NETAJI SUBHAS INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

PHOTOELASTIC STRESS ANALYSIS

SUBMITTED BY:ANIRUDH TANGRI ABHISHEK GIROTRA

DATE:-

27/09/2012 RAMNEEK SINGH ANSHUMAN BHAKRI 28/09/2012

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INTRODUCTION

Photoelasticity is an experimental technique for stress and strain analysis that is particularly useful for members having complicated geometry, complicated loading conditions, or both. For such cases, analytical methods (that is, strictly mathematical methods) may be cumbersome or impossible, and analysis by an experimental approach maybe more appropriate. The name photoelasticity reflects the nature of this experimental method: photo implies the use of light rays and optical techniques, while elasticity depicts the study of stresses and deformations in elastic bodies. Photoelastic analysis is widely used for problems in which stress or strain information is required for extended regions of the structure. It provides quantitative evidence of highly stressed areas and peak stresses at surface and interior points of the structure and often equally important, it discerns areas of low stress level where structural material is utilized inefficiently. A number of transparent amorphous materials which are optically isotropic become optically anisotropic when stressed and exhibits similar characteristic to crystals such as double refraction characteristic. The effect of double refraction will disappear upon unloading. When such materials are loaded and observed in a polarized light field, the temporary double refraction produces interference bands known as isochromatics,or stress fringes. Each stress fringe denotes a locus of point of the same maximum shearing stress in the plane of the specimen which is normal to the incident light beam. The bands of colour will form contour like pattern across the specimen according to the irregularity in the shape of the material. Closely spaced bands denotes high stress gradients region. Whereas broad spaced bands denotes low stress gradients region. While the materials used as photoelastic model materials are epoxy resins, polymethacrylate, polycarbonate, cellulose nitrate, etc. The choice of materials will then depends on the objective of the experiment to be performed.

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GENERAL DESCRIPTION
THEORITICAL KNOW-HOW
PHOTOELASTIC BEHAVIOUR
When the model is stressed and a ray of light enters along one of the directions of principal stress, the light is divided into two component waves, each with its plane of vibration (plane of polarization) parallel to one of the remaining two principal planes (planes on which shear stress is zero). Furthermore, the light travels along these two paths with different velocities, which depend upon the magnitudes of the remaining two principal stresses in the material. Fig.1 illustrates this phenomenon.

The incident light is resolved into components having planes of vibration parallel to the directions of the principal stresses and . Since these waves traverse the body with different velocities, the waves emerge with a new phase relationship, or relative retardation. This phenomenon is called double refraction or birefringence. If the relative retardation N is 0, 1, 2, 3,... cycles, the waves reinforce each other, and the combined effect is a large light intensity.If the phase difference N is 1/2, 3/2,5/2, 7/2,... cycles, the amplitude of the two interfering waves is everywhere equal and opposite;destructive interference ensues, and the light intensity diminishes to zero (extinction). Thus, a photoelastic pattern of dark and light bands, such as shown in Fig..2, is formed as follows: the locus of points at which N = 0 forms a light band: the locus of points at which N = 1/2 forms an adjacent dark band; another light band is formed by rays traversing the photoelastic material at points where N = 1; and successive dark and light bands are formed for increasing values of N . In the nomenclature of optical interference, these bands are called fringes, and the fringe order is defined as the value of N along the band under consideration.

ISOCHROMATIC PATTERN
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A pattern of dark and light bands(Fig.3) forms in the viewing screen when external forces or loads are applied to the model, and the number of these bands increases in proportion to the external forces. These patterns, which provide the value of N throughout the model, are appropriately called isochromatic patterns.

The isochromatic pattern is related to the stress system by the stress-optic law. namely

(1) where f is the stress-optical coefficient, a constant that depends upon the model material and the wavelength of light employed4, t is the model thickness, and N is the relative retardation of rays forming the pattern. The term N is also known as isochromatic fringe order.

INTERPRETATION OF ISOCHROMATIC PATTERNS

N varies in a continuous manner. A change from a dark fringe to an adjacent light fringe represents an increase or decrease of 1/2 in the value of N ; to assign any other magnitude would violate the principle of continuity. Definition of isochromatic fringe order, N Isochromatic fringe order, N, at a point is defined specifically as the number of fringes that pass through the point during the application of the external loads. Thus, at point A in Fig.3, N increases with load from 0 to l, 3 and 8. Similarly, the number of fringes that passed through point B for these 4|Page

patterns is 1/2, 1 1/2 and 4. We can, therefore, observe the formation of the isochromatic pattern to determine N at any point. Alternately, we can learn to count fringes in an isochromatic pattern from a point of zero stress to any other point in the model.

THE CIRCULAR POLARISCOPE

The formation of the photoelastic pattern has been described as a case of optical interference. Each ray that enters the model is divided into two components. and after emerging from the model they combine to yield either constructive or destructive interference. The relation between fringe order and light intensity is given by the equation of two-beam interference.

(2) We know that waves cannot combine to yield optical interference unless they are coherent and are polarized in the same plane. The photoelastic polariscope serves to bring these waves into a common plane, so that optical interference can ensue. The apparatus employed to exhibit isochromatic patterns is called a circular polariscope, shown schematically in fig 4 below.

The polariscope components can be divided into two categories; elements that direct and focus the light rays, and elements that control the wavelength and polarization of the waves. The two field lenses and the camera lens are in the first category. The first field lens is located such that the light source lies at its focal point; thus, a parallel or collimated beam of light issues from the field lens into the model zone. The second field lens converges this beam so that all the light enters the camera lens. The camera, in turn, is focused to project an image of the model onto the camera screen or photographic film. In the second category, a color filter is usually employed to isolate a small band of wavelengths by absorbing all colors except that which is desired. The functions of the polarizing elements, polarizer, quarter-wave plates and analyzer are shown in Fig. 5. The polarizer divides the incident light waves into vertical and horizontal components. It absorbs all the vertical components and transmits the remaining plane-polarized light (horizontal).

A quarter-wave plate is a member that behaves exactly like a photoelastic model having uniform birefringence of N = 1/4.* It is oriented with its principal planes (or principal axes in this

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case) at an angle of 45 to the axis of the polarizer. The purpose of the quarter-wave plate is to supply equal quantities of light along each of the two planes of polarization at every point in the model. Ordinarily, the quarter-wave plates are crossed, i.e., the plane of polarization of the higher-velocity waves in the first plate coincides with the plane of the slower waves in the second quarter-wave plate. The analyzer is actually a second polarizer.

WHITE-LIGHT ILLUMINATION
Equations (1) and (2) imply the use of monochromatic light in an experiment. We can investigate the effect with white-light illumination, that is, simultaneous illumination by all the wavelengths of the visible spectrum. For each wavelength, it can be shown that,

and substituting into eq 2 we get

Since t(C1 - C2) is a constant in any given experiment**,from point to point as a function of wavelength (or the color of the light) and stress parameter .

In white light illumination, waves of different wavelength do not interact, instead, each wavelength displays its own intensity pattern in its own color. The result is superposition of patterns for all the wavelengths employed. At any point in the model, the shade (or combination of colors) is a unique function of and adjoining points of equal comprise a band in the colorful isochromatic pattern. Aside from their aesthetic beauty, white-light isochromatic patterns permit accurate

DETERMINATION OF FRACTIONAL FRINGE ORDERS

For isochromatic patterns from monochromatic light, the distribution of fringe order (N ) along any line can be plotted by ascertaining the positions of the centers of integral and half-order isochromatic fringes that cross the line. High accuracy is obtained directly from fringe photographs in cases where a large number of fringes cross the region of interest. For cases in which the maximum fringe order is low, or the variation of fringe order is low, we cannot be content with integral and half-order fringe locations. Instead, the ability to locate points of intermediate or partial values of N (fractional or decimal values) is required. In general, the method of partial-fringe measurement can be broken into three categories, namely, compensation, analyzer rotation and fringe multiplication. They are characterized by a common objective the modification of eq (2), such that intensity maxima and minima occur not merely at integral and half-order values of relative retardation in the model, but also at intermediate points.

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* **

The discussion thus far implies the use of monochromatic light. This is a first approximation. Actually C1-C called dispersion of photoelastic constants with wavelength. Analyzer rotation and compensation are point-by-point methods, since the direction of principal stresses must be determined at each point before its fractional fringe order is measured.Fringe multiplication is a full-field method. All three methods enhance the sensitivity of data retrieved by about one order of magnitude.

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TECNICAL KNOW-HOW
Stress is defined as intensity of forces per unit area.

However, when the member contains discontinuity, such as hole, notch or a sudden change in cross section, high localized stresses may also occur near the discontinuity. As shown in figure 2, we can see that in member with holes, high stresses occurs in a section passing through the center of the hole. While for notches, high stress distribution will be at the tip of the notch (figure 3) where the cross sectional of the member will be at the least.

In this test, uniaxial testing is used, as shown in fig. 3. Using photoelastic method, we will get the fringe order (N). The fringe order has been experimentally related to the maximum in plane shearing stress for two dimensional problems through stress optic law.

Then (3) will be left with

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While (2) will become

Equation 5 is used only to determine the highest stress occurring in the specimen, that is at the tip of the notch or the middle of the hole. While for the part of specimen which is far away from the discontinuity will experience average stress (fig.2) defined in (1).

Stress concentration factor is then defined as

The stress concentration factor (K) is found to be independent of the size of the material used. The K used above is for material with notches. However, we need to define another parameter called stress intensity factor. This K value is used to define how intensively material near the crack tip is being loaded. The stress intensity factor depends on Y (a dimensionless parameter that depends on both crack and specimen sizes and geometries, as well as the manner of load application), applied, and the size of the crack.

We see from the equation that K value will increase as value increase and if reaches (fracture stress) value, the K will reach KC (critical value called fracture toughness). For ductile material, stress intensity factor is expected to be relatively large while for brittle material, the value will be low since there is not possible for the material to experience appreciable plastic deformation in front of advancing crack tip. Thus, brittle material is vulnerable to brittle fracture.

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SUMMARY
Birefringence is an event when a ray of light, which is incident on certain crystals, is split into two components. The two components are then transmitted through the crystal in different directions. If the two rays that have passed through the crystal are observed through an analyzer, it is found that they are plane polarized in mutually perpendicular planes. For the crack which is produced from hand sawing, we apply stress intensity factor, not stress concentration factor due to difference in stress distribution found between general notch and cracks. A casting or a specimen may fail under loaded conditions because of the concentration of stresses on a small portion of it. Sharp Corners are often the cause of high stress concentration. Stress concentration factor is the ratio of maximum stress and average stress. If the fringe order of the specimens with a circular holes/notches were not clearly distinguished and proper fringe numbers are not allocated to the fringes, error in the computation of the respective experimental values of K will occur. Presence of residual stress resulting from machining process can also give false values of K. In multiple notches flow of stress is smoother hence Stress concentration factor is always less as compared to a single notch of the same type.

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EXPERIMENT 1 :
Objective:
To determine the fringe value of model material using uniform cross section beam subjected t bending.

Apparatus:
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. Light Source Polarizer Analyzer Quarter-wave plate Photo elastic loading frame with oblique incidence arrangements Model Material Vernier caliper Telemicroscopic scale

Procedure:
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Set the model material of beam at universal loading frame as shown in Fig.1(a) & (b), and measure L,X,a,h and b. Use the circular polariscope and set the prism ring on the analyser to zero. Move both quarter wave plates to M-M (Magnitude) position using the disc knob. Use monochromatic light (sodium light) to obtain the isochromatic fringes, Fig. . Apply load on the loading pan. The experiment will be carried out at 5kg, 10kg and 15kg loads. Using the telemicroscope the distance of different fringes below the N.A. will be obtained. The distance will be recorded as y1, y2, and y3 corresponding to the fringe order N=1,2 and 3 respectively. The readings are to be taken at the middle section of the beam which is subjected to pure bending. Obtain the load on the model (P) and fringe value (fo), with the method and expressions described below. Turn off the laboratory lights for best results.

7. 8.

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Observation and Calculations: Observation Table:

S.No Load on Pan(w)(kg) Load on Model (p) Fringe Order (N) at Centre 1 1 2 2 Distance from NA(y) Fringe Value(kg/cm)

1 2 3 4

8 10 12 15

31 38.75 46.5 58.13

0.37 1.07 1.54 1.51

1.014 3.67 3.126 3.88

Average value of fringe value for (N=1) = (1.014 +3.67 )/2 = 2.342 Average value of fringe value for (N=2) = (3.1246 +3.88 )/2 = 3.5513

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Calculations:
P.X = W.L P = (W.L)/X Fo = (12.P.a.Y)/((h^3).N) where W = Load applied on the pan P =Actual load on the model. Half of this load will be considered due to symmetric boundary conditions X =Distance from the hinge to the shackle center L =Distance from the hinge to the pan center a =Distance between lower and upper shackles N =1,2 and 3 are fringe order h =Height of the beam b =Width of the beam

Results and Discussions:

Model of the beam subjected to pure bending can be effectively used to calibrate the photoelectric material. There is no need to vary the load. Only one value of load gives set of readings. The average fringe value of the model material is fo= ________________Kg/cm.

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EXPERIMENT 2 :
Objective:
To determine the value of principle stresses at the center of a model material using circular disc subjected to diametric compression.

Apparatus:
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Light Source Polarizer Analyzer Quarter-Wave Plate Photo elastic loading frame with oblique incidence attachment Model Material Vernier caliper

Procedure:
1. A circular disc model material subjected to diametric compression load is shown in Fig 1. Measure the required distances L,X and the diameter of the circular disc D. 2. Set the polariscope at D-D position and apply a minimum load i.e., 2kg. The isoclinic reading becomes zero at the center of disc. A plus sign of the isoclinic will appear indicating the horizontal and vertical directions of principle stresses, Fig.2. 3. Move both quarter plates to M-M (Magnitude) position using disc knob. 4. Use monochromatic light (sodium light) to obtain the isochromatic fringes. 5. Gradually increase the applied load in the pan until the first-order fringe appears. The load will increase to produce required no.of fringes (for eg. 5kg, 10kg, 15kg). The maximum load capacity of machine is 15kg. 6. Mix the fringes by rotating the analyser and check the distribution of isochromatic quantitatively for each cycle of loading, fig.3. Note down the fractional fringe order for each loading and calculate the fringe value. 7. Now install the oblique incidence attachments, fig.4. The scale of oblique incidence attachment will be fixed at zero degree. 8. See from the front (normal) side of the prism and mix the fringes as mentioned above. Obtain the value of N. 9. Now repeat the procedure by looking through the truncated (oblique) positon. This will give N alpha. 10. The stress will be obtained at a given load. 11. Turn off the laboratory lights for best results.

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Observation and Calculations: Observation Table:

S.NO 1 2 3 4

Load to Pan ( W) 5 8 10 15

Load to model (w) 19.37 31 38.75 58.13

Fringe Order (N) 5 6 7 12

Fringe value 1.59 2.13 2.28 2

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Calculation:
P.X = W.L P = W.L/X f = 8. P/DN

- = N.f/b = (f/h) (1.4N N) = (f/h) (1.4N 2N)

where, W = Applied load to pan P = Actual load to model X = Distances from hinges to shackle center L = Distances from hinges to pan center N = Normal fringe order D = Diameter of disc b = Thickness of circular disc f = Fringe Value
12

= Maximum and Minimum principle stresses

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CONCLUSION
Different type of specimens cut from photoelastic specimen under different loading will give different fringe numbers. As the load is increased, the fringe number is almost impossible to distinguish by the naked eye. As a result, there will be discrepancies in the experimental results and the theoretical results. The presence of residual stress induced in the machining process magnifies errors in specimen. Stress concentration in case of multiple notches is always less as compared to a single notch of the same type due to smoother flow of stress in the former.

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INDEX

Circular Polariscope polarizer (6) quarter wave plate (6) analyzer (6) Determination of Fractional Fringe Order Interpretation of Isochromatic Pattern Isochromatic fringe order (4) Isochromatic Pattern (3) Normal Stress in the tip of Edge Notches Photoelastic Behavior Birefringence (7) (6)

(3), (9)

Stress Concentration Factor (8) Stress Distribution in the vicinity of Circular Hole White Light Illumination (6)

(7)

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REFERENCES

An Experimental Investigation of Stress Concentration Factor, NANYANG TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY 2000 Manual on Experimental Stress Analysis, 5th Edition, James F. Doyle and James W. Phillips Strength of Materials (2nd Edition) - DK Singh, Publisher: Ane Books Pvt Ltd (2009) An Introduction to Materials Science and Engineering, William D. Callister (4 th Edition). Publisher :USA: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. (1997).

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