parameters used in the modelling of the DC motor can be veried with dif-
ferent kind of experiments. In the following a few examples of this is described.
The amature resistance ( ) can be determined as the proportionality constant between
the input current and anchor voltage when the speed of the motor is held to zero
[Hansen, 1994]. One important condition for this to work is that the output resistance of
RI
a
RT
l
K
t
=
K
e
RT
l
K
e
K
t
------------
T
l
F
----- =
1
F
---
K
T
l
K
t
K
T
l
T
fm
f
m
=
T
cm
T
cm
sign
( ) =
T
sm
T
d
T
sm
T
cm
+ = T
d
T
cm
=
R
a
Reference manual
Motors Page12
the current supplier is much lower than the found amature resistance (see equation 3.1).
The torque constant can be determined by measuring the torque on the motor anchor
for a give anker voltage, when the speed of the anchor is held at zero. The equation for
this is found by combining equation 3.1 and equation 3.4 into equation 3.27.
(3.27)
3.1.3 MSL Model of the DC-Motor
The Simulink model of the DC motor exist in two versions. Triggered blocks are used in
one of the versions in order to reduce simulation time. The ordinary Simulink model
without triggered blocks is illustrated in gure 3.5 and the triggered version is illustrated
in gure 3.6. The friction block used in the two models is enlarged in gure 3.7.
In these two DC motor models there can be included some Memory blocks with delay 0
to break the algebraic loops that external environment can introduce. If necessary mem-
ory blocks should be placed in the torque input and in the current output. However these
blocks are currently not included in the models because of the lower simulation speed
this involves and due to the fact that memory blocks introduces some small uctuations
on the involved signals.
Figure 3.4 Complete block diagram of DC-motor
1
R
a
1
s
f
m
K
e
V
at
R
g
V
e
1
N
1
N
1
N
T
d
T
m
T
a
T
l
T
cm
I
a
f
l
J
l
1
J
m
K
t
V
a
T
lm
T
cl
. .
m

m
.
. .
l

l
.
Motor
Load
T
e
Amplifier
K
t
K
t
K
measured
R
a
V
a
------------------------------ =
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Motors Page13
3.1.3.1 Input/Output of the DC Motor Model
Both motor models has the following inputs:
1. V
at
which is the voltage at the anchor of the motor.
2. Tl, which is the load torque.
and the following outputs:
1. Acc which is the current acceleration of the motor.
2. Speed which is the current speed of the motor.
Figure 3.5 MSL model of the DC-motor
Figure 3.6 MSL model of the DC-motor - triggered version
Figure 3.7 MSL model of the friction in a DC-motor.
Friction
s
1
Integrator
on/off
friction
3
Position
2
Speed
s
1
Int
4
Current
1
Acc
Ia
Td
Kt
Kt
-
+
-
Sum2
Ke
Ke
2
dynamic2 1
Ls+Ra
Transfer Fcn1
1
Ra
Transfer Fcn2
Ve
+
-
Sum
Ta
on/off
friction1
1/Jm
Inertia
2
Vat
1
Tl
4
Current
1
Acc
1
Tl
2
Speed
3
Position
s
1
Int
on/off
friction
Ve
Demux
Demux
dcmf
Triggered friction
Ke
Ke
2
Vat
s
1
Integrator
friction
Constant3
1/Jm
Inertia
Ta
-
+
-
Sum2
Dynamic switch
dcmdyn0
Triggered non dynamic
dcmdyn2
Triggered dynamic
2
dynamic2
Ia
Td
Kt
Kt
+
-
Sum
Stiction
P
Gain1
P
Gain
Coulomb
+
-
+
Sum
2
out_2
1
in_1
Fm
Fm
Dead Zone
1
out_1
Reference manual
Motors Page14
3. Position which is the current position of the motor.
4. Current which is the current, running into the motor.
3.1.3.2 Granularity Possibilities with the DC Motor Model
In gure 3.5 and gure 3.6 it can be seen that the DC-motor model can be granulated in
several levels. The friction can be switched on/off and the electrical dynamic of the
motor can be left out. In the triggered version of the motor these two features are trig-
gered. The switching between the different levels of complexity is done through the
mask interface.
3.1.3.3 Symbol and Mask of the DC Motor Model
The masks symbols and dialog box of the DC motor models are illustrated in gure 3.8
and it can be seen that the only difference between the two symbols is the text below the
gures.
The initialisation commands of the MC motor mask are
[Ra,L,Ke,Jm,Fluid,Coulomb,Stiction,Vmax]=msldata(DCmotor,@1);
Kt=Ke;
src=@2;
frpar=@3;
if src(1)==1 Fluid=frpar(1);end;
Figure 3.8 DC motor symbols and dialog box
DC-Motor
DC-Motor-TRIG
Reference manual
Motors Page15
if src(2)==1 Coulomb=frpar(2);end;
if src(3)==1 Stiction=frpar(3);end;
friction=@4;
dynamic=@5;
where the involved variables has the following meaning
Ra Amature resistance ()
L Inductance (H)
Ke Counter voltage constant (V/(rad/s))
Jm Inertia (Kgm
2
)
Fluid Size of the uid friction (Nm)
Coulomb Size of the coulomb friction (Nm)
Stiction Size of the stiction (Nm)
Kt torque constant (Nm/A)
src Switch used to select between database friction values and dialog box friction
values (0/1).
frpar Dialog box friction values.
friction Switch used to select friction on/off (0/1).
dynamic Switch used to select complexity of dynamics (0/1/2)
From the initialisation commands it can be seen that the friction parameters can be
changed via the dialog box and that all parameters initially are read in the database le
(See Database File on page 62.).
3.2 The AC-Motor
The AC-motor has in many years been abandoned in servomechanism because it was to
difcult and expensive to control. Though through the last few years vendors has started
to use it due to a fairly new technique called eld vector control. Modelling the AC-
motor [Sndergaard, 1993] brings one through the same principle steps as the DC-motor
model, an electrical stator part, a part where energy is transferred from the stator to the
rotor via magnetisation and a part where this energy is converted to torque causing the
shaft to turn.
Figure 3.9 Stator current
is1 is2 is3
time
Current
Reference manual
Motors Page16
The three phased stator current is displayed in gure 3.9. As illustrated on the gure the
three currents are displaced in time. In the following it will be claried that a turneld
will rise when the current is send through the phases, and the magnetic eld for one
phase will be calculated.
In gure 3.10 the integration way covering phase one is illustrated. As changes the
eld of magnetisation turns and the magnetic eld strength can be written using
Amperes law:
(3.28)
where is the number of coils, the current in phase one and is a function that
describes how the way of integration is routed with respect to phase one. For the two
other coils equally equations can be calculated which leads to equation 3.29 for the mag-
netisation eld all in all:
(3.29)
If the currents are sine formed in time the eld of magnetisation will also be of sine form
leading to equation 3.30.
(3.30)
Complex notation can be used to improve the clarity:
(3.31)
Figure 3.10 Way of integration
h
h
f()
1
1
1
Hdl
N
s
i
s1
t ( ) f ( ) =
N
s
i
s1
t ( ) f ( )
H
s
t , ( ) 2h N
s
i
s1
t ( ) f ( ) i
s2
t ( ) f
2
3
------
,
_
i
s3
t ( ) f
4
3
------
,
_
+ + =
H
s
t , ( )2h ( ) N
s
i
s1
t ( ) ( ) cos i
s2
t ( )
2
3
------
,
_
cos i
s3
t ( )
4
3
------
,
_
cos +
,
_
+
,
_
=
( ) cos
1
2
-- - e
j
e
j
+ ( ) =
Reference manual
Motors Page17
(3.32)
(3.33)
(3.34)
The eld from the rotor can be written in the same way, which leads to equation 3.35
(3.35)
In equation 3.34, we substitute :
(3.36)
The resulting eld from both stator and rotor may be written as
(3.37)
When the inducted voltage in the rotor coil is calculated, the magnetic induction has to
be chained with the rotor coil. This leads into some complex mathematics
[Leonhard, 1990] why only the results are presented here:
(3.38)
The rotor is short circuited, why
(3.39)
It is convenient to dene the following complex quantity which represents the magneti-
sation current:
(3.40)
By introducing the quantities and given by equation 3.41
(3.41)
and the rotor time constant given by equation 3.42
H
s
t ( ) 2h
N
s
2
------ e
j
i
s1
t ( ) i
s2
t ( )e
j
2
3
------
i
s3
t ( )e
j
4
3
------
+ +
,

_
e
j
i
s1
t ( ) i
s2
t ( )e
j
2
3
------
i
s3
t ( )e
j
4
3
------
+ +
,

_
+
=
i
s
t ( ) i =
s1
t ( ) i
s2
t ( )e
j
2
3
------
i
s3
t ( )e
j
4
3
------
+ +
H
s
t , ( ) 2h
N
s
2
------ i
s
t ( )e
j
i
s
t ( )e
j
+ [ ] =
H
R
t , ( ) 2h
N
R
2
------- i
R
t ( )e
j
i
R
t ( )e
j
+ [ ] =
+ =
H
s
t , , ( ) 2h
N
s
2
------ i
s
t ( )e
j +
i
s
t ( )e
j +
+ [ ] =
B
R
t , , ( )
0
H
R
t , ( ) H
s
t , , ( ) + [ ] =
R
t ( ) L
R
i
R
t ( ) M i
s
t ( )e
j
+ 1
R
+ ( ) M i
R
t ( ) M i
s
t ( ) e
j
+ = =
R
R
i
R
t d
d
R
R
R
i
R
M
t d
d
1
R
+ ( )i
R
i
s
e
j
+ [ ] + 0 = =
i
mR
1
R
+ ( ) i
R
e
j
i
s
+ i
mR
e
j
= =
i
sd
i
sq
i
s
i
sd
j i
sq
+ ( )e
j
=
T
R
Reference manual
Motors Page18
(3.42)
Splitting into a real part and an imaginary part leads to equation 3.43 and equation
3.44
(3.43)
(3.44)
There are three unknown variables ( ) so another equation is needed. The torque
gives the following constrain:
(3.45)
where is the torque generated by the motor and is the uid friction constant. The
rst part of the equation carries the electrical constrains and the last part the mechanics.
A third differential equation can now be added to the two existing:
(3.46)
Based on the three stator currents a model of the AC-motor can now be implied though a
few sub-results will be introduced rst:
(3.47)
(3.48)
(3.49)
Using this, and can be calculated
T
R
L
R
R
R
------
1
R
+ ( ) M
R
R
------------------------------ = =
i
s
t d
di
mR
i
sd
i
mR
T
R
-------------------- =
t d
d
i
sq
T
R
i
mR
------------------- + =
i
mR
, ,
m
d
t ( )
2
3
-- -
M
1
R
+ ( )
-------------------- i
mR
= i
sq
J
t d
d
f + =
m
d
t ( ) f
t d
d 1
J
---
2
3
---
M
1
R
+ ( )
-------------------- i
sq
i
mR
f
,
_
=
i
s
t ( ) i
s1
t ( ) i
s2
t ( )e
j
2
3
------
i
s3
t ( )e
j
4
3
------
i
s1
t ( )
i
s2
t ( )
2
-------------
i
s3
t ( )
2
------------- j i
s2
t ( ) i
s3
t ( ) ( )
3
2
-------
i
sa
j i
sb
+ ( ) =
+ =
+ + =
i
sa
i
s1
t ( )
i
s2
t ( )
2
-------------
i
s3
t ( )
2
------------- =
i
sb
i
s2
t ( ) i
s3
t ( ) ( )
3
2
------- =
i
sd
i
sq
Reference manual
Motors Page19
(3.50)
A mathematical model of the asynchronous motor and the load it carries can now be
setup:
If is kept constant, which can be seen from:
(3.51)
The generated torque is then proportional to .
Figure 3.11 Model of the asynchronous motor
i
sd
j i
sq
+ i
s
e
j
i
sa
j i
sb
+ ( ) ( ) j ( ) sin + cos ( )
i
sa
( ) cos i
sb
( ) sin j i
sb
( ) i
sa
( ) sin cos ( ) + + =
= =
i
sd
i
sa
( ) i
sb
( ) sin + cos =
i
sq
i
sb
( ) i
sa
( ) sin cos =
i
sb
i
s2
i
s3
( )
3
2
------- =
i
sa
i
s1
3
2
-- - =
t d
di
mR
i
sd
i
mR
T
R
-------------------- - =
t d
d 1
J
---
2
3
---
M
1
R
+ ( )
-------------------- - i
sq
i
mR
f
,
_
=
t d
d
i
sq
T
R
i
mR
------------------- + =
i
s1
i
s2
i
s3
i
sb
i
sa
i
sd
i
sq
i
sd
i
mR
( )
t
lim i
sd
=
t d
di
mR
i
sd
i
mR
T
R
-------------------- =
i
sq
Reference manual
Motors Page20
3.2.1 Field Vector Control of the AC-Motor
To be able to make eld vector control for an AC-motor it is necessary to know the posi-
tion of the ux ( ) in the motor. This parameter may either be measured or estimated.
Using the rst method a Hall elements has to be installed inside the motor. This can be
quite complicated and needs maintenance. The latter can be done using a model of the
motor. To estimate the position of the ux the shaft speed and the three phase currents
has to be known. Given the three currents, and can be calculated using the follow-
ing transformations:
(3.52)
(3.53)
and
(3.54)
(3.55)
can now be found from
(3.56)
(3.57)
Given a control can be obtained where and are inputs. is normally kept con-
stant. If so is proportional with the generated torque. This is because also
becomes a constant with time, which can be seen in the previous differential equation.
The output of the control is three reference currents, , and . The mathematics
behind the controller is simple and is described in equation 3.58 and equation 3.59.
(3.58)
(3.59)
which leads to:
(3.60)
(3.61)
i
sd
i
sq
i
sa
i
s1
3
2
--- =
i
sb
i
s2
i
s3
( )
3
2
------- =
i
sd
i
sa
( ) i
sb
( ) sin + cos =
i
sq
i
sb
( ) i
sa
( ) sin cos =
t d
di
mr
i
sd
i
mr
T
R
------------------- =
t d
d
i
sq
T
R
i
mr
------------------ + =
i
sd
i
sq
i
sd
i
sq
i
mr
i
s1
i
s2
i
s3
i
sa
i
sd
( ) i
sq
( ) sin cos =
i
sb
i
sq
( ) i
sd
( ) sin + cos =
i
s1
i
sa
2
3
--- =
i
s2
i
sa
3
---------
i
sb
3
------- + =
Reference manual
Motors Page21
(3.62)
3.3 The Stepmotor
As the name indicates the stepmotor moves the rotor in step. The principle of the motor
is that the shaft has preferred positions according to the position of the magnetisation
eld. Moving the magnetisation eld between the different coils in the stator will course
the shaft to turn in discrete and equidistant steps. The stepmotor can therefore be seen as
kind of digital motor.
To move the magnetisation eld around in the stator a control of the current in the coils
is needed. This is normally a logic network that decomposes input pulses to currents in
the different coils. The motor can only step to a neighbour position and this is done
every time a pulse is received. To make the motor run a logic network runs through a
specic sequence. This implies that the motor is able to turn both ways. Changing the
direction of the shaft is done by reversing the sequence. The stepmotor has through the
preferred positions a build in position control. This control has certain advantages but
also some disadvantages. The advantages are rst of all the very easy control all that is
needed are pulses and direction signals. In other terms - the motor may be used in open
loop. The disadvantages are the relatively low precision and further more there are some
restrictions on the input signal due to the synchronism of the motor. The frequency of
the pulse signal and the speed by which the frequency is changed are limited. If these
limits are passed the motor will loose steps and the precision is lost.
Another problem with this type of motor is that the inertia is under the inuence of a
torque with the character of a spring. The mechanical system has a relatively low damp-
ing and a low resonance frequency. If the step frequency is close to the resonance fre-
quency this may cause some heavy oscillation.
3.3.1 Theoretical Aspects of the Stepmotor
Stepmotor are divided into two main categories, permanent magnetic (PM) and variable
reluctant motors (VR). The permanent magnet motor has, as the word says, a rotor with
a permanent magnet while the VR wrapped motor uses a rotor of soft ion. These two
types of motors can be single wrapped or bilar wrapped and the only difference is that
the bilar wrapped motor has a outlet in the middle of the coil.
There is an essential equation which can be used for both motor types:
(3.63)
where is the number of equilibrium positions on a turn for a given static magnetisation
i
s3
i
sa
3
---------
i
sb
3
------- =
n p N =
p
Reference manual
Motors Page22
(rotor tooth pitches for the VR motor, and the number of pole pairs for the PM motor),
is the number of steps in the control sequence (number of phases for the VR-motor and
the double for the PM motor) and is the number of steps. The values and will
always be available in the data-set for the motor.
This can be rewritten into equation 3.64.
(3.64)
In steady state the torque developed by the motor ( ) will vary periodically as a func-
tion of the shaft position . The period is and the shape of the function depends on
the type of motor but for a PM motor it is close to a sine function. This is illustrated in
gure 3.12.
The positions 1 and 2 are equilibrium positions and the motor will seek to these points if
it is released within the area . The amplitude ( ) gives the maximum steady
state torque the motor can be loaded with without getting out of synchronism. The fric-
tion of the motor is much smaller than this why it is possible to neglect the difference
between the developed torque ( ) and the torque at the shaft ( ).
If it is accepted that has the sinus form, the function of the motor is illustrated in g-
ure 3.13.
In step 1 the motor will be in balance for ( ). If the motor has a shift in
the positive turn direction to step 2 will curse the development of a maximal torque
which will force the motor against the position . If the motor is
loaded with a friction torque is will stop in a position where . In the worst
case it will stop in position . If one from here changes to step 3, the condition will
change to position . If , the motor will continue towards position .
The maximal load, that the motor can handle is determined with which
Figure 3.12 , for a stepmotor
N
n n N
2
n
------ =
T
d
2 p
T
d
T
h
1 2
2 p
T
d
( )

1
p < T
h
T
dh
T
ah
T
d
0 = 2 +
p N 4 =
T
d
T
h
= 2p ( ) =
T
l
T
d
T
l
P
Q T
d
( ) T
l
T
d
P ( ) = > R
T
d
Q ( ) T
d
P ( ) =
Reference manual
Motors Page23
leads to equation 3.65
(3.65)
The relation in equation 3.65 is based on steady state consideration and is only valid
with relative low step frequency. When the frequency become higher the maximal load
will decrease. A typical course of as function of the step frequency is illustrated in
gure 3.14. The gure illustrates the limits for the stepmotor in steady state (constant
step frequency ). This means that the shape is independent of the load torque but very
dependable on the dynamic of the used control circuit.
The other interesting line in gure 3.14 is the one pointing out the maximum step fre-
quency ( ). This frequency is the maximal frequency the motor can start and stop from
without losing steps. The frequency depends on whether or not the motor reaches the
Figure 3.13 Function of the stepmotor
Figure 3.14 Maximum load of stepmotor
T
d
N 4 =
Q
P R
M
b
1 2 3
T
lmax
T
h
4
---
,
_
sin
T
h
2
------- N 4 = ( )
T
lmax
T
l
( )
f
s
f
ss
T
l
( )
Pull-in Pull-out
f
st
T
l
( )
f
st
f
ss
Reference manual
Motors Page24
necessary acceleration between the rst and the second step impulse. The acceleration is
reverse proportional with the total inertia. This leads to the time for a given turn will be
proportional with the square root of the inertia. For a given inertia this leads to equation
3.66
(3.66)
It is now clear that the area between pull-in and pull-out can only be used by starting
under pull-in and from there increase the step frequency with an acceleration matched
the actual inertia load. In the same manner the frequency must be decreased when the
motor is stopped.
3.3.1.1 Dynamic Behaviour of the Stepmotor
The dynamic behaviour of the stepmotor can be modelled from knowledge of the motor
characteristic and the electrical and mechanical parameters. In the following a PM type
stepmotor will be described and it is presumed that has the ideal sinus form. For a
one phase PM motor the dynamics can according to [Leth, 1978] be described as in
equation 3.67
(3.67)
which is in phase with its contribution to the developed torque
(3.68)
where is the phase current and index A referees to phase A. It can be shown that the
motor parameters and are identical. For a two phase PM step motor with both
phases active the equations become:
(3.69)
(3.70)
The total developed torque is then calculated using the super position principle
(3.71)
And from this the maximum hold torque
(3.72)
The electrical damping can be given with a friction constant (See equation 3.10 in The-
f
ss
J
bm
( )
J
m
J
m
J
bm
+
--------------------- f
ss
f
ss
1 J
bm
J
m
+
--------------------------------- = =
T
d
( )
V
eA
K
e
p + ( ) sin
=
T
dA
K
t
p + ( ) sin I
f
=
I
f
K
e
K
t
V
eB
K
e
p + ( ) cos
=
T
dB
K
t
p + ( ) cos I
f
=
T
d
T
dA
T
dB
+ 2 K
t
p

4
---

2
--- + +
,
_
sin I
f
=
T
h
2 K
t
I
fn

Reference manual
Motors Page25
oretical Aspects of the DC Motor on page 6).
(3.73)
where is the total resistance in the phase circuit.
3.3.2 Modelling the Stepmotor
When modelling the stepmotor the difcult part is to connect the continues part with the
discrete. The continues part can be described as a normal DC motor position feedback
and a feedback from the inducted voltage in the coils. This is illustrated in gure 3.15.
The inputs for the motor are and where is the reference shaft position and
is the position error. Using the spring function it is determined whether the motor
will go to the next or the previous balance position.
The logic network controlling takes a pulse signal and a direction signal as inputs.
This is decomposed to increasing steps in where these steps are of the size as
specied in equation 3.64. If the pulses arrives to fast the motor will loose synchronism
and this is detected as an error larger than . This has to be detected in the
model of the motor by either subtracting or adding a step to the reference signal. In
the model this will appear as a lost or won step resulting in an error in the end position.
Figure 3.15 Model of the stepmotor
f
e
K
e
2
R
------ =
R R
f
R
s
+ =
K
e
1
R+sL
1
Js
1
s
V
m
ref
Spring
function
Slip detection
Lost/won
steps
ref
V
m

ref
ref

ref
ref

ref

Reference manual
Amplifiers Page26
4.0 Ampliers
Ampliers are very used in mechatronic systems. They are used as instrumentation
ampliers for small signal sensors and the are used as power ampliers for actuators. In
this chapter the modelling of some of the different kinds of ampliers will be described.
For every amplier some general aspects in the modelling will be discussed and the
actual implementation in Simulink will be described.
4.1 The Pre-Amplier
The pre-amplier is very often used in control systems as instrumentation ampliers.
Normally the pre-ampliers are made of almost ideal operation ampliers and therefore
modelling of there devices is fairly simple. Sometimes the pre-amplier is used in ana-
log feedback systems where a part (or all) of the controller is places in the analog pre-
amplier. A PID controller are modelled in the standard Simulink toolbox
[Simulink, 1993]. Very often the pre-amplier is build into the amplier box. These kind
of devices are described in The Combined Amplier on page 32.
4.1.1 MSL Model of the Pre-Amplier
The model of the pre-amplier should include the possibility of having voltage limita-
tions in the output while the current limitation is not interesting due to the fact that the
pre-amplier always is followed by a high input impedance. The time constant in a pre-
amplier is often very small and is therefore ignored in the modelling. The MSL model
of the pre-amplier is illustrated in gure 4.1.
4.1.1.1 Input/Output of the Pre-Amplier Model
The model in gure 4.1 has voltage input and voltage output. The input and output can
be vectors and this offers the opportunity to have several pre-ampliers but only one
instance of the model. To use the vector possibility, the gain must be specied as a vec-
tor.
Figure 4.1 MSL model of pre-amplier.
Voltage Limit
on/off
saturation
1
V_Out
P
Gain
1
V_in
Reference manual
Amplifiers Page27
4.1.1.2 Granularity Possibilities with the Pre-Amplier Model
The MSL model of the pre-amplier includes the possibility of using a voltage limit in
the output of the amplier. The limitation can be switched on/off via the mask interface
of the model.
4.1.1.3 Symbol and Mask of the Pre-Amplier
The MSL symbol and dialog box of the preamplier is illustrated in gure 4.7. The ini-
tialisation commands of the mask are:
P=@1;
Vlim=@2;
saturation=@3;
P Gain of pre-amplier
Vlim Output voltage limitation (V).
saturation Switch used to select saturation on/off (0/1)
From the initialisation commands it can be seen that the gain and voltage limit parame-
ters can be changed via the dialog box. It can also be seen that no parameters are fetched
from the database le.
4.2 The Bridge Amplier
Bridge amplier is designed to be used together with the strain gauge sensors (See
Strain Gauge on page 47.). Bridge amplier are in general made very close to ideal
due to the small and powerless signals they are supposed to amplier
Figure 4.2 Symbol and dialog box of the pre-amplier
PreAmp
Reference manual
Amplifiers Page28
4.2.1 MSL Model of the Bridge Amplier
The MSL model of the bridge amplier consist of two pre-amplies. The model is illus-
trated in gure 4.3.
4.2.1.1 Input/Output of the Bridge Amplier Model
The bridge amplier has the following input
1. Signal 1
2. Signal 2
and the following output
1. Signal 1
2 Signal 2
4.2.1.2 Granularity Possibilities with the Bridge Amplier Model
The MSL model of the bridge amplier includes the possibility of using a voltage limit
in the output of the two pre-ampliers. The limitation can be switched on/off via the
mask interface of the model.
4.2.1.3 Symbol and Mask of the Bridge Amplier
The MSL symbol and dialog box of the bridge amplier is illustrated in gure 4.4. The
initialisation command of the mask are
[K1,Vlim1,K2,Vlim2]=msldata(bridgeamplifier,@1);
saturation=@2;
K1 Gain of rst amplier
Vlim1 Output voltage limitation in the rst amplier (V).
K2 Gain of second amplier
Vlim2 Output voltage limitation in the second amplier (V).
From the initialisation commands it can be seen that the gain and voltage limit parame-
Figure 4.3 MSL model of bridge amplier.
PreAmp
PreAmp1
1
Outport1
2
Outport
1
Inport
2
Inport1
Reference manual
Amplifiers Page29
ters are fetched from the database le.
4.3 The DC Amplier
The DC amplier is very often used to supply DC motor with the power needed to func-
tion. DC amplier often has a limited bandwidth in order to be able to reduce noise on
the signals.
4.3.1 Theoretical Aspects of the DC Amplier
When creating a model of the DC amplier the most important things to take into con-
sideration are the voltage and current limitations. An amplier can only deliver a given
amount of effect where is the voltage and is the current.
Given a current limit, the load current and the voltage reference, an output voltage is cal-
culated by transforming the current load to a load above the current limit using equation
4.1.
(4.1)
is then low-pass ltered and is subtracted from . The low pass lter is inserted
due to the time constant in the amplier. After this subtraction the output voltage is send
through a saturation lter and another low-pass lter again. With this construction both
current and voltage can lower the output voltage.
4.3.2 MSL Model of the DC Amplier
Two almost identical versions of the DC amplier has been made. The only difference
on the two models is that the Amplier-TRIG model uses triggered blocks to the fast
Figure 4.4 Symbol and dialog box of the bridge amplier
BridgeAmp
P U I = U I
I
filter
0 I
Load
I
limit
0
I
Load
I
limit
I
Load
I
limit
0 >
'
=
I
filter
V
ref
Reference manual
Amplifiers Page30
dynamics in the model. The normal version of the amplier is illustrated in gure 4.5
and the triggered version is illustrated in gure 4.6. The input reference voltage is multi-
plied with the amplier gain and ltered through a saturation lter. If the amplier is in a
current limit situation the output voltage is reduced due to the current limitation. If the
numeric reduction of the voltage becomes too large the output voltage of the amplier is
set to zero. Finally the output from the amplier is low-pass ltered.
In these two amplier models there can be included a memory blocks with delay zero to
break the algebraic loop that external environment can introduce. If necessary the mem-
ory block should be inserted in the current input. However this memory block is cur-
rently not included in the models because of the lower simulation speed this involves
and due to the fact that memory blocks introduces some small uctuations on the
involved signals.
4.3.2.1 Input/Output of the DC Amplier Model
The two inputs of the models are.
Figure 4.5 MSL model of the DC amplier.
Figure 4.6 MSL model of the DC amplier - triggered version.
1
V_in
2
Load Current
Switch
0
Constant
+
-
Sum2
Abs
Abs
Abs
Abs1
+
-
Sum1
+
-
Sum
Rg
Output resistance
on/off
saturation
AmpGain
Amplifier Gain
Voltage Limit
1
1/Bandwidths+1
Lowpass filter
1
10/(Bandwidth)s+1
Lowpass filter1
1
dynamic1
1
V_Out
Dead Zone
2
dynamic2
1
10/(Bandwidth)s+1
Lowpass filter1
AmpGain
Amplifier Gain
1
V_in
2
Load Current
Rg
Output resistance
Voltage Limit
on/off
saturation
+
-
Sum
Abs
Abs
Abs
Abs1
+
-
Sum1
+
-
Sum2
0
Constant
Switch
ampdyn1
Triggered dynamic
1
dynamic1
dynamic
Constant1
1
V_Out1
2
dynamic2
Dead Zone
Reference manual
Amplifiers Page31
1. Reference voltage
2. Load current
and the output is
1. output voltage
4.3.2.2 Granularity Possibilities with the DC Amplier Model
The MSL model of the DC amplier can be granulated into one saturation level and in
three levels of dynamics. The voltage limitation is connected to the saturation switch
while the voltage output ltering is the rst level of dynamics. The second level of
dynamics is the current limitation. This is put as a dynamic level due to the large reduc-
tion in simulation speed the current limiting option involves.
4.3.2.3 Symbol and Mask of the DC Amplier
The MSL symbols and dialog box of the ampliers are illustrated in gure 4.7. The ini-
[Vlim,Ilim,Bandwidth,Rg]=msldata(amplifier,@1);
AmpGain=@2;
dynamic=@3;
saturation=@4;
Figure 4.7 Symbols and dialog box of the ampliers
Amplifier
Amplifier-TRIG
Reference manual
Amplifiers Page32
Vlim Output voltage limitation (V).
Ilim Current limitation (A).
Bandwidth Bandwidth of the amplier (Hz).
Rg Output resistance of the amplier ().
AmpGain Amplier gain.
dynamic Switch used to select complexity of dynamics (0/1/2)
From the initialisation commands it can be seen that the gain parameter can be changed
via the dialog box while all the other parameters are read in the database le (See Data-
base File on page 62.).
4.4 The Combined Amplier
The combined amplier is a DC amplier combined with a pre-amplier. This combina-
tion is often used in analog closed loop systems where a tachometer is used in the loop
to measure the speed of the motor. More information about the involved DC amplier
can be found in The DC Amplier on page 29 and in The Pre-Amplier on page 26.
4.4.1 MSL Model of the Combined Amplier
The combined amplier exist in two versions, the triggered and the non-triggered ver-
sion. The two slightly different models are illustrated in gure 4.8 and in gure 4.9. It is
easy to see the reuse of the two amplier types.
In the amplier model used in the combined amplier there can be included a memory
blocks with delay zero to break the algebraic loop that the external environment can
introduce. If necessary the memory block should be placed in the current input. However
this memory block is currently not included in the models, because of the lower simula-
tion speed this involves, and due to the fact that memory blocks introduces some small
uctuations on the involved signals
Figure 4.8 The combined amplier
PreAmp1
PreAmp 1
Voltage
+
-
Sum3
2
Tachometer
3
Current
1
Signal
Amplifier
Reference manual
Amplifiers Page33
4.4.1.1 Input/Output of the Combined Amplier Model
The inputs of the two models are
1. Signal voltage.
2. Tachometer output.
3. Load current
and the output is
1. Voltage.
4.4.1.2 Granularity Possibilities with the Combined Amplier Model
The granulation levels of the models are the same as for the involved ampliers meaning
that it can be granulated into one saturation level and into three dynamic levels. The volt-
age limitation is the saturation level while the voltage output ltering is the rst level of
dynamics. The second level of dynamics is the current limitation. This is put as a
dynamic level due to the large reduction in simulation speed the current limiting model-
ling option involves.
4.4.1.3 Symbol and Mask of the Combined Amplier Model
The MSL symbols and dialog box of the combination ampliers are illustrated in gure
4.7. The initialisation commands of the mask are:
Ampname=@1;
K1=@2;
Vlim1=@3;
K2=@4;
Vlim2=@5;
K3=@6;
dynamic=@7;
saturation=@8;
Figure 4.9 The combined triggered amplier
PreAmp1
PreAmp
1
Signal
3
Current
2
Tachometer
+
-
Sum3
Amplifier-TRIG
1
Voltage
Reference manual
Amplifiers Page34
Ampname Database name of the involved amplier (string).
K1 Gain of signal input.
Vlim1 Limitations on the signal input amplier (V)
K2 Gain of tachometer input.
Vlim2 Limitations on the tachometer input amplier (V)
K3 Amplier gain.
dynamic Switch used to select complexity of dynamics (0/1/2).
saturation Switch used to switch saturation on/off (0/1).
From the initialisation commands it can be seen that the pre-amplier parameters and
the amplier gain parameter and amplier name can be changed via the dialog box. All
amplier parameters (except the gain) are read from the database le (See Database
File on page 62.).
4.5 The AC-Amplier
To control the AC-motor a control and power supply is needed. Power supplies uses the
mains to feed the motor. The idea of the amplier is rst to convert the AC-voltage into
a DC-voltage. Then using this DC-voltage a new AC-voltage can be made with the
desired waveform (amplitude and phase). The difcult part in this is to construct the new
AC-voltage, while the conversion from AC to DC is fairly simple. This principle is illus-
trated in gure 4.11.
It is important to notice, that the AC-DC converter that is illustrated in gure 4.11 is not
able to deliver energy back to the mains. If the motor has to reverse fast it is therefore
necessary to either use a rheostatic brake or substitute the diodes with power switches.
Figure 4.10 Symbol and dialog box of the combination amplier
Combiamp
Combiamp-TRIG
Reference manual
Amplifiers Page35
There exist several different DC-AC converter types and some of them are discussed in
the following.
The most common inverter type is the VSI-inverter (Voltage Source Inverter). It can be
divided into to three main subgroups:
PAM (Pulse Amplitude Modulation)
PWM (Pulse Width Modulation)
ON-OFF, a special PWM inverter
As an inverter the PAM has the following advantages
High efciency due to a low shift frequency.
The amplitude and frequency of the stator voltage is controlled by the chopper why
its easy to control.
and the following disadvantages
Chopper controlled voltage is needed.
High noise motor due to the waveform of the voltage.
As an inverter the PWM has some advantages which are
Small pulsations at low shaft speed when the shift frequency is high
High efciency.
No chopper needed.
and some disadvantages
Acoustic noise from the motor due to the waveform of the supply voltage if the shift
frequency is in the audible area.
As both the amplitude and the frequency of the waveform is controlled by the DC-AC
inverter it is more difcult to control as the PAM inverter.
Figure 4.11 Power-supply for AC-motor
M
T
S
R
V
c
L
DC-AC converter AC-DC converter
Chopper
Reference manual
Amplifiers Page36
4.6 The PWM Inverter
The analog PWM inverter is constructed using a comparator with a reference voltage on
the positive terminal and a modulation voltage on the negative terminal. The output of
the comparator is either high or low depending on the control signal on the input termi-
nals.
4.6.1 Theoretical Aspects of the PWM Inverter
The following diagram (gure 4.12) gives a schematic overview of the PWM inverter:
If the reference signal is larger than the modulation signal the upper contact is closed
and lower contact is opened. If the reference signal is smaller than the modulation signal
the opposite is the case. Due to the resistance and the induction of the motor the output
voltage is low-pass ltered, why the pulse width modulated voltage from the inverter is
demodulated and the reference signal is recreated with another phase and amplitude in
the current.
The modulation index is dened as the relation between the amplitude of the refer-
ence signal and the modulation signal
(4.2)
Figure 4.12 Analog PWM inverter
U,ref
1
U,ref
3
U,ref
2
Vc/2
-Vc/2
Vc/2
-Vc/2
Vc/2
-Vc/2
is1
us1
Za
is2
us2
Zb
is3
us3
Zc
M
M
Amplitude
reference
Amplitude
modulation
-------------------------------------------------- - =
Reference manual
Amplifiers Page37
The amplitude of the modulation signal is constant why the modulation index only is
changed when the reference signal is changed. When is less than 1 both contacts are
opened and closed during one period of the modulation signal. This implies that the shift
frequency of the contact elements are constant and equal to the modulation frequency.
The maximal value of the modulation index is depending on the dead-time and the min-
imum on-time of the contacts.
It can be shown that the maximal voltage in a motor phase is
(4.3)
In the following the shifting times will be calculated using gure 4.13:
Using the triangle on gure 4.13, the switching times can be calculated:
(4.4)
and
(4.5)
A more detailed description of the pulse width modulated amplier can be found in
[Leth, 1978]and [Leonhard, 1990].
Figure 4.13 Double side modulated PWM signal
M
V
0 max ,
1
2
-- -MV
c
=
ton toff
Vref
Vc/2
-Vc/2
0
Tswitch
2
t
on
T
switch
2
----------------
1
2
---
V
ref
V
c
---------- +
,
_
V
c
2
------ V
ref
V
c
2
------ , =
t
off
T
switch
2
----------------
3
2
---
V
ref
V
c
----------
,
_
V
c
2
------ V
ref
V
c
2
------ , =
Reference manual
Amplifiers Page38
4.6.2 MSL Model of the PWM Inverter
The quite simple MSL model of the pulse width modulated amplier is illustrated in g-
ure 4.14.
4.6.2.1 Input/Output of the PWM Inverter Model
The input to the model is
1. Reference voltage.
and the output is
1 Voltage output.
4.6.2.2 Symbol and Mask of the PWM Inverter
The Simulink mask symbol and dialog box of the PWM amplier is illustrated in gure
Figure 4.14 Simulink model of pulse width modulation amplier (One phase only).
Figure 4.15 Pulse width modulated amplier MSL symbol and dialog box
1
Outport
Vc/2
Vc/2
-Vc/2
- Vc/2
PULSE WIDTH MODULATION AMPLIFIER
(Only one phase)
Switch
-
+
Sum
1
Inport
Ref
Modulation
Triangle
PWM
PWM
Reference manual
Amplifiers Page39
4.15. The initialisation command of the mask is:
[frequency,amplitude,Vc]=msldata(PWMamplifier,@1);
frequency Modulation frequency of the amplier (Hz).
amplitude Size if the modulation amplitude. (V)
Vc Voltage (V)
From the initialisation command it can be seen that all the amplier parameters are read
in the database le (See Database File on page 62.).
Reference manual
Sensors Page40
5.0 Sensors
Until now we have dealt with models of various actuators in control systems. Another
important part in control systems is the sensors. As control systems are based on meas-
urements of the states in the system these measurements are very important.
The most well-known sensors in our working area are tachometers, potentiometers,
encoders and strain gauges. In the following these sensors will be discussed and mod-
elled.
5.1 Tachometer
A tachometer is a transducer for measuring rotation speed. The tachometer is normally
mounted at the motor shaft of a motor and gives a voltage signal proportional to the rota-
tion speed.
5.1.1 Theoretical Aspects of the Tachometer
The tachometer gives an output signal like the one described in equation 5.1.
(5.1)
where is the tachometer constant and is the shaft speed. Of course this is the
ideal way of looking at the tachometer. In fact the tachometer is a DC-motor which is
running with very little or no load. It is used in the opposite way as the normal DC-
motor as the tachometer shaft is driven by another motor providing an inducted voltage
proportional with the rotation speed. The same modelling problem rises when modelling
a DC-motor and a tachometer [Leth, 1978], [Andersen, 1969].
Given a tachometer with permanent magnets in the stator, x slots in the shaft and y com-
mutator segments then when the tacho rotor rotates the amature coils move in the stator
magnetic eld. The induced emf appears across the armature terminals as an internally
generated voltage (counter emf). The off load voltage is proportional with the counter
electromagnetic force which is proportional with the shaft speed.
The quality of a tachometer is depending on three factors:
Linearity
Dependency of temperature
Generated noise voltage when commutating
The linearity of a tachometer can be tested plotting the shaft speed versus the gener-
ated voltage . This plot should be a straight line. The linearity of tachometers today
is normally very good, why this non-linearity will not be modelled.
x
tacho
K
tacho

shaft
=
K
tacho

shaft
x
tacho
Reference manual
Sensors Page41
The dependency of temperature is due to change in the resistance resulting in a change
in the counter emf. This is not a problem either and will therefore not be modelled.
The last problem is the noise voltage caused by commutation. This voltage is added to
the generated voltage. In servo-systems using a tachometer feedback this noise voltage
is unwanted and therefore the output signal may be ltered. On the other hand a ltering
of the tachometer signal does lower the overall bandwidth of the system why an analysis
of the spectrum of the noise voltage is interesting. As expected the slots and commutator
segments gives the largest contribution to the noise voltage (ripple). The spectrum of the
noise voltage must therefore be dependent on the slots, segments, shaft speed and the
higher harmonic of these.
Inspecting the signal in an oscilloscope the noise voltage has the form of a saw tooth
where the period is
(5.2)
The total ripple is dened as the rms value of the noise voltage with respect to the DC-
voltage delivered by the tacho. This ratio is constant.
5.1.2 MSL Model of the Tachometer
A MSL model of the tachometer can be build based on the listed facts. The model
includes the generated noise but not the temperature dependency. The model is illus-
trated in gure 5.1 and the ripple noise is modelled using the function in equation 5.3.
(5.3)
where is the resulting ripple voltage, is the percentage size of the ripple, is the
shaft speed, is the tachometer constant and is the number of ripples per revolution.
Figure 5.1 Simulink model of tachometer
1
min x y }
, {
--------------------------------
1
Speed
Mux
Mux Clock
e_s
Gain
f(u)
Fcn
on/off
noise
+
+
Sum
1
Voltage
V
r
K
r
100
-------- -
K
t
N
t ( ) cos =
Vr Kr
Kt N
Reference manual
Sensors Page42
5.1.2.1 Input/Output of the Tachometer Model
The input in the model is
1. Shaft speed.
and the corresponding output is
1. Voltage.
5.1.2.2 Granularity Possibilities with the Tachometer Model.
The model of the tachometer can be simplied by excluding the ripple noise from the
model.
5.1.2.3 Symbol and Mask of the Tachometer Model.
The MSL mask and dialog box of the tachometer is illustrated in gure 5.1. The initiali-
sation commands of the mask are:
[e_s,RippelGain,RippelNumber]=msldata(tachometer,@1);
noise=@2;
e_s Tachometer constant (V/rad/s).
RippelGain Size of the ripple in percent (%).
RippelNumber Number of ripples per round.
noise Switch used to select noise on/off (0/1).
From the initialisation commands it can be seen that all parameters are fetched in the
database le (See Database File on page 62.).
Figure 5.2 MSL mask and dialog box of the tachometer
Tachometer
Reference manual
Sensors Page43
5.2 Potentiometer
Potentiometers are normally used in mechatronic systems as position sensors. There are
mainly two types of potentiometers the wrapped and the smooth. Both types has a resist-
ance according to the actual position of the shaft and by establishing a voltage across the
terminals of the potentiometer it is possible to get a proportional relation between the
position and the voltage.
5.2.1 Theoretical Aspects of the Potentiometer
By establishing a voltage across the terminals of the potentiometer as illustrated in gure
5.3, and connecting the potentiometer shaft to the measurement shaft, the ideal equation
5.4 can be found:
(5.4)
where is the generated output voltage, is the potentiometer constant, is the
shaft position and is the voltage across the terminals. The size of is depending on
how much the potentiometer can be turned and how many times the potentiometer can
be turned around. The size of , should be adjusted to t the maximum needed output
voltage . The size of the variable resistor is within large limits irrelevant for the qual-
ity of the measurement.
To noise can be added to obtain a more accurate model. In addition to the noise the
model of the wrapped potentiometer should have added a ripple to the output voltage.
This ripple occurs due to the change in resistance when the stator changes between two
turns of the winding.
5.2.2 MSL Model of the Potentiometer
The MSL model of the potentiometer is illustrated in gure 5.4. It is possible to enter a
mounting offset of the potentiometer and it is possible to enter an optional gearing
Figure 5.3 Potentiometer circuit
-
+
V
i
V
pot
V
pot
K
pot
V
i
=
V
pot
K
pot

V
i
K
pot
V
i
V
pot
V
pot
Reference manual
Sensors Page44
mounted on the potentiometer shaft.
5.2.2.1 Input/Output of the Potentiometer Model
The model has the following input
1. Shaft position.
and output
1. Voltage.
5.2.2.2 Symbol and Mask of the Potentiometer Model
The MSL mask and dialog box of the potentiometer is illustrated in gure 5.5. The ini-
Vmin=@1;
Vmax=@2;
Turns=@3;
offset=@4;
gearing=@5;
Vmin Minimum output voltage (V).
Vmax Maximum output voltage (V).
Turns Number of turns of the potentiometer.
offset Mounting offset of the potentiometer (rad).
gearing Optional gearing on the potentiometer shaft (1=no gearing).
From the initialisation commands it can be seen that all parameters are entered via the
dialog box.
5.3 Encoder
Encoders are used to measure position. Compared to potentiometers which are continues
the encoder is discrete. There are mainly two kinds of encoders the incremental and the
Figure 5.4 MSL model of a potentiometer
offset
Constant
1
Position
gearing
Gain1
1
Voltage
Saturation
Vmin
Constant1
+
+
Sum
???
Gain
+
+
Sum1
Reference manual
Sensors Page45
absolute encoder where the rst generates a pulse each time a new segment on the
encoder is reached and the latter generates an unique code for each encoder segment.
An encoder normally has two sensors mounted allowing it to detect the turning direction
of the shaft clockwise or counter clockwise.
5.3.1 Theoretical Aspects of the Encoder
A model of the incremental encoder should include both noise and the discrete stepping.
The discrete stepping can be simulated using a Schmitt-trigger. If this is done the output
signal will have a hysteresis. This will indicate that the shaft has to turn a minimum of
before the pulse is registered. The mechatronics model of the encoder should also
include the digital counter which is used to register the pulses. The counter can be mod-
elled with or without the possibility to overshoot. The possibility of having an unlim-
ited counter is implemented with a software driver which maintain an overall counter
value.
5.3.2 MSL Model of the Encoder
The complete MSL model of the encoder is illustrated. in gure 5.6. The model includes
the digital counter that is always connected to the encoder and a small piece of software
which prevents the counter to reach any upper or lower limits. The counter value can be
reset by activating the reset input with a negative value.
Figure 5.5 MSL mask and dialog box of the potentiometer
Smooth
Potentiometer
Reference manual
Sensors Page46
5.3.2.1 Input/Output of the Encoder Model
The two inputs of the model are
1. Position.
2. Reset switch.
and the two outputs are
1. Digital number indicating speed.
2. Digital number indicating position.
5.3.2.2 Granularity Possibilities of the Encoder Model
The model can be simplied by excluding the quantization made by the analog to digital
conversion of the signal.
5.3.2.3 Symbol and Mask of the Encoder Model
The MSL mask and dialog box of the encoder is illustrated in gure 5.7. The initialisa-
tion commands of the mask are:
Figure 5.6 MSL Model of an incremental encoder.
Figure 5.7 MSL mask of an encoder.
2
Digital
Position
1
Digital
Speed
1
Position
z
z-1
Discrete-Time
Integrator with reset
LPR/(2*pi)
Gain
+
-
Sum
Quantizer
on/off
quantization
1
z-1
Dis. Transfer Fcn
2
Reset
IENC
Encoder
Reference manual
Sensors Page47
[LPR,Ts]=msldata(encoder,@1);
quantization=@2;
LPR Lines per revolution.
Ts Sampling time (global variable) (sec).
quantization Switch used to switch quantization on/off (0/1).
From the initialisation commands it can be seen that all parameters are read in the data-
base (See Database File on page 62.).
5.4 Strain Gauge
The principle in the resistance strain gauge is the well known phenomenon that an elec-
trical materials resistance changes with the mechanical stress of it. The resistance strain
gauge consist of a thin pattern with metal wires on top of a exible material (the carrier
material). The strain gauge is glued to the subject and thereby the mechanical stress in
the material can be measured. An example of this is measuring the amount of bending of
a exible robot arm [Andersen and Baungaard, 1992].
5.4.1 Theoretical Aspects of the Strain Gauge
The change in resistance in the strain gauge can be written as
(5.5)
where is the material constant, which dene the sensitivity of the used conductor (the
strain gauge constant), is the nominal resistance of the gauge, is the stretching of
the measurement pattern and is the strain gauges length variation [Dally et al., 1984].
The changes in resistance of the strain gauge is very small. To measure these small
changes in resistance a Wheatstone bridge together with an instrumentation amplier is
often used. With a mechatronic approach in the modelling, all this should be included in
the model of the strain gauge.
A strain gauge system is sensitive to temperature variations. Part of the reason for this is
that the carrier material is stressed with temperature variations. This error can be
reduced if the strain gauge has a temperature coefcient with the same numerical size
but opposite sign of the material to be measured [Andersen and Baungaard, 1992] [Dally
et al., 1984]. The resistance in the strain gauge is also sensitive to changes in tempera-
ture. This error can be reduced if there is used two (or four) strain gauge elements in the
Wheatstone bridge. This is illustrated in gure 5.8. The best results with temperature
compensation is achieved when the gauges are as equal as possible (same production
series). If the bridge arrangement illustrated in gure 5.8 is used and the bridge is in bal-
R
sg
R
sg
----------- k
g
l
sg
l
sg
--------- k
g

l
= =
k
g
R
sg
l
sg
l
Reference manual
Sensors Page48
ance the variations on the output voltage because of stress on the gage, can be written as
(5.6)
where is the resulting voltage, is the bridge voltage and referees to the change
is resistance as cause of the stress of the gauge. If R
1
to R
4
are equal, and the two active
gauges are placed so they are stressed with opposite sign, this leads to the much simpler
equation 5.7
(5.7)
If equation 5.5 and equation 5.7 are combined this leads to
(5.8)
If the proposed precautions towards temperature compensation are followed there is no
reason to include temperature variations in the model.
5.4.2 MSL Model of the Strain Gauge
The complete MSL model of the strain gauge is illustrated on gure 5.9. The model
includes the Wheatstone bridge which is needed to measure the small changes in resist-
ance from the strain gauge.
5.4.2.1 Input/Output of the Strain Gauge Model
The input of the model is
Figure 5.8 Common strain-gauge arrangement in a Wheatstone bridge
A
c
t
i
v
e
+ -
R
1 R
2
R
3
R
4
A
c
t
i
v
e
E
o
R
1
R
1
+
R
1
R
1
R
2
R
2
+ + +
---------------------------------------------------
R
4
R
3
R
4
+
------------------
,
_
E
i
=
E
o
E
i
R
i
E
o
1
2
-- -
R
R
-------
,
_
=
E
o
1
2
---S
g
E
i
=
Reference manual
Sensors Page49
1. Strain
and the output is
1. Voltage
5.4.2.2 Symbol and Mask of the Strain Gauge Model
The MSL symbol and dialog box of the strain gauge is illustrated in gure 5.10. The ini-
[Sg]=msldata(straingauge,@1);
Vi=@2;
Sg Gauge factor.
Vi Voltage across bridge (V)
From the initialisation commands it can be seen that the input voltage parameter is
entered in the dialog box and that all the other parameters are read in the database (See
Database File on page 62.).
Figure 5.9 MSL model of the strain gauge
Figure 5.10 MSL symbol and dialog box of the strain gauge
1
Vout
1
Strain
1/2*Vi*Sg
Strain Gauge
and Bridge
Strain Gauge
Reference manual
Converters Page50
6.0 Converters
When using a computer or other digital equipment together with analog devices, it is
necessary to convert signals between the two domains. In this chapter the modelling of
these devices is done. For these kind of converter devices there are always some kind of
software driver involved. This software driver is normally written bipolar which means
that it accepts both positive and negative values. The driver will often also handle situa-
tions with saturation where an output voltage tries to exceed the specied minimum or
maximum voltage. The only difference between the unipolar and the bipolar converter is
an offset. When creating mechatronic models of converters the software driver should be
included in the model.
6.1 Digital to Analog Converter
Digital to analog converters are used to get an analog signal out from a computer. The
converter transforms a digital number into a proportional voltage.
6.1.1 Theoretical Aspects of the Digital to Analog Converter
The conversion from digital to analog signals is done by decoding a number on the dig-
ital port and generating an analog voltage proportional to this.
An example is a 4 bit digital to analog converter. Using four bits allow one to have
different combinations of on and off signals on the port. If these combinations
are in the range from 0 to 15, 0 could be ground signal while 15 could be the full signal.
In between ground and full signal there are 15 levels of the output voltage. As an analog
signal would normally have a resolution of innity the levelling of the analog output
voltage can be seen as quantization noise.
To obtain a model of the digital to analog converter it is necessary to specify the maxi-
mum and minimum output voltage of the converter and the number of input bits. With
these values specied the gain of the converter is given. A simple model of the DA con-
verter is illustrated in gure 6.1.
The gain in gure 6.1 is calculated in equation 6.1
Figure 6.1 Simple model of a digital to analog converter
2
4
16 =
K
Gain
Zero-Order
Hold
Vin
Out
Reference manual
Converters Page51
(6.1)
where and are the minimum and maximum values of the converter, while
are the number of valid bits in the digital to analog converter. The zero-order hold net
updates the value with the digital sample frequency.
A more complex model of the digital to analog converter is obtained if the saturation and
quantization are included. The conversion delay is typically in the size of a few sec
why it often is irrelevant to mechatronic models. The quantization noise raises from the
digital (integer) conversion to the analog voltage and the saturation appears from the
limitation of the digital to analog converter.
6.1.2 MSL Model of the Digital to Analog Converter
The MSL model of the digital to analog converter is illustrated in gure 6.2.
6.1.2.1 Input/Output of the Digital to Analog Converter Model
The model has the following input
1. Digital number indication voltage.
1. Analog voltage.
6.1.2.2 Granularity Possibilities with the Digital to Analog Converter Model
The model of the digital to analog converter can be granulated in several levels. The sat-
uration raising from the limits in the digital input number can be modelled, and the
quantization raising from the digital integer values can be modelled.
6.1.2.3 Symbol and Mask of the Digital to Analog Converter Model
The MSL symbol and dialog box of the digital to analog converter is illustrated in gure
[bit,Vmax,Vmin,Ts]=msldata(DAC,@1);
saturation=@2;
Figure 6.2 MSL model of a digital to analog converter
K
V
min
V
max
+
2
bit
------------------------------------ =
V
min
V
max
bit
1
Analog Output
Zero-Order
Hold
???
Gain
Quantizer
1
Digital Input
on/off
quantization Saturation
on/off
saturation
Reference manual
Converters Page52
quantization=@3;
bit Number of bits in the converter.
Vmax Maximum output voltage of the converter (V).
Vmin Minimum output voltage of the converter (V).
saturation Switch used to select saturation on/off (0/1).
quantization Switch used to select quantization on/off (0/1).
From the initialisation commands it can be seen, that all parameters are read in the data-
base le (See Database File on page 62.).
6.2 Analog to Digital Converter
The analog to digital converter (AD converter) makes a transformation between an ana-
log input signal and a discrete output signal. The transformation only takes place when
the analog to digital converter is instructed to do this. Between the conversions the ana-
log to digital converter keeps the old value.
6.2.1 Theoretical Aspects of the Analog to Digital Converter
A simple model of an analog to digital converter is illustrated in gure 6.4 The transfor-
Figure 6.3 Symbol and dialog box of the digital to analog converter
Figure 6.4 Simple model of an analog to digital converter
DAC
K
Gain
Zero-Order
Hold
Vin
Out
Reference manual
Converters Page53
mation between the analog input signal and the digital output signal introduces a gain.
The size of this gain can be expressed like this
(6.2)
where and are the lower and upper limit of the AD converter, and are the
number of valid bits on the digital output. A zero-order hold net is used to keep the old
values.
The model of the analog to digital converter can be enlarged by including the saturation
of the converter the quantization rising from the transformation of an analog signal into
a digital signal. The small delay raising from the time of conversion is for mechatronics
systems neglected as it is in the range of 50 .
6.2.2 MSL Model of the Analog to Digital Converter
The complete MSL model of the analog to digital converter is illustrated in gure 6.6.
The size of is found using equation 6.2.
6.2.2.1 Input/Output of the Analog to Digital Converter Model
The input to the model is
1. Voltage.
and the output from the model is
1. Digital output value indicating the input voltage
6.2.2.2 Granularity Possibilities with the Analog to Digital Converter Model
The model of the analog to digital converter can be granulated in several levels. The sat-
uration raising from the limits in the analog input voltage can be modelled and the quan-
tization raising from the digital integer values can also be modelled.
Figure 6.5 MSL model of an analog to digital converter
K
V
min
V
max
+
2
bits
----------------------------------------- =
V
min
V
max
bits
sec
on/off
quantization
Quantizer
1
Digital Output
???
Gain
Zero-Order
Hold
Saturation
on/off
saturation
1
Vin
K
Reference manual
Converters Page54
6.2.2.3 Symbol and Mask of the Analog to Digital Converter Model
The MSL symbol and dialog box of the analog to digital converter is illustrated in gure
[bit,Vmax,Vmin,Ts]=msldata(DAC,@1);
saturation=@2;
quantization=@3;
bit Number of bits in the converter.
Vmax Maximum input voltage of the converter (V).
Vmin Minimum input voltage of the converter (V).
saturation Switch used to switch saturation on/off (0/1).
quantization Switch used to switch quantization on/off (0/1).
base le (See Database File on page 62.).
Figure 6.6 MSL symbol and dialog box of the analog to digital converter
ADC
Reference manual
Mechanics Page55
7.0 Mechanics
In this chapter only a few mechanical devices are modelled and all the models are almost
ideal. The devices that are included in this electronic part of the library is included in
order to make the overview of mechatronics more complete.
7.1 Mechanical Gear
The mechanical gear is very often used in mechatronics systems. The reason for this is
that with a gear the static power needs of the actuators are reduced. Using a gear also
makes is easier to gain a certain position since small non-linearities in the motor shaft
position is reduced. The price to pay for the use of a gear is a higher degree of backlash
and a lower acceleration speed.
7.1.1 MSL Model of the Mechanical Gear
The Simulink model of the mechanical gear is illustrated in gure 7.1 The model
includes uid friction and inertia and is designed to be used together with the motor
models.
7.1.1.1 Input/Output of the Mechanical Gear Model
The inputs of the model are
Figure 7.1 MSL model of mechanical gear.
4
Torque load
+
+
+
Sum
1/N
Gear2
4
Motor torque
2
Motor speed
3
Motor Position
1/N
Gear1
1/N
Gear3
Fluid
Fluid friction
on/off
friction
2
Gear speed
3
Gear Position
1
Motor Acc
1/N
Gear
1
Gear Acc
Jg
Inertia
Reference manual
Mechanics Page56
1. Motor acceleration
2. Motor speed
3. Motor position
4. Load torque
and the outputs from the model is similar
1. Gear acceleration
2. Gear speed
3. Gear position
4. Motor load torque.
7.1.1.2 Granularity Possibilities with the Mechanical Gear Model
The model can be granulated by excluding the uid friction from the model.
7.1.1.3 Symbol and Mask of the Mechanical Gear Model
The mask symbol and dialog box of the gear is illustrated in gure 7.2. The initialisation
commands of the mask are:
N=@1;
Jg=@2;
Fluid=@3;
friction=@4;
Figure 7.2 MSL symbol and dialog box of the mechanical gear
Gear
Reference manual
Mechanics Page57
N Gearing.
Jg Inertia of the gear (Kgm
2
)
Fluid Size of the uid friction (Kgm
2
)
friction Switch used to switch friction on/off (0/1).
From the initialisation commands it can be seen that all parameters are entered via the
dialog box
7.2 Flexible Link
Flexible links are one of the newer robotic components. The exible link is an interest-
ing components due to that fact that it is lighter than a rigid and therefore the manipula-
tors needed to control the link are cheaper. The problem is obvious to control the
vibrations of the link.
7.2.1 Theoretical Aspects of the Flexible Link
When setting up a mathematical model of the exible link there exist several different
methods to obtain a reliable model. The quite simple model that is used in this work is
formulated in the following but a more intensive description of the mathematical model-
ling can be found in [Andersen and Baungaard, 1992] [Andersen, 1993],
[Overgaard, 1994] and in [Rostgaard, 1995].
The partial differential equation describing the exibility of the light weight link is
(7.1)
where x represents the location on the link, h is hub distance (distance from rotation axis
to the beginning of the exible link), w is the exible displacement from the correspond-
ing rigid link motion (see gure 7.3), E is Youngs module, I is the area moment, is the
density, A is cross section area, is the angular acceleration of the output shaft of the
actuator (illustrated in gure 7.3).
The partial differential equation is solved by the separation method and thereby the dis-
placement of the link is represented by the innite series
(7.2)
where q
i
are harmonic time functions with the arguments and the mode shape func-
tions are of the form
EI
x
4
4
w
A
t
2
2
d
d w
+ A x h + ( )
b
=
b
w x t , ( )
i
x ( )q
i
t ( )
i 0 =
i
t
Reference manual
Mechanics Page58
(7.3)
The model presume clamped-free boundary conditions which results in the following
parameters where L is the length of the arm.
The mode shape functions illustrated in gure 7.4 are normalized as described in equa-
tion 7.4
Figure 7.3 Flexible link denitions
Table 2: Clamped-free model parameters
Mode no. 1 2 3 4
i
L 1.875 4.694 7.855 11.00
C2(i) -0.3675 -0.50924 -0.49961 -0.50002
Figure 7.4 Mode shape functions
x(0)
y(0)
x(1)
y(1)
b
w(x,t)
i
x ( )
1
2
-- -
i
x ( ) cosh
i
x ( ) cos ( ) C2 i ( )
i
x ( ) sinh
i
x ( ) sin ( ) + =
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1
phi1
beam positionx [m]
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2
-1
-0.8
-0.6
-0.4
-0.2
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
phi2
beam positionx [m]
Reference manual
Mechanics Page59
(7.4)
The vibrations in the horizontal level can be described by an innite number of second
order ordinary differential equations shown in equation 7.5.
(7.5)
R
w
represents the viscous damping term as dened in equation 7.6
(7.6)
W
w
is a diagonal matrix of squared resonance frequencies in the link
(7.7)
is dened in equation 7.8.
(7.8)
where
(7.9)
(7.10)
(7.11)
By the use of this mathematical description of the exible link a MSL model has been
made.
7.2.2 MSL Model of the Flexible Link
The MSL model of the exible link is illustrated in gure 7.5
7.2.2.1 Input/Output of the Flexible Link Model
The MSL model of the exible link has the following input
1. Rotation angle of the clamped end (rad).
2. Angular acceleration of the clamped end (rad/sec).
1. Absolute end point angle (rad)
i
L ( ) 1 ( )
i 1 +
=
q
R
w
q
W
w
q + +
b
=
R
w
diag
i
2
wi
wi
[ ] =
W
w
diag
i

wi
2
[ ] =
1 2
T
=
wi
2
EI
z
A
--------
i
4
=
A
i
2
x d
0
L
AL
4
----------- = =
i
AL
----------- h x + ( )
i
x d
0
L
=
Reference manual
Mechanics Page60
2. Torque load (Nm)
3. Array of strain (m
-1
)
4. Resonance time functions
7.2.2.2 Symbol and Mask of the Flexible Link Model
The MSL symbol and dialog box are illustrated in gure 7.6. The initialisation com-
Figure 7.5 MSL model of exible link.
Figure 7.6 MSL symbol and dialog box of the exible link
4
q
3
Strain
K
q to strain
K
Phi(L)/(Length+Hub_dist)
K
Flexible torque feedback
2
Torque
1
Theta_o
+
+
Sum2
+
-
Sum3
1
Theta_b
2
Theta_b ddot
Horz_w
Jb
Inertia of rigid link
flex
Reference manual
Mechanics Page61
mands of the mask are
[Jb,alfa,Rw,Ww,Kmom,Phi2dd,PhiL]=msldata(flexible_arm,@1,@2,@3)
Jb Moments initia of rigid link with respect to the output shaft (Kgm
2
)
alfa to distribution vector.
Rw Viscose damping matrix
Ww Squared resonance frequency matrix (rad
2
/sec
2
)
Kmom q to exible torque feedback
Phi2dd q to strain matrix
PhiL Mode shape functions evaluated at x=L.
base le (See Database File on page 62.)
b
q
Reference manual
Database File Page62
8.0 Database File
In this chapter there is a short explanation on the data le msldata.m that is a part of
the Mechatronic Blockset Library.
Many of the MSL components are using data from the database le in order to simplify
typing of component parameters and switching between different components. The Mat-
lab database le has the following interface
[...] = msldata(component,name,...)
where the dots indicates the possibility to entering different parameters. To get a list of
the components currently in the data le the function msldata is called from Matlab
without parameters.
It is important to notice that all parameters in the database le are in SI unities.
1.0 Reference manual
2.0 Mechatronics Simulink Library
References Page63
9.0 References
Andersen, K. (1969). Notat vedroerende undersoegelse af to DC-tachometre. Technical
report, Institute of Automatic Control Systems, Technical University of Denmark.
In danish.
Andersen, K. (1987). Resume af DC-motoren. Technical report, Institute of Automatic
Control Systems, Technical University of Denmark. In danish.
Andersen, N. (1993). Modelling and control of a flexible robot arm. Masters thesis,
Institute of Automatic Control Systems, Technical University of Denmark. In
danish.
Andersen, P. and Baungaard, J. R. (1992). Construction, modelling and control of a
flexible robot arm. Masters thesis, Institute of Automatic Control Systems,
Technical University of Denmark. In danish.
Dally, J. W., Riley, W. F., and McConnel, K. G. (1984). Instrumentation for Engineering
Measurements. John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Hansen, K. L. (1994). Sensor- and modelbased robot control. Masters thesis, Institute of
Automatic Control Systems, Technical University of Denmark. In Danish.
Leonhard, W. (1990). Control of Electrical Drives. Springer Verlag.
Leth, N. (1978). Servomekanismer. Institute of Automatic Control Systems, Technical
University of Denmark. In danish.
Overgaard, M. L. (1994). Control of flexible link with two joints. Masters thesis,
Institute of Automatic Control Systems, Technical University of Denmark. In
danish.
Pjetursson, A. and Ravn, O. (1995a). Mechatronic Simulink Library, Users Guide.
Institute of Automation, Technical University of Denmark, 2. edition.
Pjetursson, A. and Ravn, O. (1995b). System description of 3 DOF rigid robot. Technical
report, Institute of Automation, Technical University of Denmark.
Pjetursson, A. and Ravn, O. (1995c). System description of flexible robot arm. Technical
report, Institute of Automation, Technical University of Denmark.
Pjetursson, A. and Ravn, O. (1995d). System description of simple servo system.
Technical report, Institute of Automation, Technical University of Denmark.
Ravn, O. and Pjetursson, A. (1995). Computer aided control engineering: Process design
models and tools. Technical report, Institute of Automation, Technical University
of Denmark.
Rostgaard, M. (1995). Modelling, Estimation and Control of Fast Sampled Dynamical
Systems. PhD thesis, Technical University of Denmark.
Simulink (1993). MATLAB/Simulink. The Math Works Inc., Cochituate Place, 24 Prime
Park Way, Natick, Mass. 01760, U.S.A., 1 edition.
1.0 Reference manual
2.0 Mechatronics Simulink Library
References Page64
Sndergaard, L. M. (1993). Field Vector Control of Induction and Synchronous Motors.
PhD thesis, Institute of Industrial Electronics, Technical University of Denmark. In
danish.
Szymkat, M., Ravn, O., Turnau, A., Kolek, K., and Pjetursson, A. (1995). Integrated
mechatronic modelling environments. In International Conference on Recent
Advances in Mechatronics, pages vol. II pp. 767772, Istanbul, Turkey.
Reference manual
Quick Reference Guide Page1
Appendix A Quick Reference Guide
This quick reference guide contains tables for input/output, granularity possibilities and
nally a list of parameters for all the MSL models.
A.1 Inputs and Outputs of the Elements
Table 1: MSL input/outputs
Component Input Output
DC Motor Load torque
Voltage
Shaft acceleration
Shaft speed
Shaft position
Current
Pre-amplier Voltage Voltage
Amplier Voltage
Load current
Voltage
Combined amplier Signal voltage
Tachometer output
Load current
Voltage
Bridge amplier Signal voltage
Signal voltage
Voltage
Voltage
PWM amplier Voltage Voltage
DC Tacho Shaft speed Voltage
Potentiometer Shaft position Voltage
Encoder Shaft position
Reset switch
Speed (digital)
Position (digital)
Strain Gauge Strain Voltage
Digital to analog converter Digital number Voltage
Analog to digital converter Voltage Digital number
Ideal gear Acceleration
Speed
Position
Load torque
Acceleration
Speed
Position
Load torque
Flexible arm Rotation angle
Angular acceleration
End point angle
Load torque
Strain
Resonance time functions
Reference manual
A.2 Levels of Complexity
Table 2: MSL granularity
Component Noise Friction
Satur
ation
Quanti
zation
Dyna
mics 1
Dyna
mics 2
DC Motor
X
a
a. Static, coulomb and uid friction.
X
b
b. Induction
Pre-amplier
X
c
c. Output voltage saturation
Amplier
X
d
d. Output voltage saturation
X
e
e. Time delay in output
X
f
f. Current limitations
Combined amplier
X
g
g. Output voltage saturation
X
h
h. Time delay in output
X
i
i. Current limitations
Bridge amplier
X
j
j. Output voltage saturation
PWM amplier
DC Tacho
X
k
k. Commutation noise
Potentiometer
Encoder
X
l
l. Digital quantization
Strain Gauge
X
m
m. Maximum voltage output of instrumentation amplier
Digital to analog converter
X
n
n. Voltage limitations
X
o
o. Digital quantization
Analog to digital converter
X
p
p. Voltage limitations
X
q
q. Digital quantization
Gear
X
r
r. Fluid friction
Flexible arm
Reference manual
A.3 Parameters
Table 3: MSL parameters
Component Database Dialog
DC Motor Ra
L
Ke
Jm
Fluid
Coulomb
Stiction
Vmax
(Kt=Ke)
Motor name
Fluid
Coulomb
Stiction
Pre-amplier Gain
Vlim
Amplier Vlim
Ilim
Bandwidth
Rg
Amplier name
AmpGain
Combined amplier Vlim
Ilim
Bandwidth
Rg
Vlim1
Vlim2
Combiamplier name
K1
K2
K3
Bridge amplier K1
Vlim1
K2
Vlim2
Bridge amplier name
PWM amplier frequency
amplitude
PWM name
DC Tacho e_s
RippelGain
RippelNumber
Tachometer name
Potentiometer Vmin
Vmax
Turns
offset
gearing
Reference manual
A.4 Unity Transformation
Encoder LPR
Ts
Encoder name
Strain Gauge Sg
Vmax
Strain gauge name
Vi
Amp
Digital to analog converter bit
Vmax
Vmin
delay
Ts
Converter name
Analog to digital converter bit
Vmax
Vmin
delay
Ts
Converter name
Ideal gear N
Jg
Fluid
Flexible arm Jb
alfa
Rw
Ww
Kmom
Phi2dd
PhiL
Arm name
Strain gauge pos
Number of modes
Table 4: Unity transformation table
Unity SI
Length 1 in 0.0254 m
1 ft 0.3048 m
1 yard 0.9144 m
Table 3: MSL parameters
Component Database Dialog
Reference manual
Mass 1 oz 0.02835 Kg
1 lb 0.4536 Kg
Power 1 dyn
10
-5
N
1 kp 9.807 N
1 lb 4.448 N
Rotation speed 1 deg/sec. 0.01745 rad/sec
1 round/sec. 6.2832 rad/sec
1 rpm 0.1047 rad/sec
Torque 1 kpm 9.807 Nm
1 oz-in 0.00706 Nm
1 lb-ft 1.357 Nm
Inertia
1 gcm
2
10
-7
kgm
2
1 pcmsec
2
9.8110
-5
kgm
2
1 oz-in
2
1.82910
-5
kgm
2
1 oz-in-sec
2
7.0610
-3
kgm
2
1 lb-in
2
2.92510
-4
kgm
2
1 lb-ft
2
0.04212
kgm
2
1 slug-ft
2
1.357
kgm
2
Table 4: Unity transformation table
Unity SI

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