Chapter 4, Fundamentals of Vector Control

CHAPTER 4

Fundamentals Of Vector Control Of Ac Machines

4.1. Summary of Generalized Theory of AC Electrical Machines
4.1.1 asic E!uations"
d v =r i + , dt

from (2.2)

(4. )

!here" = # $ L % $ flu& l%n'a(es throu(h the !%nd%n(. ))*

V abc = R + dL + L p . I abc dt

(4.2)

The +as%c mach%ne structure %s a s%& !%nd%n( un%t as sho!n %n F%(ure 4. , !%th three stator !%nd%n(s ( 2,o apart), 2 rotor damper !%nd%n(s and a rotor f%eld !%nd%n(. Th%s %s ade-uate to represent +oth s.nchronous motors as !ell as %nduct%on mach%nes.

b 5

r
a 3 4

Reference axis

Figure 4.1: Generalized Five winding Salient Pole Machine

4.

Chapter 4, Fundamentals of Vector Control

The stator !%nd%n(s of th%s mach%ne are transformed %nto a rotat%n( d)- a&%s representat%on to s%mpl%f. the anal.s%s, as sho!n %n F%(ure 4.2, us%n( the phase po!er %n/ar%ant transformat%on e&press%ons (%/en %n (4.0) and (4.4).

qs

s
4

ds
Reference axis

0
Figure 4.2: d-q equivalent Five winding Salient Pole Machine

i0 I 0dqs = ids = 2 3 iqs

coss cos s- 2 3 -sins -sin

1 2

1 2

cos s+2 3 -sin

1 2

s- 2
3

s+2
3

ia . ib ic

= C . I abc

(4.0)

4.2

Chapter 4, Fundamentals of Vector Control

ia I abc = ib ic

= 3 2

1 2 1 2 1 2

coss cos s- 2 3 cos s+2 3

-sins -sin -sin

s-2
3

s+2
3

i0 . i ds = C -1. I 0dqs i qs

(4.4)

#ote that %f %a 1 %+ 1 %c $ ,, then %,$ ,.

4.1.# Tor!ue E$%ressions

For a s.nchronous mach%ne (!%thout damper !%nd%n(s or !%th damper !%nd%n(s +ut %n stead. state), the phase tor-ue %n/ar%ant e&press%on %s2

e =

p 3 . . L af. if. iqs + ids . iqs . L ds - L qs 2 2

(4.4)

f%eld tor-ue reluctance tor-ue For an %nduct%on mach%ne (a(a%n !%thout damper !%nd%n(s),

p = 3 . L m. iqs . idr - ids . iqr 2 2

(4.4)

5%nce %nduct%on mach%nes are non sal%ent, no reluctance tor-ue %s poss%+le.

4.# Ma$imum Tor!ue Conditions

From here on, onl. the usual s%tuat%on !here there %s no star po%nt or neutral connect%on !%ll +e cons%dered. That %s, %a 1 %+ 1 %c $ ,, and therefore %, $ ,. (4.6)

#o! cons%der %a %n terms of %ts components %ds and %-s, as sho!n %n F%(ure 4.0

4.0

Chapter 4, Fundamentals of Vector Control

iqs

ids

s
Figure 4.3: Relationship between ia, ids and iqs 7h%ch can +e e&pressed as" ia = cos s . ids - sin s . iqs

ia
(4.8)

5uppos%n( %a %s at %ts rated ma&%mum. 7hat are the poss%+le /alues of % ds and %-s 9 Clearl., %f s $ :,o , %ds could +e %nf%n%te, +ut %n do%n( so, %t !ould produce too h%(h a current %n the other phases. From earl%er, !e ha/e %n phasor form,
I a = I ds + jI qs

(4.:)

Therefore, the ma(n%tude of ;a %s d%rectl. related to the ma(n%tude of ;ds and ;-s +."
2 2 I a2 = I ds + I qs

(4. ,)

5o, %f the motor rated current %s ;m, then the cond%t%on for the stator current rema%n%n( !%th%n rat%n(s %s"
2 Im

2 2 I ds + I qs

(4.

For a s.nchronous mach%ne, the electr%c tor-ue %s (%/en +."

e =

p 3 . . L af. if. iqs + ids . iqs . L ds - L qs 2 2

(4. 2)

and hence the ma&%mum tor-ue at rated current %s ach%e/ed +. ma&%m%<%n( th%s e&press%on under the constra%nt of (4. ,).
4.4

Chapter 4, Fundamentals of Vector Control

. iqs . L ds - L qs = %s usuall. small compared to =L af. if. iqs 5%nce the component =ids =, the

ma&%mum tor-ue occurs !hen %ds $ ,, and %s (%/en +."

e(max
&uestion

p 3 . . L af. if. ia 2 2

(4. 0)

;f %f $ ,, !hat !ould the opt%mum %ds and %-s +e 9 7hat mach%ne does th%s represent 9

For an %nduct%on mach%ne, the stead. state tor-ue %s (%/en +."

p = 3 . L m. iqs . idr - ids . iqr 2 2

(4. 4)

Earl%er !or' has sho!n that under stead. state cond%t%ons, % dr $ , and therefore the tor-ue onl. responds to %ds. Hence %t m%(ht seem that for ma&%mum tor-ue per un%t current, %a $ %ds. >ut %-r %s not an %ndependent -uant%t., +ut %s related to % -s and %ds throu(h the select%on of the d?- a&%s as e&pressed +. the motor sl%p relat%onsh%p, %.e"
ids = iqs

s. L !! ,

r! s

iqr = -

Lm . iqs L !!

(4. 4) (4. 4)

))*

p L 2 = 3 . . m . ids . iqs 2 2 L !!

Hence for a (%/en stator current ma(n%tude, the tor-ue %s ma&%m%sed +. ma&%m%s%n( the ma(n%tude of %ds%-s.
2 2 also, from (4. ,), and hence the ma&%mum /alue of % % #o!, ia2 = ids + iqs ds -s occurs

!hen"
i ids = iqs = a 2

(4. 6) (4. 8)

))*

i 2 ids . iqs = a 2

!h%ch (%/es"

e (max = 3 .

p L m2 2 . . ia 2 2 L !!

for a (%/en %a
4.@

(4. :)

Chapter 4, Fundamentals of Vector Control

4.' Steady State O%eration Of A Synchronous Motor For a s.nchronous motor operat%n( at a constant /olta(e and fre-uenc. (!%thout /ector control), %t %s useful to 'no! !hat le/els of %d and %- !%ll result. 5tart%n( a(a%n !%th (4.4), and %(nor%n( sal%enc. for s%mpl%c%t. (%.e. A ds $ A-s), (%/es"

e =

p 3 . . L af. if. iqs 2 2

(4.2,)

Hence for a (%/en %f,

iqs = 2 .2 . e p 3 L af. i f

(4.2 )

Th%s does not (%/e an. %nformat%on a+out % ds, !h%ch %s not tor-ue produc%n(, +ut could st%ll +e non <ero. #o!, from earl%er (chapter 0),
di + L af. f dt di qs vqs = ra. iqs + s. L ds . ids + s. L af . if + L qs . dt dids dif 3 vf = rf. if + . L af. + L ff. 2 dt dt vds = ra. ids dt

s. L qs. iqs + L ds. dids

(4.22)

and %n the stead. state, all der%/at%/e terms are <ero, ))*
vds = ra. ids - s. L qs . iqs vqs = ra. iqs + s. L ds . ids + s. L af. if vf = rf. if ids = vds + s. L qs . iqs vqs - ra. iqs - s. L af. if = ra s. L ds

(4.20)

))* #o!"

(4.24)

2 = r 2. i 2 + 2. L 2. i 2 - 2. r . i . . L . i vds a ds s qs qs a ds s qs qs 2 = r 2. i 2 + 2. L 2. i 2 + 2. L 2. i 2 vqs a qs s ds ds s af f

(4.24)

+ 2. ra. iqs s. L ds . ids + s. L af. if + 2. s2. L ds . i ds . L af. i f

2=v 2+v 2 vap ds qs

))*

2 r 2 + 2. L 2 + i 2 = ids . L af. if a s ds ds 2. s . L ds 2 2 2 2 + iqs ra + s . L qs + iqs 2. ra. s. L af. if + s2. L af2. if2

(4.24)

!here /ap $ pea' /alue of the stator /olta(e Va.

4.4

Chapter 4, Fundamentals of Vector Control

5ol/%n( (4.24) as a -uadrat%c e-uat%on %n % ds (%/es"

2. L 2. i 2 - s! L ds qs qs

2. ids = 2 2 ra2 + s2. L ds

2. s2. L ds . L af. if

s2 L ds2. ra2. iqs2 + L qs2. ra2. iqs2 - L ds2. vap2 + ra2. L af2. if2 2 - r 2. v 2 - s 2. ra3. L af. i f - ra!. iqs a ap 2 2 2 ra2 + s . L ds
(4.26)

s3 2. L ds2. ra. L af. if. iqs

!h%ch can +e s%mpl%f%ed +. lett%n( ra $ ,, to +ecome"

ids = L af. if L ds

2vap

s2. L qs2. iqs2 s. L ds

(4.28)

5u+st%tut%n( from (4.2 ) for %-s (%/es"

2vap

s2. L qs2. e2
(4.2:)

L .i ids = - af f L ds

"p2 .L af2. if2 1# s. L ds

Therefore, for a (%/en tor-ue e, f%eld current %f, suppl. /olta(e /a and fre-uenc. s, %ds %s determ%ned +. 4.2:. Hence, %f e/er.th%n( else constant, / ap can +e set to the correct ma(n%tude to ma'e %ds $ ,, %.e"
2 = vap

s2. L af2. if2 +

s2. L qs2. e2
"p2 . L af2. if2 1#

(4.0,)

and thus re-u%re m%n%mum current to ach%e/e the des%red tor-ue. &uestion" . 2. For an %deal s.nchronous motor, !%th no load, !hat %s %d and %- 9 As the s.nchronous motor %s loaded, !hat happens to % d and %- 9

4.'.1 Ma$imum Steady State S%eed Of An (nloaded Synchronous Motor

Refer a(a%n to the +as%c stead. state s.nchronous motor e-uat%ons (4.20).

4.6

Chapter 4, Fundamentals of Vector Control

At ma&%mum speed at no load, %ds $ %-s $ ,, and hence (4.20) +ecomes"

vds = 0 vqs = s. L af. if vf = rf. if

(4.0 )

5%nce Va $ Vds 1 BV-s, the pea' /alue of the appl%ed stator /olta(e %s"
2=v 2+v 2 = vap ds qs

s. L af. if 2

(4.02)

Rearran(%n( (4.02) (%/es,

s =

vap L af. if

(4.00)

from !h%ch the ma&%mum unloaded motor speed %n rpm (n ma&) can +e determ%ned as"
nmax = (max #0 . = #0 . vap s p p . if 2. . 2 2. . 2 L af

(4.04)

4.'.# Ma$imum Steady State S%eed Of A )oaded Synchronous Motor

E-uat%on (4.24) from +efore %s a (eneral e&press%on for the appl%ed stator /olta(e %n terms of the d and - a&%s /olta(es and currents, /%<"
2=v 2+v 2 vap ds qs 2 r 2 + 2. L 2 + i 2 = ids . L af. if a s ds ds 2. s . L ds 2 2 2 2 + iqs ra + s . L qs + iqs 2. ra. s. L af. if + s2. L af2. if2

(4.04)

Th%s can +e s%mpl%f%ed +. assum%n( ra $ ,, to +ecome"

2 = 2 L 2. i 2 + L 2. i 2 + 2. L . L . i . i + L 2. i 2 vap s ds ds qs qs ds af f ds af f 2 vap 2. i 2 + L . i L qs . if 2 qs ds ds + L af

(4.06)

s2 ))*

(4.08)

L .i The denom%nator of (4.08) %s m%n%m%<ed for a (%/en %-s +. sett%n( ids = - af f , to (%/e" L ds
2 vap 2. i 2 L qs qs

s(max

(4.0:)

4.8

Chapter 4, Fundamentals of Vector Control

Th%s %s the speed ma&%m%<ed !%th respect to % ds. #ote that as %-s approaches <ero, s approaches %nf%n%t.. The tor-ue and C-C a&%s /olta(e under these cond%t%ons are (%/en +."

p 3 . . L af. if. iqs + ids . iqs . L ds - L qs 2 2

(4.4,) (4.4 )
L ds

vqs =

s. L ds. ids + s. L af. if

L .i from !h%ch %t can +e seen that +. sett%n( ids = - af f , /-s +ecomes <ero. Ho!e/er,

the ma&%mum tor-ue under these cond%t%ons %s reduced +ecause % -s %s l%m%ted +. the stator current constra%nt (4. ,). 5o, essent%all. the a%r(ap mmf across the d%rect a&%s has +een reduced to <ero +. creat%n( an %ds such that %t opposes the mmf produced +. the f%eld !%nd%n(. Hence, the +ac' emf reduces to <ero and the mach%ne speeds up. Controll%n( %ds to perm%t h%(her speeds %s called flu& !ea'en%n(, !h%ch for a (%/en suppl. /olta(e allo!s the motor to %ncrease %n speed, +ut for l%(ht loads onl.. #ote that %ts eff%c%enc. and ma&%mum tor-ue !%ll reduce, s%nce no! %t has a non tor-ue produc%n( component of current. ;f the motor %s to +e often used at such h%(h speeds that %t needs flu& !ea'en%n(, a more econom%cal to solut%on !ould +e to ha/e a mach%ne !%th a smaller f%eld. E%ther use less f%eld current, or %n the case of a permanent ma(net mach%ne, use smaller or !ea'er ma(nets. #ote that ma'%n( % f $ ,, !%ll s%m%larl. speed up the motor. &uestion" For a s.nchronous motor, !hat %s the most econom%cal !a. of %ncreas%n( %ts no load speed for a (%/en suppl. /olta(e9

4.:

Chapter 4, Fundamentals of Vector Control

4.4 Steady State O%eration Of An *nduction Motor For an %nduct%on motor operat%n( at a constant /olta(e and fre-uenc. (!%thout /ector control), the determ%nat%on of % d and %- %s more d%ff%cult than for a s.nchronous motor. For the %nduct%on motor, from (4. 4), !e ha/e that the tor-ue %s (%/en +."

p L 2 = 3 . . m . ids . iqs 2 2 L !!

(4.40)

!hen a d)- a&%s or%entat%on %s chosen +ased on the sl%p relat%onsh%p"

ids = iqs

sL !!

r! s

--$

idr = 0

iqr = -

Lm . iqs L !!

(4.44)

The +as%c e-uat%ons for the %nduct%on motor %n the s.nchronous frame of reference !ere de/eloped %n chapter 4 (e-uat%on 4.6) as"
di di L ds . ds + L m. dr dt dt di qs di qr vqs = ra. iqs + s. L ds . ids + s. L m. idr + L ds . + L m. dt dt di ds di 0 = r!. idr - s. s. L m. iqs - s. s. L !!. iqr + L m. + L !!. dr dt dt di qs di qr 0 = r!. iqr + s. s. L m. ids + s. s. L !!. idr + L m. + L !!. dt dt vds = ra. ids -

s. L ds. iqs - s. L m. iqr +

(4.44)

!h%ch %n stead. state reduce to" (t%me /ar.%n( terms d%sappear %n the rotat%n( frame of reference)
vds = ra. ids - s. L ds . iqs - s. L m. i qr vqs = ra. iqs + s. L ds . ids + s. L m. idr 0 = r!. idr - s. s. L m. iqs - s. s. L !!. iqr 0 = r!. iqr + s. s. L m. ids + s. s. L !!. i dr

(4.44)

#o!, %f the tor-ue %s 'no!n, the product of % ds and %-s %s 'no!n from (4.40). Also, sl%p %s def%ned as"
s =

s - r s

(4.46)

so that %f the suppl. fre-uenc. and rotor speed are 'no!n, the sl%p can +e calculated.

4. ,

Chapter 4, Fundamentals of Vector Control

Ds%n( the sl%p relat%onsh%p, tor-ue can therefore +e re)e&pressed as"

e
and hence"
ids =

p L 2 = 3. . m . 2 2 L !!

r!

s. L !!

s .i 2 qs

(4.48)

3 . p . L 2.s. m s 2 2

e. r!

iqs =

3 . p . L 2. r m ! 2 2

e. L !!2.s. s

(4.4:)

E-uat%on (4.4:) can +e alternat%/el. e&pressed %n terms of the stator current % a +. reco(n%s%n( that"
2 2 ia2 = ids + iqs 2 = ids 1+ 2 = iqs

sL !!

r! s r! s 2

sL !! 2
+1

Ds%n( the sl%p relat%onsh%p

(4.4,)

!h%ch (%/es"
ids =

1+

sL !! 2
r! s

i a2

iqs =

i a2

sL !!

r! s 2

+1

(4.4 )

#ote that +ecause of the s-uare root operat%on, %t %s not clear !hat s%(ns are %n/ol/ed, +ut %f the s%(n of the tor-ue %s 'no!n, then the s%(n of the product of % ds and %-s !%ll +e 'no!n. For the s%(n of the tor-ue, %t %s necessar. for the d%rect%on of the rotat%on to +e 'no!n. From th%s anal.s%s, %t %s not poss%+le to determ%ne !h%ch of %ds and %-s ha/e the ne(at%/e s%(n, or !hether the. are +oth ne(at%/e, or +oth pos%t%/e. Ho!e/er, under normal c%rcumstances, % d and %- are +oth pos%t%/e or

ne(at%/e, so unless unusual cond%t%ons are +e%n( encountered, % ds and %-s can +e ta'en as pos%t%/e. #o!, the stator /olta(e %s (%/en +."
2=v 2+v 2 vap ds qs

(4.42)

5u+st%tut%n( the sl%p relat%onsh%p %nto (4.44) (%/es"

4.

Chapter 4, Fundamentals of Vector Control

vds = ra. ids vqs = ra. iqs + vds = ra.

2 s. L ds. iqs + s. L m . iqs

s. L ds. ids
r! s -

L !!

(4.40)

))*

sL !!

s L ds -

vqs = ra +

L ds . r! s i qs L !! r! s -

L m2 iqs L !!

(4.44)

))*

2 = vap

ra.

sL !!

s L ds -

L m2 L !!

+ ra +

L ds . r! s 2 2 iqs L !!

(4.44)

and hence"
iqs = ra.
2 vap

sL !!

r! s

s L ds. iqs -

L m2 L !!

+ ra +

L ds . r! s 2 L !!

(4.44)

;(nor%n( ra, (4.44) can +e s%mpl%f%ed to"

iqs =
2 vap

s2. L ds -

2 L m2 L . r! 2 + ds s L !! L !!

(4.46a)

and hence us%n( (4.44)"

ids =
2 vap

s2. L !! 2. L
r! s

ds -

L m2 2 + s2. L ds L !!

(4.46+)

As C /apC %s /ar%ed !%th a (%/en load tor-ue and suppl. fre-uenc., +oth the sl%p and the d?- a&%s stator currents chan(e %n response, to f%nd a ne! e-u%l%+r%um cons%stant !%th (4.4:), (4.4 ) and (4.46). The m%n%mum current pos%t%on to ach%e/e the re-u%red tor-ue %s !hen %ds $ %-s as de/eloped +efore. Th%s of course also def%nes the sl%p throu(h the sl%p relat%onsh%p, %.e.
s(max = r! sL !!

p L 2 2 = 3 . . m . i qs 2 2 L !!

(4.48)

!%th a stator /olta(e der%/ed +. com+%n%n( (4.48) and (4.46a) to (%/e"

2 = vap

s2. L !!. 2.L ds -

L m2 . e L !!

"p2 .L m2 1#

(4.4:)

4. 2

Chapter 4, Fundamentals of Vector Control

+., -rinci%les Of Vector Controlled .ri/es

+.1 *ntroduction
Althou(h the mathemat%cs %s clear, the %mplementat%on of a /ector controlled dr%/e %s not o+/%ous. ;n pr%nc%ple, the a%m of /ector control %s to or%entate the armature flu& perpend%cular to the f%eld flu&, there+. pro/%d%n( ma&%mum tor-ue per amp. ;n pract%ce, the pro+lem %s to 'no! !here the armature and f%eld flu&es are, and then, someho!, to control the flu&es appropr%atel.. The ma(net%c flu&es are d%rectl. related to the currents flo!%n(, so all /ector control s.stems !%ll !or' on re(ulat%n( the current, !hether d%rectl. or %nd%rectl. (e(. +. /olta(e control). Eenerall., onl. the stator currents are controlla+le, so that the a%m %s to control the stator currents %n phase and ma(n%tude so as to ach%e/e f%eld or%entat%on !%th respect to the rotor f%eld currents. 5%nce the %nduct%on motor control %s more comple& as the rotor currents are not d%rectl. controlla+le, the s.nchronous motor !%ll +e stud%ed f%rst.

+.# Synchronous Motor Vector .ri/e

Assum%n( the re-u%red tor-ue and speed %s 'no!n, then the pro+lem %s to determ%ne the re-u%red currents, +oth as phasors and as %nstantaneous -uant%t%es. 0otation" the superscr%pt =F= %s used to mean re-u%red or commanded /alues. For e&ample, %dsF refers to the re-u%red /alue of %ds (rather than the actual /alue). The tor-ue e-uat%on for a s.nchronous mach%ne !%thout damper !%nd%n(s %s2

e =

p 3 . . L af. if. iqs + ids . iqs . L ds - L qs 2 2

(4. )

!h%ch has onl. 0 un'no!ns ) %f, %-s, %ds. Dnder f%eld or%ented cond%t%ons, the stator current %s controlled to +e perpend%cular to the rotor mmf, !h%ch means that %ds $ ,. hence"

e =

p 3 . . L af. if. iqs 2 2

(4.2)

!h%ch has onl. t!o un'no!ns ) %f, %-s

4. 0

Chapter 4, Fundamentals of Vector Control

%f %s a dc current, l%m%ted +. the res%stance of the f%eld !%nd%n(, !hereas % -s represents a s%nuso%dal ac current. 5%nce % -s needs an %n/erter %n an. case to control %t, or e/en to l%m%t %t, %t %s not common to add%t%onall. control % f. Rather, %f %s usuall. left constant at %ts rated /alue and onl. %-s %s controlled. The result %s that, %n the stead. state, to control e, onl. %-s needs to +e controlled. 5o, for a (%/en e, %-sF can +e calculated, %.e.
& = iqs

p 3 . . L af. if 2 2

(4.0)

Ho!e/er, %n real terms %t %s %a,+,c that %s re-u%red rather than %-s, !h%ch re-u%red the use of the %n/erse transformat%on of"
& .cos - i & .sin ia& = ids s qs s & & 2 & ib = ids .cos s - iqs .sin s - 2 3 3 & & 2 & ic = ids .cos s + - iqs .sin s + 2 3 3 & .sin = - iqs s & .sin = - iqs

3 & = - iqs .sin s + 2 3

s - 2

(4.0)

!here s %s the an(le of the (rotor) d%rect a&%s !%th the a+c stat%onar. frame of reference. #ote also the s%mpl%f%cat%on of the transformat%on under f%eld or%entated cond%t%ons of %ds $ ,. &uestion" Geterm%ne the phase relat%onsh%p +et!een these reference currents and the +ac' emf.

+.' *nduction Motor Vector .ri/e

The tor-ue e-uat%on for an %nduct%on motor %s (%/en +."

p L m2 = 3. . i ds . i qs 2 2 L !!

(4.4)

!here"
r! s ids = iqs sL !!

(the sl%p relat%onsh%p)

(4.4)

Dnder f%eld or%ented cond%t%ons, the d%rect and -uadrature currents are made e-ual, %.e. %ds $ %-s, so that the re-u%red d%rect a&%s current %s"

4. 4

Chapter 4, Fundamentals of Vector Control

& = ids

L !!. e 3.p . L 2 m 2 2

& = i qs

(4.4)

and the tar(et currents %a,+,c that are re-u%red for /ector control are"
& .cos - i & .sin ia& = ids s qs s & & 2 & ib = ids .cos s - iqs .sin s - 2 3 3 & .cos + 2 - i & .sin + 2 ic& = ids s qs s 3 3 & .sin = 2 ids

s + s
+

- 2 3 & .sin + + 2 = 2 ids s ! 3 =

& .sin 2 ids

! !

(4.6)

#o!, s %s the an(le +et!een the rotor mmf and the a phase armature current, !h%ch runs ahead of the rotor pos%t%on all the t%me +. the sl%p fre-uenc.. 7%thout us%n( ma(net%c f%eld sensors, %t %s not d%rectl. poss%+le to measure th%s mmf or%entat%on, and %t must +e %mpl%c%tl. calculated %n real t%me us%n( the sl%p relat%onsh%p as follo!s"
s =

sL !!
=

r!

s - r s
r! L !!
t

(4.8) (4.:)

))*

))*

+
0

r! dt L !!

(4. ,)

E-uat%on (4.4) depends onl. on the rotor self and mutual ma(net%<%n( %nductances, !h%ch can +e measured and are reasona+l. constant. E-uat%on (4. ,) depends on an accurate 'no!led(e of the rotor res%stance, !h%ch %s a d%ff%cult parameter to measure and /ar%es cons%dera+l. as the motor load%n( /ar%es. Ho!e/er, th%s parameter %s cr%t%cal to the effect%/eness of f%eld or%ented control, and there has +een cons%dera+le research effort de/oted to esta+l%sh%n( alternat%/e !a.s of %mplement%n( a f%eld or%ented controller !h%ch e%ther a/o%ds us%n( th%s parameter, or adapt%/el. re/%ses an est%mate on l%ne.

&uestion" Ho! does one determ%ne the parameters of the s.nchronous and %nduct%on motors %n the d)- a&%s model9

4. @