Ko

(c) Robert Jasiek <jasiek@snafu.de> Version 7b; last update 2010-01- 1; first publis!ed "ersion 7 first da# 2010-01-12.

Abstract
$or t!e first ti%e& ko-intersection and its t#pes& ko& ko-stone& ko-strin'& and t!e necessar# funda%ental ter%s are defined in 'eneral for all positions so t!at not all stones in all positions are ko-stones. ()a%ples are 'i"en.

Preface
*o is one of t!e ke# strate'ic concepts. +!erefore it is e)tre%el# i%portant to kno, ,!at it is& i.e.& to be able to distin'uis! ,!at is a ko fro% ,!at is not a ko. +!is paper 'i"es t!e ans,er. -dentif#in' basic-kos is "er# eas# - identif#in' kos related to c#cles of %ore t!an 2 %o"es is "er#& and so%eti%es e)tre%el#& difficult. $or t!at reason& traditional .o t!eor# could define t!e basic-kos currentl# on t!e board as kos but !ad no s#ste%atic understandin' of kos in 'eneral. +!e rarit# of kos related to c#cles ,it! / or %ore pla#s (one of t!e% occurs onl# about once e"er# ca. 0&000t! to 10&000t! 'a%e) contributed to t!e dela#. 1o, t!e ans,er co%es fro% t!e "ie, of %at!e%atical abstraction. .o pla#ers !a"in' difficult# ,it! t!e abstract definitions of c#cle-set& left-part& (ans,er-)strate'# and (ans,er-)co%patible %i'!t still tr# to 'et an intuiti"e understandin'2 -nstead of ordinar# ko and 'a%e end rules& t!e 3default restriction rules3 are used. +!e# pro!ibit sin'le stone suicide& use t!e fi)ed-ko-rule& allo, a basic-ko recapture after inter"enin' passes and ot!er,ise end a se4uence after a c#cle endin' at t!e position at t!e start of a se4uence or end a se4uence b# successi"e passes. +!e fi)ed-ko-rule allo,s a recreated position but t!en pro!ibits t!e sa%e ne)t pla#& i.e.& a c#cle %a# occur but not recur. - *o is defined "ia its ko-intersections. -n infor%al ,ords& a localko-intersection re4uires a pla#er to force a c#cle ,!ile t!e opponent pre"ents t!e pla#er fro% i%pro"in' t!e local area on t!e related c#cles5 intersections. 6 'lobal-ko-intersection re4uires a pla#er to force a c#cle ,!ile t!e opponent pre"ents t!e pla#er5s ,in ,!en considerin' t!e ,!ole board score and t!e ko%i. 7oes t!e reader ,onder ,!# t!e rules used for t!e definitions differ fro% ordinar# rules8 +!e default restriction rules are used to define 3ko3. 9o%e set of ordinar# rules is used to regulate practical playing. :# distin'uis!in' t!e t,o purposes& t!e definition ,orks re'ardless of ,!ic! ordinar# rules are used. 6 ko-intersection can be of one& t,o or t!ree of t!e t#pes basic-& local- or 'lobal-ko-intersection. 9o%e intersections are onl# local-ko-intersections. 9o%e ot!ers are onl# 'lobal-ko-intersections. ;!at does t!e abstract5s condition 3so t!at not all stones in all positions are ko-stones3 %ean8 -t is tri"ial but for practical purposes also %eanin'less to define ko so t!at all intersections of t!e board and in all positions are ko-intersections. <at!er t!an e)pectin' t!e pla#ers to cooperate& t!e definitions rel# on t!e concept 3force3.

Fundamentals
Presuppositions and Basic Definitions I

7efined else,!ere are in particular2 pla#& %o"e& current-position& basic-ko& (situational)

c#cle.

.i"en t!e basic .o rules& eit!er allo,ed or pro!ibited suicide& and a scorin' %et!od. +!e history-bans is t!e set of ko bans prior to t!e start of anal#sis. +!e start-position is t!e current-position or a particular position.

Default Restriction Rules

+!e 1-play-rule pro!ibits a c#cle consistin' of 1 pla#. +!e basic-ko-rule pro!ibits i%%ediate recapture in a basic-ko. +!e fixed-ko-rule pro!ibits a pla# to lea"e position 6 and create position : if an earlier pla# left position 6 and created position :. +!e 3-pass-rule ends t!e 'a%e in case of successi"e passes. +!e cycle-end-rule ends t!e 'a%e ,!en a) a situational c#cle startin' at t!e start-position occurs and b) a recapture in a basic-ko after e)actl# 2 successi"e& inter"enin' passes does not occur. +!e default restriction rules are t!e 1-pla#-rule& t!e basic-ko-rule& t!e fi)ed-ko-rule& t!e pass-rule& t!e c#cle-end-rule.

Basic Definitions II

6 move-sequence is a se4uence of %o"es under t!e default restriction rules& startin' fro% t!e start-position& lettin' t!e pla#ers alternate %o"es and endin' due to t!e c#cle-end-rule or t!e -pass-rule. 6 left-part of a %o"e-se4uence is eit!er t!e ,!ole %o"e-se4uence or a part t!at consists of one or %ore t!an one successi"e %o"es of it and starts ,it! its first %o"e. 6 pla#er5s strategy is a set of one or %ore t!an one left-parts of %o"e-se4uences so t!at eac! left-part starts ,it! a %o"e of !is& eac! left-part ends ,it! a %o"e of !is& t!ere are not t,o left-parts so t!at t!e# ,it!out t!eir last %o"e are e4ual& and t!e afore%entioned conditions are not true for t!e set to'et!er ,it! an# left-part not in t!e set. $or a pla#er& an answer-strategy of t!e opponent is a set of one or %ore t!an one left-parts of %o"e-se4uences so t!at eac! left-part starts ,it! a %o"e of t!e pla#er& eac! left-part ends ,it! a %o"e of t!e opponent& t!ere are not t,o left-parts so t!at t!e# ,it!out t!eir last %o"e are e4ual& and t!e afore%entioned conditions are not true for t!e set to'et!er ,it! an# leftpart not in t!e set. 6 %o"e-se4uence is compatible ,it! a strate'# of a pla#er if eac! left-part t!at is of t!e %o"e-se4uence and ends ,it! a %o"e of t!e pla#er is in t!e strate'#. $or a pla#er& a %o"e-se4uence is answer-compatible ,it! an ans,er-strate'# of t!e opponent if eac! left-part t!at is of t!e %o"e-se4uence and ends ,it! a %o"e of t!e opponent is in t!e ans,er-strate'#.

Applied Definitions

6 pla#er can force so%et!in' if t!ere is at least one strate'# of !is so t!at eac! co%patible %o"e-se4uence fulfils t!at so%et!in'. 6 pla#er does force so%et!in' if !e uses a strate'# of !is so t!at eac! co%patible %o"ese4uence fulfils t!at so%et!in'.

prevent so%et!in' is force to fulfil not t!e so%et!in'. 6 pla#er can answer-force 6 if t!e opponent %o"in' second uses an ans,er-strate'# t!at re'ardless of t!e pla#er5s first %o"e - does force : and if t!ere is at least one strate'# of t!e pla#er so t!at eac! %o"e-se4uence t!at is co%patible ,it! t!e pla#er5s strate'# and ans,erco%patible ,it! t!e opponent5s ans,er-strate'# fulfils 6. $or a %o"e-se4uence& t!ere is t!e first %o"in' pla#er5s local-area-improvement on e)actl# a set of intersections if its area score before t!e %o"e-se4uence is s%aller t!an its area score after t!e %o"e-se4uence. 6 c#cle5s cycle-set is t!e set of all t!e intersections of t!e c#cle5s pla#s.

Types of Ko Intersections

6 basic-ko-intersection is an intersection of a basic-ko. =nder default restriction rules ,it!out !istor#-bans& a local-ko-intersection is an intersection for ,!ic! a set of c#cles e)ists so t!at

eac! of t!e c#cles starts fro% t!e start-position& eac! of t!e c#cles !as at least one pla# creatin' t!e current-position& t!e intersection belon's to eac! of t!e c#cles5 c#cle-sets& and a pla#er can ans,er-force one of t!e c#cles b# %o"in' first in it if t!e opponent %o"in' second does pre"ent local-area-i%pro"e%ent of t!e pla#er on t!e c#cle-set.

.i"en t!e ko%i& t!e !istor#-bans and t!e %o"in' pla#er and usin' t!e default restriction rules& a global-ko-intersection is an intersection for ,!ic! a set of c#cles e)ists so t!at

eac! of t!e c#cles starts fro% t!e current-position& eac! of t!e c#cles !as at least one pla# creatin' t!e current-position& t!e intersection belon's to eac! of t!e c#cles5 c#cle-sets& and t!e pla#er can ans,er-force one of t!e c#cles b# %o"in' first in it if t!e opponent %o"in' second does pre"ent t!e pla#er5s ,in.

Ko

6 ko-intersection is an intersection t!at is at least one of basic-ko-intersection& local-kointersection& 'lobal-ko-intersection. 6 ko is a ko-intersection and& recursi"el#& an# adjacent ko-intersection. 6 ko-stone is a stone on a ko-intersection. 6 ko-string is a ko-stone5s strin'.

Reasons for the Non ob!ious "onditions

# play rule
;it!out t!e 1-pla#-rule and under rules allo,in' suicide& eac! of t!e %arked intersections ,ould be a local-ko-intersection because :lack could pre"ent ;!ite5s local-area-i%pro"e%ent and ;!ite could force a 1-%o"e-c#cle b# suicidin' on eit!er intersection.

Fi$ed ko rule
9uppose t!ere ,ould be no fi)ed-korule. +!e c#cle-end-rule does not end t!e 'a%e ,!en a recapture in a basicko after e)actl# 2 successi"e& inter"enin' passes occurs. +!e -passrule does not end t!e 'a%e after onl# 2 successi"e passes. +!e basic-ko-rule >ontinuation. +!e %o"es 1 to ? could pro!ibits 0 to recapture / i%%ediatel# recur fore"er. +!e %o"e-se4uence but does not pro!ibit 7 to recapture /. ,ould not end. +!erefore t!e fi)ed-ko-rule is also needed to ensure an end of t!e 'a%e. @ere it pro!ibits 7 to pla# at 1.

Allo%in& instead of Prohibitin& "ycles

+!e fi)ed-ko-rule to'et!er ,it! t!e basic-ko-rule allo, c#cles. -nstead t!e positional-superko-rule ,ould pro!ibit c#cles. +!e definitions of local- and 'lobal-ko-intersection rel# on t!e e)istence of c#cles. +!erefore c#cles !a"e to be allo,ed for t!e default restriction rules used for t!ese definitions. +!at c#cles are allo,ed for t!e purpose of identif#in' kos on t!e definition le"el does not i%pl# at all t!at ordinar# ko and 'a%e end rules ,ould be re4uired to allo, c#cles - rat!er t!e# !a"e t!e freedo% of c!oice ,!et!er to allo, c#cles. +!is coe)istence of definition "ersus ordinar# rules can be seen& e.'.& also for basic-ko in so%e real ,orld rulesets2 +!e# define a Abasic-Bko b# 3i%%ediate recapture ,ould recreate t!e position C initial s!ape3 and t!en add t!e stricter basic-korule& ,!ic! pro!ibits i%%ediate recapture. +!is paper uses t!e sa%e kind of approac! but in 'eneral for all kos instead of onl# basic-kos.

' pass rule

+!e -pass-rule instead of a 2-pass-rule enables usa'e of passes as ko t!reats.

"ycle end rule

>ontinuation. $ro% t!e position before 11& :lack !as not pla#ed on t!e >ontinuation. ;it!out c#cle-end-rule& intersection of 11 #et. +!erefore 11 is 10 ,ould not end t!e 'a%e. not pro!ibited under t!e fi)ed-ko-rule.

;!ite %a# not pla# 1/ at t!e intersection of / because t!is ,ould be pro!ibited b# t!e fi)ed-ko-rule. 9ince ;!ite could not pre"ent :lack5s local-area-i%pro"e%ent on t!e D interestin' intersections& none of t!e% ,ould be a local-ko-intersection. @ence& to let t!e% be local-kointersections& also t!e c#cle-end-rule is needed.

(continuation)

(tart position "ondition in "ycle end rule

(continuation)

>ontinuation. to 10 is a situational t!at does not end at t!e start-position. -f t!e c#cle-end-rule ended t!e 'a%e ne"ert!eless& :lack could not ans,erforce a c#cle t!at creates t!e startposition before %o"e 1.

(ituational "ondition in "ycle end rule

:efore 1& it is ;!ite5s turn. 6fter & it is :lack5s turn. +!erefore t!e c#cle fro% 1 to is not situational. -f :lack >ontinuation. ;it!out t!e situational condition in t!e c#cle-end-rule& / passed& t!en t!e c#cle fro% 1 to / alread# ,ould in"oke t!e 'a%e end ,ould be situational. and :lack ,ould not 'et a c!ance to re%o"e t!e ,!ite stones.

>ontinuation. +!e re%o"al %ust be allo,ed to %odel also t!ose ordinar# rulesets t!at allo, it.

Basic ko Recapture "ondition in "ycle end rule

6lt!ou'! t!e %o"es 1 to / are a situational c#cle& %o"e / does not end t!e 'a%e b# t!e c#cle-end-rule because of its e)ception 3a recapture in a basic-ko after e)actl# 2 successi"e& inter"enin' passes3.

+!e re%o"al of all t!e ,!ite stones %ust be allo,ed to %odel also t!ose ordinar# rulesets t!at allo, it.

(continuation)

Both )ocal And *lobal ko intersection

6lt!ou'! 'lobal-ko-intersections t!at are neit!er basic- nor local-ko-intersections are rare (onl# t,o s!ape classes are kno,n and onl# one 'a%e !as been reported so far)& t!e# do e)ist. ;!at e)ists %ust be e)plained re'ardless of rarit#. ("er#bod# calls a s!ape like& e.'.& a round-robin-ko a ko s!ape. +!is is so re'ardless of ,!et!er currentl# perfect-pla# s!ould %ake pla#s in it or ,!et!er possibl# so%e pla#s else,!ere on t!e board (like suc! capturin' !u'e strin's or closin' !u'e territories) are %ore ur'ent. 9i%ilarl#

e"er#bod# calls an end'a%e ko a ko re'ardless of ,!et!er it e)ists on t!e board alread# since t!e openin' or %iddle 'a%e. =sa'e of t!e t#pe local-ko-intersection %akes it al,a#s possible to identif# t!e round-robin-ko5s intersections as ko-intersections - e"en ,!en t!e# are not 'lobal-kointersections. -nstead of ,onderin' ,!# t,o ne,l# defined t#pes of ko-intersections are necessar#& t!e reader s!ould be astonis!ed t!at only t,o suffice. +!at just t,o ne, t#pes describe all kno,n ko s!apes s!o,s !o, ,ell t!ese t#pes !a"e been c!osen. 6 careless t!eor# ,ould use %ore t#pes - a 'ood t!eor# uses as fe, t#pes as necessar#.

+istory bans
Eocal-ko-intersection i'nores !istor#-bans because a) it is a local concept and b) eit!er pla#er %i'!t be t!e one ,!o can ans,er-force a c#cle b# %o"in' first in it. .lobal-ko-intersection does not need !istor#-bans but ,orks ,ell ,it! or ,it!out t!e%. +!erefore it is defined in t!e %ore 'eneral ,a#. +!ereb# a current-position of a 'a%e can be studied in t,o ,a#s2 b# considerin' or i'norin' t!e !istor#-bans.

(et of "ycles

Variation 1

(continuation)

Variation 2

(continuation)

-f ;!ite pre"ents :lack5s local-area-i%pro"e%ent& t!en :lack can ans,erforce a c#cle of t!e set of c#cles includin' t!ose in Variations 1F2. :lack cannot ans,er-force a particular c#cle t!ou'!. (.'.& if :lack tried to ans,erforce t!e c#cle of Variation 1& t!en ;!ite %i'!t c!oose to pla# as in Variation 2 to pre"ent :lack5s local-area-i%pro"e%ent ne"ert!eless. +!is s!o,s t!at in 'eneral it does not suffice to consider onl# one c#cle but one !as to consider a set of c#cles.

(tart position for )ocal ko intersection

+!ere are t,o reasons ,!# it does not al,a#s suffice to start fro% t!e current-position2 1) +!e pla#er %i'!t alread# !a"e as %uc! local-area on t!e c#cle-set as !e can 'et (e.'.& !e %i'!t !a"e t!e entire c#cle-set as !is area). +!en it is tri"ial for t!e opponent to pre"ent t!e pla#er5s local-areai%pro"e%ent. 2) -t %i'!t be possible to ans,er-force so%e c#cle but not necessaril# a c#cle of t!at a pla# creates t!e current-position& as is s!o,n in t!e e)a%ple2

-f :lack ,ants to pre"ent ;!ite5s local-area-i%pro"e%ent& !e !as to allo, ;!ite ans,er-forcin' so%e c#cle.

(continuation)

>ontinuation. :lack does not need to pla# D at 10 t!ou'!. +!erefore ;!ite cannot force creation of t!e currentposition. +!e c#cle fro% 2 to 10 does not create it. -f local-ko-intersection relied on t!e current-position as t!e start-position& t!e D intersections ,ould not be local-ko-intersections.

Relation
+!e c#cles of a set of c#cles are related to eac! ot!er2 +!e# start fro% t!e sa%e position. (ac! of t!e c#cles is related to t!e current-position2 (ac! %ust create it. (ac! of t!e c#cles is related to t!e intersection tested as a ko-intersection2 -t belon's to eac! of t!e c#cles5 c#cle-sets.

(pecific "onditions for *lobal ko intersection

.lobal-ko-intersection refers to t!e ko%i& t!e %o"in' pla#er and t!e current-position as t!e startposition because it s!all be applicable to t!e current state of a 'a%e in pro'ress.

"ore "onditions
3a pla#er can ans,er-force one of t!e c#cles A...B if t!e opponent A...B does pre"ent local-areai%pro"e%ent of t!e pla#er on t!e c#cle-set3 and 3t!e pla#er can ans,er-force one of t!e c#cles A...B if t!e opponent A...B does pre"ent t!e pla#er5s ,in3 are t!e core conditions of t!e definitions of localor 'lobal-ko-intersection& respecti"el#. <eference to c#cle does surprise nobod#. Gnl# usin' 3a pla#er can force a c#cle3 ,ould not ,ork because a) t!e opponent %i'!t al,a#s pass in case of an atte%pted non-suicide c#cle and b) t!e opponent %i'!t %ake si%ple inter"enin' pla#s in case of an atte%pted sucide c#cle. $orcin' a c#cle ,orks onl# as an ans,er (t!erefore ans,er-force) to a dut# for t!e opponent ,it! t!at !e is bein' so bus# forcin' it t!at %ean,!ile t!e pla#er 'ets !is c!ance to construct a c#cle. ;!at re%ains to be told is t!e opponent5s dut#2 eit!er to pre"ent local-areai%pro"e%ent of t!e pla#er on t!e c#cle-set or to pre"ent t!e pla#er5s ,in for local- or 'lobal-kointersection& respecti"el#.

Remarks

+!e aut!or pro"ed t!at eac! strin' in eac! position can recur in a c#cle if t!ere are no ko rules and t!e pla#ers cooperate. +!in's are "er# different and %uc! %ore difficult under so%e 'i"en restriction rules if one pla#er tries to force ,!ile t!e opponent tries to pre"ent a c#cle. +!e 'reatest !urdles before disco"er# of t!e ko-related definitions ,ere2 1) definition of force& ,!ic! ,as sol"ed& e.'.& in t!e Hapanese 200 <ules& 2) findin' and definin' ,ell t!e default restriction rules& ) understandin' t!at practicall# useful definitions of ko-related ter%s depend on force& /) understandin' t!at it is easier to approac! a definition of kointersection first re'ardless of ,!et!er an intersection is occupied& 0) identif#in' t!e e)act conditions of local-C'lobal-ko-intersection. 6lto'et!er t!e aut!or needed 1 .0 #ears& all !is kno,led'e on ko and rules and so%e of !is earlier in"entions to o"erco%e all t!ese !urdles. (.'.& ,!en !e !ad in"ented t!e fi)ed-ko-rule in 1II7& it !ad been pure t!eor# at t!at ti%e; in t!e %eanti%e it !as beco%e applied t!eor#. @ence in retrospect it is not surprisin' t!at a 'eneral definition of t!e see%in'l# "er# basic concept ko !as escaped all pla#ers and researc!ers for a "er# lon' ti%e. Jre"ious "ersions of t!e definitions ,orked for all but one or a fe, s!ape classes. +!e current "ersion appears to ,ork for all kno,n s!ape classes. -t could !appen t!ou'! t!at a ne, s!ape class is disco"ered for t!at t!e current "ersion ,ould not assi'n t!e e)pected c!aracteriKation. +!is possibilit# lets t!e current t!eor# of definitions be a %odel rat!er t!an necessaril# t!e final t!eor#. +!e be!a"iour of kos !as to be understood #et better before one can be sure to !a"e found t!e final t!eor#. 7urin' t!e alternatin'-se4uence& it is d#na%ic ,!et!er an intersection is a ko-intersection and of ,!ic! t#pes it is. =nder t!e definitions& a sin'le stone suicide does not define a ko-intersection because t!e

default restriction rules pro!ibit 1-pla#-c#cles. $or ot!er purposes& one %i'!t pro"ide anot!er t#pe of ko-intersections to include t!e intersections of sin'le stone suicides.

-n t!e definitions of local-C'lobal-ko-intersection& 3does pre"ent3 is supposed to i%pl# 3can pre"ent3. -n so%e s!apes like& e.'.& round-robin-ko or %olasses ko& a pla#er cannot ans,er-force a particular c#cle but can ans,er-force so%e c#cle of a set of c#cles. +!erefore t!e definitions need to rel# on set of c#cles. 6 set %i'!t contain one c#cle onl# t!ou'!. 9ince& in t!e definitions& t!e pla#er can ans,er-force one of t!e c#cles& t!en t!e set of c#cles cannot be e%pt# ,!ene"er t!ere s!all be so%e local-C'lobal-ko-intersection. +!erefore it is not necessar# to specif# a not e%pt# condition e)plicitl#. +!e condition 3eac! of t!e c#cles !as at least one pla# creatin' t!e current-position3 relates t!e c#cles to t!e current-position and t!e condition 3t!e intersection belon's to eac! of t!e c#cles5 c#cle-sets3 relates t!e potential ko-intersection to t!e c#cles. :esides pro!ibited sin'le stone suicide (1-pla#-c#cle)& so%e assu%ptions are %ade for lon' c#cles. a) Eon' c#cles also t!rou'! basic-kos beco%e interestin' at all due to so%e restriction for pla#in' in a basic-ko2 t!e basic-ko-rule. :esides basic-ko recapture %i'!t be allo,ed or pro!ibited after inter"enin' passes. $ro% traditional and a%bi'uous rulesets (like t!e Hapanese 1IDI <ules)& it is unclear ,!et!er t!is ,as intended. Gt!er rulesets (like t!e -n' 1II1 <ules) allo, passes to ser"e as ko t!reats. 6s a conse4uence of inconclusi"e tradition& researc! %ust allo, bot! cases2 ,it! or ,it!out passes as ko t!reats. +!erefore t!e less restricti"e option of allo,in' passes to ser"e as ko t!reats is specified in t!e c#cle-endrule and t!ereb# used for t!e default restriction rules and t!eir usa'e of a 'eneral definition of ko. +!is does not %ean t!ou'! t!at eac! defined ko ,ould be possible under all restriction rules stricter t!an t!e default restriction rules. b) +o enable passes as ko t!reats& t!e default restriction rules are sufficientl# rela)ed2 t!e c#cle-end-rule allo,s pass as a ko t!reat for a basic-ko and t!ree (not just t,o) successi"e passes end t!e 'a%e; a basic-ko capture in a ko& t,o passes and t!en a recapture in t!e sa%e basic-ko constitute a situational c#cle ,it! e)actl# 2 pla#s but still allo, t!e %eanin' of pass as a ko t!reat because t!e 'a%e does not end #et. c) 1ot just an assu%ption but e"en a re4uire%ent is to reject c#cles created b# t!e pla#ers5 cooperation for its o,n sake. +!e default restriction rules co%bined ,it! t!e force-dependent concepts a"oid it t!at ot!er,ise all strin's in all positions ,ould be ko strin's. d) ;it! respect to one c#cle& t!e fi)ed-ko-rule& ,!ic! is included in t!e default restriction rules& is t!e %ost liberal. - 6s a conse4uence of t!e abo"e %utuall# balancin' assu%ptions and t!eir realiKation in t!e definitions& eac! intersection t!at so%eone !as seen as belon'in' to a ko is defined as a ko-intersection ,!ile eac! intersection t!at nobod# !as seen as belon'in' to a ko is defined not to be a ko-intersection. Jeople ,it! a %ore restricti"e perception of ko can use ko C restriction rules t!at are %ore restricti"e t!an t!e default restriction rules and can de"elop t!eir strate'# %ore closel# to perfect-pla# so t!at t!e# ,ill %ake fe,er strate'ic %istakes b# %akin' a c#cle5s %o"e at inappropriate ti%in'. +!e# s!ould understand t!ou'! t!at t!e definitions !ere are related to t!e %ost liberal rat!er t!an t!e strictest restriction rules and are allo,in' bot! strate'icall# inacti"e and perfectpla# kos. 1) ;!en currentl# in a 'a%e position fi'!tin' a ko is pre%ature& it does not !a"e 'lobal-kointersections. +o identif# suc! kos ne"ert!eless& one needs local-ko-intersections. 2) +!e e)istence of 'lobal-ko-intersection ()a%ple / pro"es t!at t!e t#pe 'lobal-ko-intersection is needed because& on t!e interestin' intersections& it does not !a"e local-ko-intersections. 6 local-ko-intersection is called 3local3 because onl# t!e local-area-i%pro"e%ent is considered. 6 'lobal-ko-intersection is called 3'lobal3 because t!e ,!ole board5s score and t!e ko%i are considered.

+!e default restriction rules are used to define 3ko3 but !ere t!e# are not used to define perfect-pla# under 'i"en rules. +raditional .o t!eor# !as considered ko as so%et!in' on t!e board. 1e"ert!eless& one %i'!t be te%pted to t!ink of ko as so%et!in' bein' e4ui"alent to a c#cle ,it! pla#s on t!e ko5s intersections. +!is kind of definition ,ould !a"e se"eral proble%s t!ou'!2 a) -n 'eneral& a ko !as to be defined b# a set of c#cles rat!er t!an al,a#s onl# one particular c#cle. b) +o ac!ie"e une4ui"ocalit# for a set of c#cles& an additional condition of set-%a)i%alit# ,ould be needed2 +!e ot!er conditions are not true for t!e union of t!e set of c#cles and a c#cle not in t!e set. c) 9uc! a %a)i%al set of c#cles ,ould define all t!e ko5s intersections as t!e union of all t!e c#cle-sets of t!e set5s c#cles. d) 9o%e!o, all up to t,o sets 'i"en due to t!e t,o t#pes local-C'lobal-ko-intersection need to be taken into consideration. e) +!e resultin' concept ,ould not be so %uc! ko-like an# lon'er but %ore -n' st#le ko-position-like. +!ere %a# be reasons for related t!eoretical studies. $or practical purposes t!ou'!& ko as defined !ere ('i"in' a connected set of intersections) is "er# useful. -f one reall# ,ants to refer to t!e c#cles& t!is can be done usin' t!e su''ested definitions for t!e t#pes of kointersection. -t ,ould be superfluous t!ou'! to al,a#s refer to c#cles if all one ,ants to consider is t!e location of a ko on t!e board.

Future Research

<esearc! in ko and its c!aracteristics s!ould be i%pro"ed to decide ,!et!er t!e current definitions are a te%porar# %odel or t!e final t!eor# for a definition of ko. 1e, ko s!ape classes& if an#& s!ould be disco"ered and c!ecked a'ainst t!e current definitions. :i' kos not consistin' of onl# basic-kos s!ould be classified into t#pes 4uite like basic-kos are classified. Lore ad"anced ter%s like ko-t!reat s!ould be defined. 6 suicide pla# of a c#cle-set5s c#cle definin' a ko-intersection s!ould be found if so%e e)ists. *o-position s!ould be defined in t!e sense of -n' *o <ules or t!e 1e, *o <ules. <eference to ko-couplin' s!ould be replaced b# reference to set of c#cles like in t!e definitions of local-C'lobal-ko-intersection. -nstead of 3ko-position3& a better na%e s!ould be c!osen because ko-position is used also in a different %eanin' of 3a position ,it! at least one ko in it3. @idden kos s!ould be studied in 'reater detail. 6ll intersections t!at are not ko-intersections s!ould be classified.

,$amples of Ko intersection
=nless specified ot!er,ise& t!e e)a%ples presu%e area scorin'. Gb"ious rests of %o"e-se4uences are so%eti%es not s!o,n. $or %ost e)a%ples& onl# one t#pe of ko-intersection is "erified; kointersections %i'!t also be of ot!er t#pes. 6part fro% a) bi''er !ell kos and b) a c#cle ,it! 7 pla#s& t!e e)a%ples s!o, all kno,n s!ape classes of lon' c#cle s!apes consistin' not onl# of basic-kos. Lultiples do not create ne, proble%s for local-ko-intersections because it suffices to stud# %o"e-se4uences restricted to eac! s!ape separatel#. +!e aut!or is 'rateful for ne, disco"eries. +!e local-area of a c#cle-set is t!e area score on onl# its intersections in t!e position5s conte)t.

"ounter e$amples
>ounter-e)a%ples are as i%portant as positi"e e)a%ples. 9ince t!ere is no 'eneral classification of all non-ko-intersections #et& an# counter-e)a%ple t!at ,ould be classified as a positi"e e)a%ple b# t!e definition of ko-intersection ,ould let t!is definition be a failure.

"ounter e$ample #- -n particular& none of t!e %arked intersections is a local-ko-intersection.

>#cle 12 a c#cle. +!e start-position is (continuation) t!e current-position. Jla# / creates t!e current-position.

(continuation)

Variation 1.1. +!e opponent ;!ite cannot pre"ent t!e pla#er :lack5s local-area-i%pro"e%ent.

:efore Variation 1.1& t!e local-area is 0.

6fter Variation 1.1& t!e local-area is 2. >#cle 22 start-position. Jla# creates t!e current-position.

(continuation)

(continuation)

Variation 2.1 (continuation fro% first %o"es of >#cle 2).

:efore Variation 2.1& t!e local-area is 1.

6fter Variation 2.1& t!e local-area is 2. Variation 2.2.

(continuation) (continuation) ;it! se4uences like >#cle 2& Variation 2.1 and Variation 2.2& t!e opponent :lack does pre"ent t!e pla#er ;!ite5s local-area-i%pro"e%ent. :lack c!ooses / in Variation 2.2 rat!er t!an / in >#cle 2. +!e pla#er ;!ite cannot ans,er-force t!e c#cle in >#cle 2.

6fter Variation 2.2& t!e local-area is 2.

>#cle 2 start-position. Jla# 2 creates t!e current-position.

(continuation)

(continuation)

Variation .12 :# ans,erin' 1& t!e opponent ;!ite cannot pre"ent t!e pla#er :lack5s local-areai%pro"e%ent.

>#cle /2 start-position of a c#cle. Jla# 1 creates t!e current-position.

(continuation) Variation /.12 +!e opponent :lack cannot pre"ent t!e pla#er ;!ite5s local-area-i%pro"e%ent.

:efore Variation /.1& t!e local-area is .

6fter Variation /.1& t!e local-area is 2. >#cle 02 start-position of a c#cle. Jla# DI creates t!e current-position.

(continuation)

(continuation)

(continuation)

Variation 0.12 9ee Variation 1.1. +!e opponent ;!ite cannot pre"ent t!e pla#er :lack5s local-areai%pro"e%ent.

$or all super-lon' c#cles& application of t!e definition of local-kointersection is si%ilarl# tri"ial.

9u%%ar#2 6 c#cle fittin' all t!e re4uire%ents of t!e definition of local-ko-intersection does not e)ist. +!erefore none of t!e %arked intersections is a local-ko-intersection.

"ounter e$ample .- -n particular& t!e 6 c#cle includin' a pla# on t!e %arked intersection is not a local-ko- %arked intersection %ust be lon'. intersection. 9uc! %akes it essentiell# i%possible for a pla#er to ans,er-force.

"ounter e$ample '- ("en none of t!e %arked intersections is a kointersection.

6 c#cle cannot be ans,er-forced b# eit!er pla#er (!ere2 :lack). - 9ince it is eas# for t!e pla#ers to cooperate e"en in perfect-pla# and create a round-robin-ko-like c#cle& t!is is a "er# i%portant e)a%ple for s!o,in' -n'5s failure ,!en describin' ko stones nai"el# as stones t!at can be captured c#clicall# or repeatedl#. 1e"ert!eless& -n' deser"es t!e !onour of !a"in' %oti"ated t!e aut!or of t!is te)t to searc! for a careful definition.

"ounter e$ample /- 9uicide allo,ed& ("en none of t!e %arked intersections Variation 1 for t!e current-position as ko%i 0. +!e position5s topic ,as is a local ko intersection. Eocal-area t!e start-position. described b# 7enis $eld%an but M 1. %a#be it !ad been in"ented before.

(continuation) (continuation)

Eocal-area M 2.

-f :lack c!ooses %o"e (and :lack& for t!e purpose of t!e definition& can c!oose it)& t!en ;!ite cannot pre"ent :lack5s local-area-i%pro"e%ent. +!erefore t!e local-ko-intersection definition5s condition 3if t!e opponent (;!ite) %o"in' second does pre"ent local-area-i%pro"e%ent of t!e pla#er on t!e c#cle-set3 cannot be fulfilled for t!e t,o intersections as t!e supposed c#cle-set. @ence neit!er of t!ese intersections is a local-ko-intersection.

Variation 2 for t!e current-position as t!e start-position.

(continuation) >ontinuation. +!e %o"es 1 to are not a situational c#cle. +!erefore t!e c#cle-end-rule does not end t!e 'a%e just after .

(continuation)

(continuation)

(continuation)

Lo"e 2 is s!o,n for t!e purpose of s!o,in' t!e c#cle fro% 1 to . @o,e"er& %o"e is a strate'ic %istake for t!e purpose of t!e definition5s condition 3if t!e opponent (;!ite) %o"in' second does pre"ent local-area-i%pro"e%ent of t!e pla#er on t!e c#cle-set3. :lack can c!oose better t!an %o"e in Variation 2 b# replacin' it ,it! %o"e of Variation 1. 6lt!ou'! ;!ite tries differentl# ,it! %o"e 2& t!e local-area e%er'in' after so%e %ore %o"es follo,in' %o"e 12 of Variation 2 is ;!ite5s drea% onl#. -n realit#& t!e local-area ,ill end up like in Variation 1. $or t!e definition5s purpose& ,e %a# as ,ell assu%e %o"e 2 of Variation 2 to be do%inated b# %o"e 2 of Variation 1. 6lt!ou'! ;!ite does pre"ent :lack5s ,in& :lack cannot ans,er-force a c#cle. +!erefore neit!er of t!e %arked intersections is a 'lobal-kointersection. (1ote2 6lt!ou'! suicidin' 2 stones is t!e easiest possible suicide task& ;!ite is not forced to pass in bet,een t!e pla#s of t!ese stones. -t is surprisin'l# difficult to construct a ko ,it! suicide. +ri"ial territor# s!apes don5t ,ork& eit!er.)

:lack to %o"e. ("en none of t!e %arked intersections is a &lobal ko intersection.

9core after Variation 1 M ? - ? - 0 M 0.

"ounter e$ample 0

("en none of t!e %arked intersections is a local-ko-intersection. -n Variation 1& ;!ite cannot pre"ent :lack5s local-area-i%pro"e%ent fro% to 0. +!erefore in particular none of t!e %arked intersections is a local-kointersection. +!e sendin'-2-returnin'1 ko c#cles are i%%aterial for t!e purpose of t!e application of t!e definition5s condition 3if t!e opponent (;!ite) does pre"ent A...B3. :esides t!e definition does not care for t!e !idden bent-/-in-t!e-corner kos; it onl# looks for kos currentl# on t!e board.

Variation 1

:lack to %o"e. -f t!e ko%i is 20& t!en e"en none of t!e %arked intersections is a &lobal-ko-intersection. - 6fter Variation 1& t!e score is 0.

(continuation)

6fter Variation 2& t!e score is 0. ;it! Variations 1F2& ;!ite pre"ents :lack5s ,in. :lack cannot ans,erforce a c#cle t!ou'! because& in Variation 2& ;!ite does not need to capture. +!erefore e"en none of t!e intersections is a 'lobal-kointersection.

Variation 2

:lack to %o"e. -f t!e ko%i is 2/.0& t!en e"en none of t!e %arked intersections is a &lobal-kointersection. - 6fter Variation 1& t!e score is 0.0. ;!ite cannot pre"ent :lack5s ,in.

"ounter e$ample 1

("en none of t!e %arked intersections is a local-ko-intersection.

Variation 1 -f :lack does pre"ent ;!ite5s localarea-i%pro"e%ent& ;!ite cannot ans,er-force a c#cle t!at creates t!e current-position because& in Variation 1& :lack can c!oose to approac! t!e ,!ite liberties differentl#.

(continuation) (continuation)

Variation 2 >ontinuation. does not co%plete a (continuation) situational c#cle. +!erefore t!e c#cleend-rule does not end t!e 'a%e. +o pre"ent ;!ite5s local-area-i%pro"e%ent under default restriction rules& :lack could also c!oose Variation 2. @o,e"er& for t!e purpose of t!e definition5s condition 3t!e pla#er (;!ite) can ans,er-force one of t!e c#cles3& :lack does not c!oose Variation 2. -f one ,anted to percei"e t!e s!ape as a 7ead *o& t!en one s!ould introduce anot!er t#pe of ko-intersection ,it! all of t!ese conditions2 a) -t is not a 'lobal-ko-intersection. b) 6 3related3 c#cle e)ists so t!at durin' it t!e pla#ers use perfect-pla#. c) 6 pla#er can c!oose !is perfect-pla# bet,een a c#cle as in (b) or not creatin' a 3related3 c#cle. ;!ite pre"ents :lack5s local-areai%pro"e%ent. :lack cannot ans,erforce a c#cle t!at creates t!e currentposition. "ounter e$ample 2- 1one of t!e %arked intesections is a local-kointersection.

(continuation)

Basic ko intersection
(ac! basic-ko currentl# on t!e board as suc! ser"es as an e)a%ple& re'ardless of bein' a sin'le ko or part of a %ultiple or %ulti-sta'e ko etc. =suall# !idden kos do not !a"e an# basic-kointersection.

)ocal ko intersection
+!e definition of local-ko-intersection does not care ,!et!er a ko is ,ort! fi'!tin' in a 'lobal conte)t no,& later or ne"er.

,$ample #- (ac! of t!e %arked 6lt!ou'! ;!ite does pre"ent :lack5s intersections is a local-ko-intersection. local-area-i%pro"e%ent& :lack can ans,er-force a c#cle on t!e %arked intersections. Jla# creates t!e current-position.

>ontinuation. / in"okes t!e c#cleend-rule.

,$ample .- like ()a%ple 1. :efore or after t!e c#cle (before %o"e 1 or after %o"e )& t!e local-area is 2.

,$ample '- like ()a%ple 1 ,it! s,apped colours.

,$ample /

(ac! of t!e %arked intersections is a local-ko-intersection.

Variation 1

Variation 2 >ontinuation. does not co%plete a situational c#cle. +!erefore t!e c#cle- >ontinuation. end-rule does not end t!e 'a%e. +!is is t!e %ost pro%inent e)a%ple ,!# t!e rule !as t!e 3situational3 condition in it.

Variation >ontinuation. / in"okes t!e c#cleend-rule. (continuation)

;!ile :lack& usin' an# of t!e Variations 1- & pre"ents ;!ite5s local-area-i%pro"e%ent& ;!ite ans,er-forces t!e c#cle %o"e 1 to & ,!ic! occurs in eac! of t!ese "ariations. Lo"e creates t!e current-position. +!erefore eac! of t!e %arked intersections is a local-ko-intersection.

,$ample 0- (ac! of t!e %arked +!e c#cle starts fro% t!is startintersections is a local-ko-intersection. position.

Jla# 1 creates t!e current-position.

>ontinuation. -t suffices if :lack passes ne)t because t!at in"okes t!e c#cle-end-rule.

6lt!ou'! :lack does pre"ent ;!ite5s local-area-i%pro"e%ent& ;!ite can ans,er-force a c#cle on t!e %arked intersections.

,$ample 1- Eike ()a%ple 02 9ee t!e c#cle and c#cle start-position t!ere. Jla# 2 creates t!e current-position.

$ro% t!e positions of ()a%ples 0F?& neit!er pla#er can ans,er-force a c#cle. +!is is i%%aterial for t!e definition of local-ko-intersection t!ou'!; it does not re4uire t!e c#cle to start fro% t!e current-position. <at!er it re4uires in particular so%e pla# of t!e c#cle to create t!e current-position.

,$ample 2- (ac! of t!e %arked intersections is a local-ko-intersection.

>ontinuation. ? in"okes t!e c#cleend-rule.

+!e opponent :lack does pre"ent t!e pla#er ;!ite5s local-area-i%pro"e%ent. ;!ite can ans,er-force a c#cle like t!e one fro% 1 to ?. +!erefore eac! of t!e %arked intersections is a local-ko-intersection.

,$ample 3- (ac! of t!e %arked 9tart-position of t!e c#cles in intersections is a local-ko-intersection. Variations 1F2. Jla# 1 creates t!e current-position.

Variation 1.

>ontinuation. D in"okes t!e c#cleend-rule.

Variation 2.

>ontinuation. D in"okes t!e c#cleend-rule.

$or eac! of t!e c#cles of Variations 1 or 2& t!e pla#er :lack is ,it!out local-area-i%pro"e%ent. +!is %eans t!at t!e opponent ;!ite does pre"ent :lack5s local-area-i%pro"e%ent. Ver# ot!er ;!ite c!oices can be dis%issed as not fulfillin' t!is. :lack does not create a so called stable seki because t!e definition asks !i% to ans,er-force a c#cle. :lack 1 is necessar# to fulfil t!e condition to recreate t!e current-position; :lack %a# not refuse to do so; it is outside :lack5s c!oice because it is si%pl# a %atter of e)istence of t!is c#cle. :lack cannot ans,er-force a particular c#cle :lack can ans,er-force one of t!e c#cles of Variations 1 or 2 or ot!er "ariations ,it! si%ilar c#cles. 9ince :lack can ans,er-force one of t!ese c#cles& eac! of t!e %arked intersections is a local-ko-intersection.

,$ample 4- (ac! of t!e %arked Variation 1. ;!ite does not c!oose intersections is a local-ko-intersection. t!is "ariation because !e ,ould not pre"ent :lack5s local-areai%pro"e%ent.

(continuation)

(continuation)

(continuation)

>ontinuation. +!e fi)ed-ko-rule pro!ibits ;!ite 1D at 10.

Variation 2. 9tart like Variation 1. Variation . ;!ite does not c!oose Lo"e 1? co%pletes a situational c#cle t!is "ariation because !e ,ould not t!at creates t!e current-position. pre"ent :lack5s local-areai%pro"e%ent.

(continuation)

(continuation)

>ontinuation. +!e fi)ed-ko-rule pro!ibits ;!ite 1/ at ?.

Variation /. ;!ite does not c!oose t!is "ariation because !e ,ould not pre"ent :lack5s local-areai%pro"e%ent.

(continuation)

>ontinuation. +!e fi)ed-ko-rule pro!ibits ;!ite 10 at 2.

Variation 0. ;!ite does not c!oose t!is "ariation because !e ,ould not pre"ent :lack5s local-areai%pro"e%ent.

(continuation)

(continuation)

(continuation)

>ontinuation. +!e fi)ed-ko-rule pro!ibits ;!ite 1D at 10.

Variation ?. 9tart like Variation ?. Variation 7. ;!ite does not c!oose Lo"e 1? co%pletes a situational c#cle t!is "ariation because !e ,ould not t!at creates t!e current-position. pre"ent :lack5s local-areai%pro"e%ent.

(continuation)

(continuation)

>ontinuation. +!e fi)ed-ko-rule pro!ibits ;!ite 1/ at ?.

Variation D. ;!ite does not c!oose t!is "ariation because !e ,ould not pre"ent :lack5s local-areai%pro"e%ent.

(continuation)

+!e fi)ed-ko-rule pro!ibits ;!ite 10 at 2.

+o pre"ent :lack5s local-areai%pro"e%ent& ;!ite can c!oose one of t!e Variations 2 or ?. -n eac! of t!e%& a situational c#cle creatin' t!e current-position occurs. +!erefore Variation 1. ;!ite s!ould not c!oose :lack can ans,er-force suc! a c#cle. ,$ample #5- (ac! of t!e %arked intersections is a local-ko-intersection. capture in t!e basic-ko. @ence eac! of t!e %arked intersections is a local-ko-intersection.

(continuation)

Variation 2. ;!ite s!ould not c!oose capture in t!e basic-ko.

>ontinuation. +!e opponent can alter !is pla#s a bit. +!erefore ;!ite cannot ans,er-force a particular c#cle.

9i%ilar se4uences are possible. :lack pre"ents ;!ite5s local-areai%pro"e%ent. ;!ite can ans,er-force so%e suc! c#cle t!at starts at t!e current-position and ends ,it! a pla# ,$ample ##- (ac! of t!e %arked creatin' it. +!erefore eac! of t!e intersections is a local-ko-intersection. %arked intersections is a local-ko+!e start-position and se4uences are intersection. analo'ue to ()a%ple D. ;!ite does not 'et a c!ance to capture t!e basicko.

,$ample #.- (ac! of t!e %arked intersections is a local-ko-intersection. +!e se4uences are analo'ue to ()a%ple I. ;!ite does not 'et a c!ance to capture t!e basic-ko.

,$ample #'- (ac! of t!e %arked intersections is a local-ko-intersection. +!e s!ape first appeared in a 'a%e of Variation 1 +. Lark @all.

>ontinuation. 10 in"okes t!e c#cleend-rule.

:efore or after t!e c#cle of Variation 1 or 2& t!e local-area is 0.

Variation 2

>ontinuation. 10 in"okes t!e c#cleend-rule.

Variation (continuation)

6fter Variation & t!e local-area is D& ,!ic! is local-area-i%pro"e%ent for :lack. +!erefore ;!ite ? is a strate'ic %istake and ;!ite does not c!oose Variation . 1ote t!at pla# 7 does not end t!e 'a%e b# t!e c#cle-end-rule.

+!e opponent ;!ite5s onl# c!ance to pre"ent t!e pla#er :lack5s local-area-i%pro"e%ent is a c#cle like in Variation 1 or 2. -n particular& since ;!ite can "ar# at %o"e ?& t!ere is %ore t!an one suc! c#cle. :lack can ans,er-force one of t!ese c#cles. +!erefore t!e %arked intersections are local-ko-intersections.

,$ample #/- (ac! of t!e %arked intersections is a local-ko-intersection. +!e c#cle ,as disco"ered b# $red @ansen.

>ontinuation. D in"okes t!e c#cleend-rule.

+!e opponent ;!ite5s onl# c!ance to pre"ent t!e pla#er :lack5s local-area-i%pro"e%ent is a c#cle like t!is. 9o :lack can ans,er-force a c#cle. +!erefore t!e %arked intersections are local-ko-intersections.

,$ample #0- (ac! of t!e %arked 1 at for clock-,ise rotation ,ould intersections is a local-ko-intersection. also be possible. -f t!e aut!or recalls correctl#& :ill +a#lor disco"ered pin,!eel kos.

(continuation)

>ontinuation. D in"okes t!e c#cleend-rule.

:efore or after t!e c#cle& t!e local-area is -2. +!e opponent ;!ite5s onl# c!ance to pre"ent t!e pla#er :lack5s local-area-i%pro"e%ent is a c#cle like t!is& ,!ic! !e c!ooses. 9o :lack can ans,er-force a c#cle. +!erefore t!e %arked intersections are local-ko-intersections.

,$ample #1- (ac! of t!e %arked intersections is a local-ko-intersection. +!e aut!or disco"ered t!e s!ape of Variation 1. Jla# 10 creates t!e ()a%ples 1?F17. current-position.

>ontinuation. 7 is allo,ed b# t!e fi)ed-ko-rule. Lo"es to D are a s!ort c#cle ,it!in t!e lon'er c#cle but D does not in"oke t!e c#cle-end-rule because D does not create t!e startposition& ,!ic! is t!e current-position.

Variation 2. Jla# I creates t!e current- >ontinuation. Lo"es to 7 are a s!ort Variation . Jla# 10 creates t!e position. c#cle ,it!in t!e lon'er c#cle but 7 current-position. does not in"oke t!e c#cle-end-rule because 7 does not create t!e startposition& ,!ic! is t!e current-position. 10 in"okes t!e c#cle-end-rule. >ontinuation. Lo"es to 7 are a s!ort c#cle ,it!in t!e lon'er c#cle but 7 does not in"oke t!e c#cle-end-rule because 7 does not create t!e startposition& ,!ic! is t!e current-position. 10 in"okes t!e c#cle-end-rule. ;!ite pre"ents :lack5s local-areai%pro"e%ent. :lack can ans,er-force a c#cle t!at creates t!e currentposition. +!erefore eac! of t!e %arked intersections is a local-kointersection.

,$ample #2- (ac! of t!e %arked +!is can be s!o,n separatel# for t!ese intersections is a local-ko-intersection / and t!e ot!er / intersections. (and a basic-ko-intersection). (6lternati"e2 =se ()a%ple 1? as t!e Variation 1 start-position.)

>ontinuation. 0 does not let t!e c#cleend-rule end t!e 'a%e. ? in"okes t!e c#cle-end-rule and creates t!e current- Variation 2 position. :lack is ,it!out local-areai%pro"e%ent. 1 to ? are a c#cle.

>ontinuation. 0 creates t!e currentposition. ? in"okes t!e c#cle-end-rule. :lack is ,it!out local-areai%pro"e%ent; t!erefore it suffices t!at ;!ite ? passes alt!ou'! ;!ite could !a"e %ade a pla# instead. 1 to 0 are a c#cle.

:# Variation 1 or 2& ;!ite pre"ents :lack5s local-area-i%pro"e%ent. :lack can ans,er-force a c#cle2 t!e c#cle of Variation 1 or t!e c#cle of Variation 2. +!erefore eac! of t!e / outer& %arked intersections is a local-ko-intersection.

1o, it is s!o,n ,!# t!e ot!er / intersections are local-kointersections. Variation

>ontinuation. 0 does not let t!e c#cleend-rule end t!e 'a%e. ? in"okes t!e c#cle-end-rule and creates t!e currentposition. :lack is ,it!out local-areai%pro"e%ent. 1 to ? are a c#cle. :# Variation or /& ;!ite pre"ents :lack5s local-area-i%pro"e%ent. :lack can ans,er-force a c#cle2 t!e c#cle of Variation or t!e c#cle of Variation /. +!erefore eac! of t!e / inner& %arked intersections is a localko-intersection.

Variation /

>ontinuation. 0 creates t!e currentposition. ? in"okes t!e c#cle-end-rule. :lack is ,it!out local-areai%pro"e%ent; t!erefore it suffices t!at ;!ite ? passes alt!ou'! ;!ite could !a"e %ade a pla# instead. 1 to 0 are a c#cle.

,$ample #3- (ac! of t!e %arked intersections is a local-ko-intersection.

9tart-position of Variations 2-/.

Variation 1 fro% t!e current-position as t!e start-position. :lack 'ets localarea-i%pro"e%ent.

Variation 2 >ontinuation. ? in"okes t!e c#cleend-rule. creates t!e currentposition. 1 to 0 are a c#cle. :lack is ,it!out local-area-i%pro"e%ent.

Variation

Variation / >ontinuation. ;!ite does not c!oose Variation because :lack ,ould re%o"e all ,!ite stones& i.e.& ;!ite ,ould not pre"ent :lack5s local-areai%pro"e%ent.

>ontinuation. ;!ite does not c!oose Variation / because :lack ,ould re%o"e all ,!ite stones& i.e.& ;!ite ,ould not pre"ent :lack5s local-areai%pro"e%ent.

+!e start-position of Variations 2-/ allo,s a suitable c#cle for t!e definition of local-ko-intersection. :# c!oosin' Variation 2& t!e opponent ;!ite pre"ents t!e pla#er :lack5s local-area-i%pro"e%ent. :lack can ans,er-force t!e c#cle in Variation 2. +!erefore eac! of t!e %arked intersections is a local-ko-intersection.

,$ample #4- (ac! of t!e %arked +!e se4uence is one of t!e possible intersections is a local-ko-intersection. c#cles. :ill +a#lor disco"ered t!e dia%ond ko in ()a%ples 1IF20.

(continuation)

(continuation) (continuation) ;!ite5s onl# c!ance to pre"ent :lack5s local-area-i%pro"e%ent is to follo, a c#cle. :lack can ans,er-force one of t!e c#cles. +!erefore eac! of t!e %arked intersections is a local-ko-intersection. >ontinuation. 10 in"okes t!e c#cleend-rule.

,$ample .5- (ac! of t!e %arked intersections is a local-ko-intersection.

,$ample .#- +!e position is fro% t!e -n' 1II1 <ules booklet. 6ccordin' to ru%ours& Latti 9ii"ola disco"ered triple ko stones.

+!e %arked area5s score is 0. +!ere is an e"en nu%ber of da%e 7. +!erefore t!e e)cite%ent is confined to t!e dut# of li"in' ,it! eit!er pla#er5s bi' center strin' and co%petin' for t!e re%ainin' intersections.

+!ese are t!e interestin' intersections. (ac! of t!e% is a local-kointersection. +!e upper part consists of ? intersections. +!e lo,er part consists of onl# / intersections but decides about t!e connection in case of %issin' t,o e#es in t!e upper part.

Variation 12 a representati"e c#cle.

(continuation)

>ontinuation. Lo"es 1 to 10 are a c#cle. Lo"e 10 creates t!e currentposition and in"okes t!e c#cle-endrule.

:efore or after t!e c#cle of Variation 1& t!e score& as indicated b# t!e localVariation 2 area& is -2. +!is is ,it!out :lack5s local-area-i%pro"e%ent.

6fter Variation 2& t!e local-area is 2. :# c!oosin' t!is "ariation& ;!ite ,ould not pre"ent :lack5s local-areai%pro"e%ent.

Variation 2 departin' fro% t!e c#cle.

6fter Variation & t!e local-area is 2. :# c!oosin' t!is "ariation& ;!ite ,ould not pre"ent :lack5s local-areai%pro"e%ent.

@ence& to pre"ent :lack5s local-areai%pro"e%ent& ;!ite !as to follo, a c#cle. :lack can ans,er-force one of t!e c#cles like t!e one of Variation 1. +!erefore eac! of t!e %arked intersections is a local-ko-intersection. +!is is re%arkable because it %eans t!at one does not need to calculate t!e ,!ole board score or perfect-pla# to identif# a triple ko stones c#cle c#cleset5s intersections as ko-intersections. -n ot!er ,ords& t!e triple ko stones !ere do not re4uire a different t#pe of ko-intersection.

,$ample ..- (ac! of t!e %arked Variation 1 intersections is a local-ko-intersection.

(continuation)

>ontinuation. / in"okes t!e c#cleend-rule.

:efore or after t!e c#cle& t!e localarea is 0. ;!ite is ,it!out local-areai%pro"e%ent.

Variation 2

(continuation)

(continuation) (continuation)

(continuation) (continuation)

6fter t!e se4uence& t!e local-area is /. 6lso Variation 2 is ,it!out ;!ite5s loca-area-i%pro"e%ent on t!e Variation 1 c#cle5s c#cle-set.

6lt!ou'! t!e c#cle is not pla#ed in Variation 2& for t!e purpose of t!e definition& it suffices t!at t!e c#cle fulfillin' t!e conditions e)ists. -t suffices t!at& since& to fulfil t!e definition of local-ko-intersection& ;!ite !as to ans,er-force a c#cle& ;!ite c!ooses Variation 1 instead of Variation 2. - ;!ite ans,er-forces a c#cle& t!e c#cle of Variation 1& on t!e %arked intersections. Jla# / of t!e c#cle in Variation 1 creates t!e current-position. (ac! of t!e %arked intersections belon's to t!e c#cle5s c#cle-set. @ence eac! is a local-ko-intersection. - -t suffices t!at a c#cle startin' ,it! ;!ite %o"in' first and fulfillin' t!e definition e)ists. Gne does not need to stud# :lack %o"in' first. 6t least one pla#er %ust ans,er-force a c#cle. -t is not re4uired t!at bot! pla#ers can because t!e definition asks onl# for 3a pla#er3.

,$ample .'- +!e position is b# >#cle 12 6 c#cle fro% %o"e 1 to 0. @er%an @idde%a& ,!o t!ereb# +!e start-position is t!e currentredisco"ered so%e c#cle ,it! 0 pla#s. position.

>ontinuation. 0 creates t!e currentposition. ? in"okes t!e c#cle-end-rule.

Variation 1.1

Variation 1.2 (continuation) -n >#cle 1 and Variations 1.1 and 1.2& t!e opponent ;!ite pre"ents t!e pla#er :lack5s local-areai%pro"e%ent. ;!ite can c!oose& e.'.& Variation 1.2. :lack cannot ans,erforce t!e c#cle in >#cle 1. +!erefore t!e c#cle in >#cle 1 does not fit t!e definition of local-ko-intersection. >#cle 22 9tart-position of a c#cle. Jla# creates t!e current-position.

>ontinuation. Lo"es 1 to ? are a c#cle. ? creates t!e current-position and in"okes t!e c#cle-end-rule. :lack is ,it!out local-area-i%pro"e%ent.

Variation 2.22 -f :lack !ad to c!oose t!is "ariation& t!en t!e opponent ;!ite could pre"ent t!e pla#er :lack5s local-area-i%pro"e%ent. Variation 2.12 ;!ite %a# not c!oose 2 because t!en !e does not pre"ent :lack5s local-area-i%pro"e%ent.

+o ans,er-force a c#cle& :lack c!ooses >#cle 2 rat!er t!an Variation 2.2. +!e >#cle 2 stud# s!o,s t!at t!e %arked intersections are local-kointersections.

(continuation)

,$ample ./

(ac! of t!e %arked basic-kointersections is a local-ko-intersection.

;!ile :lack pre"ents ;!ite5s localarea-i%pro"e%ent& ;!ite ans,erforces t!e c#cle 1 to /. +!erefore eac! "ounter e$ample .0 of t!e %arked intersections is a localko-intersection.

>ontinuation. Lo"e / does not in"oke a 'a%e end b# t!e c#cle-end-rule.

("en none of t!e %arked basic-kointersections is a local-ko-intersection.

,$ample .1

;!ile :lack pre"ents ;!ite5s localarea-i%pro"e%ent& ;!ite cannot ans,er-force a c#cle.

(ac! of t!e %arked basic-kointersections is a local-ko-intersection. >ontinuation. Lo"e / does not in"oke a 'a%e end b# t!e c#cle-end-rule. ;!ile :lack pre"ents ;!ite5s localarea-i%pro"e%ent& ;!ite ans,erforces t!e c#cle 1 to /. +!erefore eac! of t!e %arked intersections is a localko-intersection.

,$ample .2- -nstable 4uadruple ko. (ac! of t!e %arked intersections is a local-ko-intersection. 9ince t!e t,o ri'!t-%ost %arked intersections are not basic-ko-intersections& it is interestin' to kno, t!at also t!e# are local-ko-intersections.

Jro"in' local-ko-intersections can be done& e.'.& b# anal#sin' t!ree pairs of t,o adjacent intersections at a ti%e& t!en doin' an analo'ue anal#sis for ot!er t!ree pairs includin' t!e ri'!t%ost.

+o a"oid effecti"e ;!ite stone connections& pro"in' local-kointersections %ust be done for all t!e 2n crossed intersections to'et!er. 7ue to Jropositions 1-/& :lack can ans,er>ontinuation. ? in"okes t!e c#cle,$ample .3- -nstable n-tuple-ko force a c#cle of Jroposition 1 if ;!ite end-rule. +o pre"ent :lack5s local(n>/). (ac! of t!e crossed pre"ents :lack5s local-areaarea-i%pro"e%ent& ;!ite needs to intersections is a local-ko-intersection. i%pro"e%ent. @ence eac! of t!e %ake t!e captures. :lack can ans,er- 9ince t!e t,o ri'!t-%ost crossed crossed intersections is a local-koforce t!e c#cle 1 to ?. +!erefore eac! intersections are not basic-kointersection. of t!e %arked intersections is a local- intersections& it is interestin' to kno, ko-intersection. t!at also t!e# are local-kointersections. (-n stable n-tuple-kos& t!ere are 2n basic-ko-intersections an#,a#.)

Propositions for ,$ample .3 Proposition #- -f ;!ite %akes onl# basic-ko captures and pre"ents :lack5s local-areai%pro"e%ent& t!en :lack can ans,er-force a c#cle t!at starts fro% t!e current-position and !as all crossed intersections as its c#cle-set. Proof- -n t!e current-position& t!e local-area is / - 2n. ;!ene"er& fro% a position ,it! t!at localarea& :lack %akes a basic-ko capture& t!is i%pro"es t!e local-area for !i% to D - 2n. +o pre"ent :lack5s local-area-i%pro"e%ent& ;!ite %ust repl# b# a basic-ko capture (if ;!ite passes& t!en a) :lack !a"in' open basic-kos connects a stone or else b) :lack i%pro"es t!e local-area b# anot!er basic-ko capture #et furt!er in !is fa"our). 7ue to t!e basic-ko-rule& ;!ite %a# not recapture t!e sa%e basic-ko i%%ediatel#& i.e.& ;!ite !as to capture anot!er basic-ko. -n particular& ;!ite5s first basic-ko capture captures t!e ri'!t-%ost basic-ko. :lack c!ooses to capture t!e left-%ost basic-ko t!at !e !as not captured #et. ;!ite follo,s suit necessaril#. +!ereb# on all t!e crossed intersections pla#s ,ill be %ade until :lack5s ri'!t-%ost capture creates t!e current-position. +!is is t!e first occurrence of a c#cle& ,!ic! is situational& in"okes t!e c#cle-end-rule and !as ne"er "iolated t!e fi)ed-ko-rule. N(7. Proposition .- -f alread# n - / stones !a"e been connected& 2 basic-kos are open for :lack and 2 basic-kos are open for ;!ite& t!en after ;!ite5s connection of anot!er stone ;!ite cannot pre"ent :lack5s local-area-i%pro"e%ent. Proof- 1e)t :lack captures all ,!ite stones. N(7. Proposition '- -f at so%e ti%e ;!ite connects a stone instead of %akin' a basic-ko capture& fe,er t!an n - / stones !a"e alread# been connected and after t!e ne,l# connected stone ;!ite does not connect #et anot!er stone& t!en ;!ite cannot pre"ent :lack5s local-area-i%pro"e%ent. Proof- -f :lack - accordin' to t!e proof of Jroposition 1 - !as open basic-kos& t!en :lack connects a stone; else :lack passes. +!is leads to a situation ,it! e)actl# 2 basic-kos open for :lack& %>2 basic-kos open for ;!ite and ;!ite to %o"e. 6ssu%in' ,it!out loss of 'eneralit# t!e attacked :lack t!en al,a#s captures t!e left-%ost basic-ko t!at currentl# !e %a# capture& t!en ?

pla#s are like a tiple ko c#cle& after,ards 2 successi"e passes enable ;!ite a basic-ko recapture and after,ards ? pla#s for t!e ot!er triple-ko-like c#cle on t!e sa%e ? intersections let ;!ite finall# run out of options (ot!er t!an passin') due to t!e fi)ed-ko-rule (,!ile t!e %o"es before ,ere not pro!ibited b# t!e fi)ed-ko-rule and did not in"oke a 'a%e end due to t!e c#cle-end-rule). +!is ,ill lead to so%e position ,it! t!e local-area of at least D - 2n and ;!ite does not pre"ent :lack5s localarea-i%pro"e%ent co%pared to t!e local-area / - 2n of t!e current-position. N(7. Proposition /- -f %ore and %ore stones are connected as in Jropositions 1 or & t!en at so%e ti%e t!e assu%ptions of Jroposition 2 ,ill be in"oked. Proof- +ri"ial.

*lobal ko intersection
+erritor# scorin' is assu%ed to be defined as in t!e Hapanese 200 <ules C "ersion 0a. +!e "ariations are selected so t!at t!e effect of da%e lettin' independentl#-ali"e 'roups be in-seki is irrele"ant in practice. "ounter e$ample #

"ounter e$ample # Area (corin&6 Komi 7 #36 Black to 8o!e

-n particular& none of t!e %arked intersections is a 'lobal-kointersection.

9core M 27 - I - 1D M 0. ;!ile ;!ite pre"ents :lack5s ,in& :lack cannot ans,er-force a c#cle. +!erefore none of t!e %arked intersections is a 'lobal-kointersection.

"ounter e$ample . Area (corin&6 Komi 7 #2906 Black to 8o!e

-n particular& none of t!e %arked intersections is a 'lobal-kointersection.

9core M 27 - I - 17.0 M 0.0. ;!ite cannot pre"ent :lack5s ,in. +!erefore none of t!e %arked intersections is a 'lobal-kointersection.

"ounter e$ample ' Territory (corin&6 Komi 7 #06 Black to 8o!e

9core M 10 - 2 F 2 - 10 M 0. ;!ite does pre"ent :lack5s ,in. :lack cannot ans,er-force a c#cle. Variation. Jrisoner-difference M 2. +!erefore in particular none of t!e %arked intersections is a 'lobal-kointersection.

,$ample / Territory (corin&6 Komi 7 #/906 Black to 8o!e

,$ample / Rele!ant (corin& Positions

9corin' Josition 1. :lack ,ants to a"oid t!is scorin' position because& e.'.& in particular t!e stone 7 is dead.

+!is representati"e !#pot!eticalse4uence indicates ,!# 7 is dead.

>ontinuation. +!e %arked stone is not capturable-2 eit!er because& in t!e %o"e-se4uence& ;!ite can re%o"e all t!e black stones.

9corin' Josition 2. +!e prisonerdifference is 2.

9core M 10 - 2 F 2 - 1/.0 M 0.0. ;!ite ,ants to a"oid t!is scorin' position because !e does not pre"ent :lack5s ,in.

9corin' Josition . +!e prisonerdifference is -/. Gb"iousl# :lack ,ants to a"oid t!is scorin' position.

9corin' Josition /. +!e prisonerdifference is 7.

9core M 10 - 2 F 7 - 1/.0 M 0.0. ;!ite ,ants to a"oid t!is scorin' position because !e does not pre"ent :lack5s ,in.

9corin' Josition 0. +!e prisonerdifference is 7.

9core M 10 - 2 F 7 - 1/.0 M 0.0. ;!ite ,ants to a"oid t!is scorin' position because !e does not pre"ent :lack5s ,in.

Variation /.1 creatin' 9corin' Josition /.

Variation 0.1 creatin' 9corin' Josition 0.

(continuation)

(continuation)

9corin' Josition ?. +!e prisonerdifference is 7.

9core M I - 2 F 7 - 1/.0 M -0.0.

Variation ?.1 creatin' 9corin' Josition ?.

(continuation)

9corin' Josition 7. +!e prisonerdifference is 7.

>ontinuation. :lack !as to eli%inate all t!e kos so t!at none of !is strin's is dead.

9core M 10 - 2 F 7 - 1/.0 M 0.0. ;!ite ,ants to a"oid t!is scorin' position because !e does not pre"ent :lack5s ,in.

Variation 7.1 creatin' 9corin' Josition 7.

(continuation)

9corin' Josition D. +!e prisonerdifference is 7.

9core M I - 2 F 7 - 1/.0 M -0.0. :lack ,ants to a"oid t!is scorin' position.

(continuation)

Variation D.1 creatin' 9corin' Josition D.

(continuation)

(continuation)

,$ample / Decisions "reatin& the "ycle

;!ite does pre"ent :lack5s ,in2 1) -f :lack 1 passes& t!en 9corin' Josition 1 can occur. 2) -f :lack c!ooses %o"e 1& t!en see belo,.

Lo"e 1 ;!ite does not fill t!e da%e2 +!is ,ould lead to 9corin' Josition 2. ;!ite ,ould not pre"ent :lack5s ,in.

Lo"e 2 ;!ite does pre"ent :lack5s ,in2 1) -f :lack 1 captures t!e lo,er left corner stone& t!en 9corin' Josition can occur. 2) -f :lack c!ooses %o"e & t!en see belo,.

Lo"e ;!ite does not fill t!e da%e2 +!is ,ould lead to 9corin' Josition /. ;!ite ,ould not pre"ent :lack5s ,in.

Lo"e / ;!ite does pre"ent :lack5s ,in2 1) -f :lack 0 passes& t!en 9corin' Josition ? can occur. (;!ite does not c!oose Variation 0.1.) 2) -f :lack 0 connects& t!en 9corin' Josition D can occur. ) -f :lack c!ooses %o"e 0& t!en see belo,. Lo"e ? 9u%%ariKin' t!e i%plication of all decisions2 ;!ite does pre"ent :lack5s ,in. :lack ans,er-forces a c#cle& ,!ic! occurs at %o"e ?. +!e c#cle starts fro% t!e current-position and& in t!e c#cle& %o"e ? creates t!e current-position. +!erefore& in t!e follo,in' dia'ra%& eac! of t!e %arked intersections is a 'lobal-ko-intersection.

Lo"e 0 1) ;!ite does not fill t!e da%e2 +!is ,ould lead to 9corin' Josition 7. ;!ite ,ould not pre"ent :lack5s ,in. 2) :# c!oosin' %o"e ?& ;!ite does pre"ent :lack5s ,in& as 9corin' Josition 1 s!o,s. Lo"e ? in"okes t!e c#cle-end-rule.

,$ample / None of the 8arked Intersections is a )ocal ko intersection

-n particular none of t!e %arked intersections is a local-ko-intersection. -n t!e follo,in' dia'ra%s& t!e localarea-i%pro"e%ent is calculated on t!ese intersections. Variation 1. ;!ite cannot pre"ent :lack5s local-area-i%pro"e%ent fro% -0 to -2.

9tartin' position of Variation 2.

9tartin' position of Variation .

Variation 2. ;!ite cannot pre"ent :lack5s local-area-i%pro"e%ent fro% -1 to 0.

Variation . ;!ite cannot pre"ent :lack5s local-area-i%pro"e%ent fro% -2 to 0.

9tartin' position of Variation /.

9tartin' position of Variation 0.

Variation /. ;!ite cannot pre"ent :lack5s local-area-i%pro"e%ent fro% 0 to ?.

9tartin' position of Variation ?.

Variation ?. ;!ite cannot pre"ent :lack5s local-area-i%pro"e%ent fro% 2 to ?.

Variation 0. ;!ite cannot pre"ent :lack5s local-area-i%pro"e%ent fro% 1 to ?. 9u%%ar# of Variations 1-? and si%ilar "ariations2 1one of t!e %arked intersections is a local-ko-intersection.

(continuation)

(continuation)

,$ample 0

Territory (corin&6 Komi 7 #/6 Black to 8o!e

,$ample 0 Rele!ant (corin& Positions

9corin' Josition 1. :lack ,ants to a"oid t!is scorin' position because& e.'.& in particular t!e stone 7 is dead.

+!is representati"e !#pot!eticalse4uence indicates ,!# 7 is dead.

>ontinuation. +!e %arked stone is not capturable-2 eit!er because& in t!e %o"e-se4uence& ;!ite can re%o"e all t!e black stones.

9corin' Josition 2. +!e prisonerdifference is 2.

9core M 10 - 2 F 2 - 1/ M 1.

9corin' Josition . +!e prisonerdifference is -/. Gb"iousl# :lack ,ants to a"oid t!is scorin' position.

9corin' Josition /. +!e prisonerdifference is 7.

9core M 10 - 2 F 7 - 1/ M 1.

9corin' Josition 0. +!e prisonerdifference is 7.

9core M 10 - 2 F 7 - 1/ M 1.

Variation /.1 creatin' 9corin' Josition /.

Variation 0.1 creatin' 9corin' Josition 0.

(continuation)

(continuation)

9corin' Josition ?. +!e prisonerdifference is 7.

9core M I - 2 F 7 - 1/ M 0.

Variation ?.1 creatin' 9corin' Josition ?.

(continuation)

9corin' Josition 7. +!e prisonerdifference is 7.

>ontinuation. :lack !as to eli%inate all t!e kos so t!at none of !is strin's is dead.

9core M 10 - 2 F 7 - 1/ M 1. ;!ite ,ants to a"oid t!is scorin' position because !e does not pre"ent :lack5s ,in.

Variation 7.1 creatin' 9corin' Josition 7.

(continuation)

9corin' Josition D. +!e prisonerdifference is 7.

9core M I - 2 F 7 - 1/ M 0.

(continuation)

Variation D.1 creatin' 9corin' Josition D.

(continuation)

(continuation)

,$ample 0 Decisions "reatin& the "ycle

;!ite does pre"ent :lack5s ,in2 1) -f :lack 1 passes& t!en 9corin' Josition 1 can occur. 2) -f :lack c!ooses %o"e 1& t!en see belo,.

Lo"e 1 -nstead of %o"e 2& ;!ite does not fill t!e da%e2 +!is ,ould lead to 9corin' Josition 2. ;!ite does pre"ent :lack5s ,in2 see belo,.

Lo"e 2 ;!ite does pre"ent :lack5s ,in2 1) -f :lack captures t!e lo,er left corner stone& t!en 9corin' Josition can occur. 2) -f :lack c!ooses %o"e & t!en see belo,.

Lo"e -nstead of %o"e /& ;!ite cannot fill t!e da%e2 +!is ,ould lead to 9corin' Josition /. ;!ite ,ould not pre"ent :lack5s ,in. +!erefore ;!ite c!oose %o"e / to pre"ent :lack5s ,in& see belo,. Lo"e / ;!ite does pre"ent :lack5s ,in2 1) -f :lack 0 passes& t!en 9corin' Josition ? can occur. (;!ite does not c!oose Variation 0.1.) 2) -f :lack 0 connects& t!en 9corin' Josition D can occur. ) -f :lack c!ooses %o"e 0& t!en see belo,. Lo"e ? 9u%%ariKin' t!e i%plication of all decisions2 ;!ite does pre"ent :lack5s ,in. :lack ans,er-forces a c#cle& ,!ic! occurs at %o"e ?. +!e c#cle starts fro% t!e current-position and& in t!e c#cle& %o"e ? creates t!e current-position. +!erefore& in t!e follo,in' dia'ra%& eac! of t!e %arked intersections is a 'lobal-ko-intersection. Lo"e 0 1) ;!ite does not fill t!e da%e2 +!is ,ould lead to 9corin' Josition 7. ;!ite ,ould not pre"ent :lack5s ,in. 2) :# c!oosin' %o"e ?& ;!ite does pre"ent :lack5s ,in& as 9corin' Josition 1 s!o,s. Lo"e ? in"okes t!e c#cle-end-rule.

"ounter e$ample 1 Territory (corin&6 Komi 7 #'906 Black to 8o!e +!e anal#sis is like in ()a%ple 0& e)cept t!at t!e score of e"er# scorin' position is 0.0 'reater. 6t %o"e 0& t!is 'i"es :lack anot!er option to c!oose 9corin' Josition D. +!erefore t!e conclusion differs& too.

9corin' Josition D. +!e prisonerdifference is 7. 9core M I - 2 F 7 - 1 .0 M 0.0.

Variation D.1 creatin' 9corin' Josition D.

(continuation)

;!ite cannot pre"ent :lack5s ,in. +!erefore in particular none of t!e %arked intersections is a 'lobal-kointersection. (continuation)

"ounter e$ample 2

"ounter e$ample 2 Area (corin&6 Komi 7 #0906 Black to 8o!e

-n particular& none of t!e %arked intersections is a 'lobal-kointersection.

9corin' position after Variation 1. 9core M 2? - 10 - 10.0 M 0.0. :# Variation 1& ;!ite does not pre"ent :lack5s ,in. +!erefore ;!ite5s onl# c!ance is to create a c#cle. Variation 1

Variation 2

(continuation)

(continuation) 9ince ;!ite cannot pre"ent :lack5s ,in& none of t!e %arked intersections is a 'lobal-ko-intersection.

9corin' position after Variation 2. 9core M 2? - 10 - 10.0 M 0.0. :# Variation 2& ;!ite does not pre"ent :lack5s ,in& eit!er.

"ounter e$ample 3

"ounter e$ample 3 Area (corin&6 Komi 7 #16 Black to 8o!e ;!ile& for t!is position an so%e appropriate ko%i& under territo# scorin' 'lobal-ko-intersections can e)ist& under area scorin' t!e# do not e)ist for t!is position.

-n particular& none of t!e %arked intersections is a 'lobal-kointersection.

9core M 2? - 10 - 1? M 0. ;!ite does pre"ent :lack5s ,in. :lack cannot ans,er-force a c#cle. +!erefore none of t!e %arked intersections is a 'lobal-kointersection. <epresentati"e se4uence.

,$ample 4 Komi 7 5906 Black to 8o!e -f t!e ko%i ,ere 0 or an# ot!er "alue& t!ere ,ould be t!e sa%e 'lobal-ko-intersections. 7ependin' on t!e ko%i& t!e pla#ers5 roles %i'!t be s,apped. -f t!e ko%i is 0& t!en eit!er pla#er can assu%e t!e role of ans,er-forcin' a c#cle.

(ac! of t!e %arked intersections is a 'lobal-ko-intersection. (1ote2 (ac! is also a basic-ko-intersection and a local-ko-intersection.)

Variation 1

>ontinuation. 0 is allo,ed b# t!e fi)ed-ko-rule and does not end t!e 'a%e b# t!e c#cle-end-rule. ? in"okes t!e c#cle-end-rule. +!e score is -0.0. ;!ite pre"ents :lack5s ,in. +!e interestin' c#cle is fro% 1 to ?. :lack %o"es first in it fro% t!e currentposition. Lo"e ? creates t!e currentposition. (ac! of t!e %arked intersections is in t!e c#cle-set. ;!ite pre"ents :lack5s ,in. +!e interestin' c#cle is fro% 1 to 0. :lack %o"es first in it fro% t!e currentposition. Lo"e 0 creates t!e currentposition. (ac! of t!e %arked intersections is in t!e c#cle-set.

Variation 2

>ontinuation. ? in"okes t!e c#cleend-rule. +!e score is -0.0.

;!ite pre"ents :lack5s ,in. :lack can ans,er-force one of t!e interestin' c#cles in Variations 1 or 2. @ence eac! of t!e %arked intersections is a 'lobal-ko-intersection.

,$ample #5 Komi 7 5906 Black to 8o!e Nuadruple ko stones and t!e position5s topic ,ere disco"ered b# Latti 9ii"ola.

+!e area on t!e uninterestin' rest of t!e board is -1.

,$ample #5 (corin& Positions

Variation 1. 6fter ?& pla#in' in t!e triple ko is uninterestin' under t!e default restriction rules.

9corin' position after Variation 1. 9core M 10 F 1D F 7 F 0.0 - 17 - 22 - 1 M /0.0 - /0 M 0.0.

Variation 2. (continuation)

9corin' position after Variation 2. 9core M 2 F 17 F 0.0 - 2 - 7 - 1 M /I.0 - 1 M 1D.0.

Variation . 6fter D& pla#in' in t!e triple ko is uninterestin' under t!e default restriction rules.

(continuation)

9corin' position after Variation . 9core M 17 F 17 F 0.0 - 10 - 2 - 7 - 1 M /.0 - /? M -11.0.

9corin' position after Variation /. 9core M 2 F 7 F 0.0 - /0 - 1 M I.0 - /1 M -1.0. Variation /. Lo"e I capturin' D ,ould be ans,ered b# 12.

Variation 0. 6fter 1 & pla#in' in t!e triple ko is uninterestin' under t!e default restriction rules.

(continuation)

9corin' position after Variation 0. 9core M 17 F 22 F 0.0 - 10 - 1D - 7 - 1 M I.0 - /1 M -1.0.

Variation ?.

(continuation) (continuation)

9corin' position after Variation ?. 9core M 2 F 7 F 0.0 - 2 - 17 - 1 M 0.0 - 00 M -1I.0.

Variation 7. 6fter 10& pla#in' in t!e triple ko is uninterestin' under t!e default restriction rules.

(continuation) (continuation)

9corin' position after Variation 7. 9core M 10 F 2 F 7 F 0.0 - 17 - 17 - 1 M /0.0 - 0 M 10.0.

Variation D.

9corin' position after Variation D. 9core M /0 F 0.0 - 2 - 7 - 1 M /0.0 - /0 M 0.0. >ontinuation. Lo"e 1? capturin' 10 ,ould be ans,ered b# 1I.

,$ample #5 The :uadruple Ko (tones "ycle +!e c#cle starts fro% t!e current-position. Lo"e 1/ creates t!e current-position.

1otes2 1) Jrobabl# none of t!e %arked intersections is a local-ko-intersection. +!is s!ould be supported b# careful anal#sis t!ou'!. 2) $or t!e ko%i ran'e -0.0 to -2& eac! of t!e %arked intersections is a 'lobal-ko-intersection. ) -f t!e ko%i is -2.0 or s%aller& t!en ;!ite cannot pre"ent :lack5s ,in and none of t!e %arked intersections is a 'lobal-ko-intersection. /) -f t!e ko%i is 0 or 'reater& t!en ;!ite can pre"ent :lack5s ,in b# c!oosin' %o"e 2 in Variation 1 ,!ile :lack cannot ans,er-force t!e c#cle; none of t!e %arked intersections is a 'lobal-kointersection. (ac! of t!e %arked intersections is a 'lobal-kointersection.

,$ample #5 Decisions "reatin& the "ycle Lo"e 12 :lack cannot force !is ,in (i.e.& ;!ite does pre"ent it) but !e can contribute to t!e c#cle. Lo"e 22 ;!ite does pre"ent :lack5s ,in2 1) ;!ite does not c!oose %o"e 2 in Variation 1 because t!en :lack ,ould ,in. 2) ;!ite does not c!oose %o"e 2 in Variation 2 because t!en :lack ,ould ,in. ) ;!ite c!ooses %o"e 2 of t!e c#cle& see belo,. Lo"e 2 :lack cannot force !is ,in but !e can contribute to t!e c#cle. Lo"es /F?FDF102 ;!ite does pre"ent :lack5s ,in2 1) ;!ite does not c!oose ot!er %o"es2 ob"ious.

2) ;!ite c!ooses %o"es /F?FDF10 of t!e c#cle& see belo,. Lo"e 02 :lack 0 in Variation does not force :lack5s ,in. +!erefore :lack contributes to t!e c#cle. Lo"e 72 :lack 7 in Variation / does not force :lack5s ,in. +!erefore :lack contributes to t!e c#cle. Lo"e I2 1) :lack I in Variation 0 does not force :lack5s ,in. 2) :lack I in Variation ? does not force :lack5s ,in. ) +!erefore :lack contributes to t!e c#cle. Lo"es 11F1 2 :lack cannot force !is ,in but !e can contribute to t!e c#cle. Lo"e 122 ;!ite does pre"ent :lack5s ,in2 1) ;!ite does not c!oose %o"e 12 in Variation 7 because t!en :lack ,ould ,in. 2) ;!ite c!ooses %o"e 12 of t!e c#cle& see later %o"es. Lo"e 1/2 ;!ite does pre"ent :lack5s ,in2 1) ;!ite does not c!oose %o"e 1/ in Variation D because t!en :lack ,ould ,in. 2) ;!ite c!ooses %o"e 1/ of t!e c#cle. +!is in"okes t!e c#cle-endrule. :lack !as no, ans,er-forced t!e c#cle.

,$amples of Ko
-n eac! e)a%ple& all kos in t!e current-position are denoted. 6ll intersections of t!e sa%e ko carr# t!e sa%e letter. 9o different letters indicate different kos.

6lt!ou'! a triple ko !as onl# t,o basic-kos at an# ti%e& t!e na%e ,as c!osen ,ell2 +!ere are t!ree kos.

*o%i M 1/.0& :lack to %o"e& +erritor# *o%i M 1?& :lack to %o"e& 6rea 9corin' 9corin'

*o%i M -0.0& :lack to %o"e

*o%i M 0& :lack to %o"e

"han&es )o&
Version 7b2 - correct t#pos in t!ree dia'ra%s - clarif# ,ordin' of local-& 'lobal-ko-intersection ,!ile not c!an'in' t!e intended contents - clarif# ,ordin' else,!ere Version 7a2 - correct t#pos and ot!er tin# %istakes - replace declaration of !istor#-bans b# definition - correct ()a%ples 27F2D on local-ko-intersection - clarif# ,ordin' of (ans,er-)strate'#& ans,er-force ,!ile not c!an'in' t!e intended contents Version 72 - first publis!ed "ersion