In this chapter we will use the density of quantum states in the conduction band and the density of quantum

states in the valence band along with the Fermi-Dirac probability function to determine the concentration of
electrons and holes in the conduction and valence bands.
We will also apply the concept of the Fermi energy to the semiconductor material. This chapter deals with
the semiconductor in equilibrium.
Equilibrium, or thermal equilibrium, implies that no external forces such as voltages, electric elds, magnetic
elds, or temperature gradients are acting on the semiconductor.
All properties of the semiconductor will be independent of time in this case. We will initially
consider the properties of an intrinsic semiconductor, that is, a pure crystal with no impurity atoms or defects.
We will see that the electrical properties of a semiconductor can be altered by adding controlled amounts of
specic impurity atoms, called dopant atoms to the crystal.
Depending upon the type of dopant atom added, the dominant charge carrier in the semiconductor will be
either electrons in the conduction band or holes in the valence band.
1 Charge Carriers in Semiconductors
Charge Carriers in Semiconductors
Current is the rate at which charge ows.
In a semiconductor, two types of charge carrier, the electron and the hole, can contribute to a current.
Since the current in a semiconductor is determined largely by the number of electrons in the conduction band
and the number of holes in the valence band, an important characteristic of the semiconductor is the density
of these charge carriers.
1.1 Equilibrium Distribution of Electrons and Holes
Equilibrium Distribution of Electrons and Holes
The distribution (with respect to energy) of electrons in the conduction band is given by the density of allowed
quantum states times the probability that a state is occupied by an electron.
This statement is written in equation form as
n(E) = g
c
(E)f
F
(E) (1)
where g
c
(E) is the density of quantum states in the conduction band and f
F
(E) is the Fermi-Dirac probability
function. The total electron concentration per unit volume in the conduction band is found by integrating
Equation (1) over the entire conduction-band energy. The distribution (with respect to energy) of holes in the
valence band is the density of allowed quantum states in the valence band multiplied by the probability that a
state is not occupied by an electron:
p(E) = g
v
(E) [1 f
F
(E)] (2)
The total hole concentration per unit volume is found by integrating this function over the entire valence-band
energy. To nd the thermal-equilibrium electron and hole concentrations, we need to determine the position
of the Fermi energy E
F
, with respect to the bottom of the conduction-band energy E
c
and the top of the
valence-band energy E
v
.
To address this question. we will initially consider an intrinsic semiconductor. An ideal intrinsic semiconductor
is a pure semiconductor with no impurity atoms and no lattice defects in the crystal (e.g., pure silicon).
For an intrinsic semiconductor at T = 0 K, all energy states in the valence band are lled with electrons and
all energy states in the conduction band are empty of electrons.
The Fermi energy must, therefore, be somewhere between E
c
and E
v
.
The Fermi energy does not need to correspond to an allowed energy. As the temperature begins to increase
above 0 K, the valence electrons will gain thermal energy.
A few electrons in the valence band may gain sucient energy to jump to the conduction band.
As an electron jumps from the valence band to the conduction band, an empty stale, or hole, is created in the
valence band.
1
In an intrinsic semiconductor, then ,electrons and holes are created in pairs by the thermal energy so that the
number of electrons in the conduction bond is equal to the number of boles in the valence band.
Figure 1 shows a plot of the density of states function in the conduction band g
c
(E), the density of states function
in the valence band g
v
(E), and the Fermi-Dirac probability function for T > 0 K when E
F
is approximately
halfway between E
c
and E
v
.
If we assume, for the moment, that the electron and hole eective masses are equal, then g
c
(E) and g
v
(E) are
symmetrical functions about the midgap energy. We noted previously that the function f
F
(E) for E > E
F
is
symmetrical to the function 1 f
F
(E) for E < E
F
about the energy E = E
F
.
This also means that the function f
F
(E) for E = E
F
+dE is equal to the function 1 f
F
(E) for E = E
F
dE.
4 1 Charge Carriers in
\
\
E,
\.
\
",(F(E)
E, ..... --
.' ..
"
Area = nt) =
1!1cctron
concentration
\.
g,(E)( 1 - = p(I;)
h(E) = 1
(a)
Area Po =
hole concentration
I
,
..
o
(b)
\.
E,.
"
\
(e)
\
\
,
,
I
,
i
,
105
(1 - f, ())
Figure 4.11 (3) OCnS11y of !1; tate!; functions. Fermi-Dirac probability function. and area. ... representing clectron and bole
concentrations for the cast when ,. is ncur nlidgap (b) expanded vicw near the conduction band energy;
and (c) expanded view near the valence band energy.
lbat the number of electrons in the conduction bond is equal to the number of boles
in the valence band.
Figure 4.10 shows 0 plot of the density of states function in the C(mduction band
8),lhe density of slates function in the valence band 8,.(E). and the fermi - Dirac
probability function for T > 0 K when E r is approximalely halfway between E,. and
E,. If we assume, For Ibe moment , that the eleclt'on and hole effective masses are
equal, Ihen g,.(E) and 1f. (E) are symmetrical functions about the Illidgap energy (rhe
energy midway between E,. and E. ). We noted previously that the function fr(E)
for E > ,. is symmetrical to the function 1 - fr(E) for E < 1' about the energy
E EF. This also means that the function j,-() for = 1' + dE is equal 10 the
function I - IAE) for E = 1' - dE.
Figure 1: (a) Density of states functions, Fermi-Dirac probability function, and areas representing electron
and hole concentrations for the case when E
F
is near the midgap energy energy. (b) Expanded view near the
conduction band energy, and (c) expanded view near the valence band energy.
Figure 1b is an expanded view of the plot in Figure 1, showing f
F
(E) an g
c
(E) above the conduction band
energy E
c
.
The product of g
c
(E) and f
F
(E) is the distribution of electrons n(E) in the conduction band given by Equa-
tion (1).
This product is plotted in Figure 1a.
Figure 1c is an expanded view of the plot in Figure 1a showing [1 f
F
(E)] and g
v
(E) below the valence band
energy E
v
. The product of g
v
(E) and [1 [f
F
(E)] is the distribution of holes p(E) in the valence band given
by Equation (2).
This product is also plotted in Figure1a.
The areas under these curves are then the total density of electrons in the conduction band and the total density
of holes in the valence band.
From this we see that if g
c
(E) and g
v
(E) are symmetrical, the Fermi energy must be at the midgap energy in
order obtain equal electron and hole concentrations
If the eective masses of the electrons and hole are not exactly equal, then the eective density of states functions
g
c
(E) and g
v
(E) will not be exactly symmetrical about the midgap energy.
The Fermi energy for the intrinsic semiconductor will then shift slightly from the midgap energy in order to
obtain equal electron and hole concentrations.
2
1.2 The n
0
and p
0
Equations
The n
0
and p
0
Equations
We will assume initially that the Fermi level remains within the bandgap energy.
The equation for the thermal-equilibrium concentration of electrons may be found by integrating Equation 1
over the conduction band energy, or
n
0
=
_
g
c
(E)f
F
(E)dE (3)
The lower limit of integration is E
C
and the upper limit of integration should be the top of the allowed conduction
band energy.
However, since the Fermi probability function rapidly approaches zero with increasing energy as indicated in
Figure1a, we can take the upper limit of integration to be innity.
We are assuming that the Fermi energy is within the forbidden-energy bandgap.
For electrons in the conduction band, we have E E
c
.
If (E
c
E
F
) kT then (E E
F
) kT, so that the Fermi probability function reduces to the Boltzmann
approximation, which is
f
F
(E) =
1
1 + exp
E E
F
kT
exp
(E E
F
)
kT
(4)
Applying the Boltzmann approximation to Equation (3), the thermal-equilibrium density of electrons in the
conduction band is found from
n
0
=
_

E
c
4(2m

n
)
3/2
h
3
_
E E
c
exp
_
(E E
F
)
kT
_
dE (5)
The integral of Equation (5) may be solved more easily by making a change of variable :
=
E E
c
kT
(6)
Then Equation (5) becomes
n
0
=
4(2m

n
kT)
3/2
h
3
exp
_
(E
c
E
F
)
kT
_ _

0

1/2
exp()d (7)
The integral is the gamma function, with a value of
_

0

1/2
exp()d =
1
2

(8)
Then Equation (7) becomes
n
0
= 2
_
2m

n
kT
h
2
_
3/2
exp
_
(E
c
E
F
)
kT
_
(9)
We may dene a parameter N
c
as
N
c
= 2
_
2m

n
kT
h
2
_
3/2
(10)
The value of n
0
Thermal-equilibrium electron concentration in the conduction band
n
0
= N
c
exp
_
(E
c
E
F
)
kT
_
(11)
The parameter N
c
is called the eective density of states function in the conduction band.
If m

n
= m
0
then the value of the eective density of states function at T = 300 K is N
c
= 2.5 10
19
cm
3
,
which is the order of magnitude of N
c
for most semiconductors.
If the eective mass of the electron is larger or smaller than m
0
then the value of the eective density of states
function changes accordingly, but is still of the same order of magnitude.
3
Example 1. Calculate the probability that a state in the conduction band is occupied by an electron and
calculate the thermal equilibrium electron concentration in Silicon at T = 300 K. Assume the Fermi energy is
0.25 eV below the conduction band. The value of N
C
for silicon at T = 300 K is N
c
= 2.8 10
19
cm
3
.
f
F
(E
c
) =
1
1 + exp
_
E
c
E
F
kT
_ exp
_
(E
c
E
F
)
kT
_
or
f
F
(E
c
) = exp
_
0.25
0.0259
_
= 6.43 10
5
Example 2. The electron concentration is given by
n
0
= N
c
exp
_
(E
c
E
F
)
kT
_
=
_
2.8 10
19
_
exp
_
0.25
0.0259
_
or
n
0
= 1.8 10
15
cm
3
The probability of a state being occupied can be quite small, but the fact that there are a large number of
states means that the electron concentration is a reasonable value.
The thermal-equilibrium concentration of holes in the valence band is found by integrating Equation (2) over
the vaIence band energy, or
p
0
=
_
g
v
(E) [1 f
F
(E)] dE (12)
We may note that
1 f
F
(E) =
1
1 + exp
_
E
F
E
kT
_ (13)
For energy states in the valence band E < E
v
.
If (E
F
E
v
) kT then we have slightly dierent form of the Boltzmann approximation :
1 f
F
(E) =
1
1 + exp
_
E
F
E
kT
_ exp
_
(E
F
E)
kT
_
(14)
Applying the Boltzmann approximation of Equation (14) to Equation (12), we nd the thermal-equilibrium
concentration of holes in the valence band is
p
0
=
_
E
v

4(2m

p
)
3/2
h
3
_
E
v
E exp
_
(E
F
E)
kT
_
dE (15)
where the lower limit of integration is taken as minus innity instead of the bottom of the valence band.
The exponential term decays fast enough so that this approximation is valid. Equation (15) may be solved
more easily by again making a change of variable:

=
E
v
E
kT
(16)
the Equation (15) becomes
p
0
=
4(2m

p
kT)
3/2
h
3
exp
_
(E
F
E
v
)
kT
_ _
0
+
(

)
1/2
exp(

)d

(17)
where the negative sign comes from the dierential dE = kTd

.
Note that the lower limit of

becomes + when E = .
If we change the order of integration, we introduce another minus sign.
From Equation (8), Equation (17) becomes
p
0
= 2
_
2m

p
kT
h
2
_
3/2
exp
_
(E
F
E
v
)
kT
_
(18)
4
We may dene a parameter N
v
as
N
v
= 2
_
2m

p
kT
h
2
_
3/2
(19)
The value of p
0
is
Thermal-equilibrium holes concentration in the valence band
p
0
= N
v
exp
_
(E
F
E
v
)
kT
_
(20)
The parameter N
v
is called the eective density of states function in the valence band.
The magnitude of N
v
is also on the order of 10
19
cm
3
at T = 300 K for most semiconductors.
The eective density of states functions, N
c
and N
v
, are constant for a given semiconductor material at a xed
temperature.
Table 1 gives the values of the density of states function and of the eective masses for silicon, gallium arseinide
and germanium.
Note that the value of N
c
for gallium arsenide is smaller than the typical 10
19
cm
3
value.
This dierence is due to the small electron eective mass in gallium arsenide.
N
c
(cm
3
) N
v
(cm
3
) m

n
/m
0
m

p
/m
0
Silicon 2.8 10
19
1.04 10
19
1.08 0.56
Gallium Arsenide 4.7 10
17
7.0 10
18
0.067 0.48
Germanium 1.04 10
19
6.0 10
18
0.55 0.37
Table 1: Eective density of states function and eective mass values
1.3 The lntrinsic Carrier Concentration
The lntrinsic Carrier Concentration
For an intrinsic semiconductor, the concentration of electrons in the conduction band is equal to the concentra-
tion of holes in the valence band.
We may denote n
i
and p
i
as the electron and hole concentrations, respectively. in the intrinsic semiconductor.
These parameters are usually referred to as the intrinsic electron concentration and the intrinsic hole concen-
tration.
However n
i
= p
i
so normally we use only the parameter n
i
which refer to either intrinsic electron or hole
concentration.
The Fermi energy level for the intrinsic semiconductor is called the intrinsic Fermi energy, or E
F
= E
Fi
.
If we apply Equations (11) and (20) to the intrinsic semiconductor, then we can write
n
0
= n
i
= N
c
exp
_
(E
c
E
Fi
)
kT
_
(21)
and
p
0
= p
i
= n
i
= N
v
exp
_
(E
Fi
E
v
)
kT
_
(22)
If we take the product of Equations (21) and (22), we obtain
n
2
i
= N
c
N
v
exp
_
(E
c
E
Fi
)
kT
_
exp
_
(E
Fi
E
v
)
kT
_
(23)
or
n
2
i
= N
c
N
v
exp
_
(E
c
E
v
)
kT
_
= N
c
N
v
exp
_
E
g
kT
_
(24)
where E
g
is the bandgap energy.
5
For a given semiconductor material at a constant temperature, the value of n
i
is a constant, and independent
of the Fermi energy. The intrinsic carrier concentration for silicon at T = 300 K may be calculated by using
the eective density of states function values from Table 1.
The value of n
i
calculated from Equation (24) for E
g
= 1.12 eV is n
i
= 6.95 10
19
cm
3
.
The commonly accepted value of n
i
for silicon at T = 300 K is approximately 1.5 10
10
cm
3
. This
discrepancy may arise from several sources.
First, the values of the eective masses are determined at a low temperature where the cyclotron resonance
experiments are performed.
Since the eective mass is an experimentally determined parameter, and since the eective mass is a measure
of how well a particle moves in a crystal, this parameter may be a slight function of temperature. Next,
the density of states function for a semiconductor was obtained by generalizing the model of an electron in a
three-dimensional innite potential well.
This theoretical function may also not agree exactly with experiment.
However, the dierence between the theoretical value and the experimental value of n
i
is approximately a factor
of 2, which, in many cases, is not signicant. Table 2 lists the commonly accepted values of n
i
for silicon,
gallium arsenide, and germanium at T = 300 K.
The intrinsic carrier concentration is a very strong function of temperature.
Silicon 1.5 10
10
cm
3
Gallium Arsenide 1.8 10
6
cm
3
Germanium 2.4 10
13
cm
3
Table 2: Commonly accepted values of n
i
at T = 300 K.
Figure 2 is a plot of n
i
from Equation (24) for silicon, gallium arsenide, and germanium as a function of
temperature.
As seen in the gure, the value of n
i
for these semiconductors may easily vary over several orders of magnitude
as the temperature changes over a reasonable range.

,.
... 1 Cl"'..arge Carriers in Semiconductors
1500 nOe)
10'
, l!(lOU 500 100 100 27 0-2 o
10'
10'
,
C;.:
10'
10'
,
,
$i
10'
,

' :;;;
10'
.,
v
u
10' 'E
,
' 0
10'
=
,
' 0
oS
- \"
10'

10
10'
7
)0
10"
0.5 1.0 1. 5 2.0 25 3.0 35 4.0
IOOO/ T(K- ')
Figll.re 4.21 The imrill sic carrier
c()l1cenlration of Ge. Si . <Ind GaAs as a
funcli on of tcmper-dlure.
{ Fmm S:t'/ IJI. }
TEST YOUR UNDERSTANDING
E4.J Find the intrinsic carrierconccntralion in silit:on at (c,) T = 200 K illld {b) T = 400 K.
I,_wo ,,01 x gel (q) ",_UI> ,.0) x 89' L ( O) 'su'o]
E4.4 Repeat E4.3 rorGaAs. [,_"" .01 x 8<:'( (qJ' _w, 8('1 (QJ 'sU'01
FA.S Repe., E4.3 furGe. I ,_w, ,,01 x 9'8 ('1) ' r_w, Il,OI x 91'z<0) 'sovl
4.1.4 The Intrinsic Fermi-Level Position
We have qualilatively argued Ihat the Fermi level i< located near the cemer of
the forbidden bandgap for Ihe intrinsic We can specifically calculate
113
Figure 2: The intrinsic carrier concentration as a function of temperature.
6
1.4 The Intrinsic Fermi-Level Position
The Intrinsic Fermi-Level Position
We have qualitatively argued that the Fermi energy level is located near the center of the forbidden bandgap
for the intrinsic semiconductor.
We can specically calculate the intrinsic Fermi-Ievel position.
Since the electron and hole concentrations m equal, setting Equations (21) and (22) equal to each other, we
have
N
c
exp
_
(E
c
E
Fi
)
kT
_
= N
v
exp
_
(E
Fi
E
v
)
kT
_
(25)
If we take the natural log of both sides of this equation and solve for E
Fi
we obtain
E
Fi
=
1
2
(E
c
+ E
v
) +
1
2
kT ln
N
v
N
c
(26)
From the denitions for N
c
and N
v
given by Equations (10) and (19) Equation (26) may be written as
E
Fi
=
1
2
(E
c
+ E
v
) +
3
4
kT ln
m

p
m

n
(27)
so that
Intrinsic Fermi level
E
Fi
= E
midgap
+
3
4
kT ln
m

p
m

n
(28)
If the electron and hole eective masses are equal so that m

n
= m

p
then the intrinsic Fermi level is exactly in
the center of the bandgap.
If m

p
> m

n
the intrinsic Fermi level is slightly above the center, and if m

p
< m

n
, it is slightly below the center
of the bandgap. The density of states function is directly related to the carrier eective mass; thus a larger
eective mass means a larger density of stales function.
The intrinsic Fermi level must shift away from the band with the larger density of states in order to maintain
equal numbers of electrons and holes.
2 Dopant Atoms and Energy Levels
Dopant Atoms and Energy Levels
The intrinsic semiconductor may be an interesting material, but the real power or semiconductors is realized
by adding small, controlled amounts of specic dopant, or impurity, atoms.
The doped semiconductor, called an extrinsic material, is the primary reason we can fabricate the various
semiconductor devices.
2.1 Qualitative Description
Qualitative Description
In the previous chapter we discussed the covalent bonding of silicon and considered the simple two-dimensional
representation of the single-crystal silicon lattice as shown in Figure 3.
Now consider adding a group V element, such as phosphorus, as a substitutional impurity.
The group V element has ve valence electrons.
Four of these will contribute to the covalent bonding with the silicon atoms, leaving the fth more loosely bound
to the phosphorus atom.
This eect is schematically shown in Figure 4.
We refer to the fth valence electron as a donor electron.
The phosphorus atom without the donor electron is positively charged.
7
4.2 Dopar t Atoms alld Energy Leve'",
or
,., - = - 0.0128 eV = - t2.8 Ill.V
.Comment
The intrinsic Fermi \c\'e) in silicon i!' 12.8 meV below the midgap energy. If we compare
12.8 meV to 560 meV, whi ch is one-half of the bandgap energy of silicon. we cal\. in Ill.any ;:IP-
plications. simply <lppr()Ximale the intrinsic Fermi level to be in the center of the bandgap.
TEST YOUR UNDERSTANDING
4.6 l)elennine Ihe poSition of the intrinsic Fermi level wilh respcl:l to the CCIlIer of Ihe
bandgap in GaM a' T = 300 K. (AOUI L'S\: - ' SUV)
4.21 DOPANT ATOMS AND ENERGY LEVELS
The inlrinsic semiconduclor may be an inleresting material. bUI Ihe real power or
semiconduclors is realized I>y addi ng smMl, conrrolled amounts of specific dopant, or
impurity, aloms. This doping process. described hriefly in Chapter \. can greally aller
the el ectrical characteristics of the semiconductor. The doped semiconductor, L::llled
an extrinsic m.aterial, is the primary reaSOn we can fabricate the various semiconduc-
tor devices thai we will consider in later chapters.
4.2.1 Qualitative DeSCription
In Chapter 3. we discussed the covalent bonding of silicon and consi dered Ihe sim-
ple Iw<>-dimensiona! representation of the silicoll lanice as shown ill
Figure 4.3. Now consider adding a group V e.lemellt. such ,'s phosphorus. as a sub-
stilutional impurity. The group V element has five valence electrons. Four of these
will contribute to the covalent bonding with the sili con atoms, leaving the fifth mOre
loosely bound 10 the phosphorus alOIll. This efleci is schematically shown ill
Figure 4.4. We refer to the fifth valence electron as a donor electron .
"
..
..
"
..
"
"
..
"
"
..
"
..
" "
"
Si
= Si = Si
-
Si
::: Si = Si = Si = Si = Si = Si
...
II II II 1\
..
..
= Si = Si .--
II II
II II II lJ II lJ
:: : Si = Si = 5i = Si = P = Si -- -
=Si =Si = S1 = Si = Si
...
II II II 1/ II /I
= Si =Si =Si = Si = Si
_ ..
II II II \I II II
:: : Si = Si = S1 =Si =S; -Si ---
"
"
"
Figure 4.31 TW'o-dimensional
"
representati on of the intrinsic silicon lattice.
II lJ II V II II
' " = Ii.- = = ...
Si = Si = Si = Si = Si = Si . _-
figutc 4.4 (Two-dimen!'ional
representation of the si licol1 1anice doped
with a phosphorus atom.
115
Figure 3: Two-dimensional representation of the intrinsic silicon lattice.
4.2 Dopar t Atoms alld Energy Leve'",
or
,., - = - 0.0128 eV = - t2.8 Ill.V
.Comment
The intrinsic Fermi \c\'e) in silicon i!' 12.8 meV below the midgap energy. If we compare
12.8 meV to 560 meV, whi ch is one-half of the bandgap energy of silicon. we cal\. in Ill.any ;:IP-
plications. simply <lppr()Ximale the intrinsic Fermi level to be in the center of the bandgap.
TEST YOUR UNDERSTANDING
4.6 l)elennine Ihe poSition of the intrinsic Fermi level wilh respcl:l to the CCIlIer of Ihe
bandgap in GaM a' T = 300 K. (AOUI L'S\: - ' SUV)
4.21 DOPANT ATOMS AND ENERGY LEVELS
The inlrinsic semiconduclor may be an inleresting material. bUI Ihe real power or
semiconduclors is realized I>y addi ng smMl, conrrolled amounts of specific dopant, or
impurity, aloms. This doping process. described hriefly in Chapter \. can greally aller
the el ectrical characteristics of the semiconductor. The doped semiconductor, L::llled
an extrinsic m.aterial, is the primary reaSOn we can fabricate the various semiconduc-
tor devices thai we will consider in later chapters.
4.2.1 Qualitative DeSCription
In Chapter 3. we discussed the covalent bonding of silicon and consi dered Ihe sim-
ple Iw<>-dimensiona! representation of the silicoll lanice as shown ill
Figure 4.3. Now consider adding a group V e.lemellt. such ,'s phosphorus. as a sub-
stilutional impurity. The group V element has five valence electrons. Four of these
will contribute to the covalent bonding with the sili con atoms, leaving the fifth mOre
loosely bound 10 the phosphorus alOIll. This efleci is schematically shown ill
Figure 4.4. We refer to the fifth valence electron as a donor electron .
"
..
..
"
..
"
"
..
"
"
..
"
..
" "
"
Si
= Si = Si
-
Si
::: Si = Si = Si = Si = Si = Si
...
II II II 1\
..
..
= Si = Si .--
II II
II II II lJ II lJ
:: : Si = Si = 5i = Si = P = Si -- -
=Si =Si = S1 = Si = Si
...
II II II 1/ II /I
= Si =Si =Si = Si = Si
_ ..
II II II \I II II
:: : Si = Si = S1 =Si =S; -Si ---
"
"
"
Figure 4.31 TW'o-dimensional
"
representati on of the intrinsic silicon lattice.
II lJ II V II II
' " = Ii.- = = ...
Si = Si = Si = Si = Si = Si . _-
figutc 4.4 (Two-dimen!'ional
representation of the si licol1 1anice doped
with a phosphorus atom.
115
Figure 4: Two-dimensional representation of the silicon lattice doped with a phosphorus atom.
At very low temperatures, the donor electron is bound to the phosphorus atom.
However, by intuition, it should seem clear that the energy required to elevate the donor electron into the
conduction band is considerably less than that for the electrons involved in the covalent bonding.
Figure 5 shows the energy-band diagram that we would expect.
The energy level, E
d
, is the energy state of the donor electron.
If a small amount of energy, such as thermal energy, is added to the donor electron, it can be elevated into the
conduction band, leaving behind a positively charged phosphorus ion.
The electron in the conduction band can now move through the crystal generating a current, while the positively
charged ion is xed in the crystal. This type of impurity atom donates an electron to the conduction band
and so is called a donor impurity atom.
8
116 C HAP T E R 4 The Sernioonductcr in Eqti.ibrium
The phosphorus atom without the donor electron is positi vely charged. At very
low tcrnpemlures. the donor electron is bound 10 the phosphorus alom. However. by
intuition. it should seem cleur Ihut the energy rC4uircd 10 elevate !he donor elect",n
into Ihe conducti on band is considerably less !han thaI for Ihe electrons involved in
[he covalent bonding. Figure 4.5 !ihows the energy-band diagram that we would ex
pect. The energy level , Ed, is !he energy statc of !he donor electron.
If a small amount of energy. such as thermal energy, is added to the donor eler
tron. it can be eJevated into the conducti on band, leaving behind a positively chargl'd
phosphorus ion. The ",cctron in Ihe conduction band can now move through therTj"
tal generating a current. while the poSilively charged ion is fixed in the crystal. Thi,
type of impurit y atom donates an electron (0 the conduction band and so is called a
dOl1or impurity a/()II1. The dOllor impurit)' <ldd elc(.'uoos 10 the conduclion b2m1
without creating holes in the valence band. The resulting material is referred to as an
n-f)'pe semiconductor (II for the negatively charged electron).
Now consider adding a group III element. such as boron. as a substitutional '"'-
purity [0 silicon. The group III clement has three valence electrons. which are "II
taken up in the covalent bonding. As shown in Figure 4.6a, one covalent bonding po
sition appears to be empty. (I' an electron were [ 0 occupy [hi s "empty" p<lsition. ilS
t
!!

c

g
'.
o
COnduction band
-----------E,
- E"
E.
(.)
t-}:)
... ...
)
...
E ,
- - Ed
'" e!'
----------- ... E"
a
(b)
Figure 4.5 J The energy-band diagram showing (,l) Ihe di screle donor energy sHift
ionized. .. .. .. .. :: ::
: :: Si = Si= Sj = Si= Si = Si :::
II II II II II II
::: Si = 5i = Si = Si,:-:-:, B = Si :::
II II II 11----11 \I
::: $;= Si= Si= Si= Si= Si :::
II II II II II II
: : : Si = 5i = Si = 5i = Si = Si :::
::: Si = 5i = Si = Si = 5i = Si :::
II II II II II II
'" = "' = "i :>1: = "'
'" fI; = = "' rr=
::: Si = Si = Si ': a-!Si = Si = 5i :::
..
of a (a) with a boron at ..
and (b) l\howing the ioniZalion of the boron atom resulting in a h()le.
Figure 5: The energy-band diagram showing (a) the discrete donor energy state and (b) the eect of a donor
state being ionized.
The donor impurity atom add electrons to the conduction band without creating holes in the
valence band.
The resulting material is referred to as an n-type semiconductor (n for the negatively charged electron).
Now consider adding a group III element, such as boron, as a substitutional impurity to to silicon.
The group III element has three valence electrons, which are all taken up in the covalent bonding.
As shown in Figure 6a, one covalent bonding position appears to be empty.
If an electron were to occupy this empty position its energy would have to be greater than that of the valence
electrons, since the net charge state of the boron atom would now be negative. However the electron occupying
116 C HAP T E R 4 The Sernioonductcr in Eqti.ibrium
The phosphorus atom without the donor electron is positi vely charged. At very
low tcrnpemlures. the donor electron is bound 10 the phosphorus alom. However. by
intuition. it should seem cleur Ihut the energy rC4uircd 10 elevate !he donor elect",n
into Ihe conducti on band is considerably less !han thaI for Ihe electrons involved in
[he covalent bonding. Figure 4.5 !ihows the energy-band diagram that we would ex
pect. The energy level , Ed, is !he energy statc of !he donor electron.
If a small amount of energy. such as thermal energy, is added to the donor eler
tron. it can be eJevated into the conducti on band, leaving behind a positively chargl'd
phosphorus ion. The ",cctron in Ihe conduction band can now move through therTj"
tal generating a current. while the poSilively charged ion is fixed in the crystal. Thi,
type of impurit y atom donates an electron (0 the conduction band and so is called a
dOl1or impurity a/()II1. The dOllor impurit)' <ldd elc(.'uoos 10 the conduclion b2m1
without creating holes in the valence band. The resulting material is referred to as an
n-f)'pe semiconductor (II for the negatively charged electron).
Now consider adding a group III element. such as boron. as a substitutional '"'-
purity [0 silicon. The group III clement has three valence electrons. which are "II
taken up in the covalent bonding. As shown in Figure 4.6a, one covalent bonding po
sition appears to be empty. (I' an electron were [ 0 occupy [hi s "empty" p<lsition. ilS
t
!!

c

g
'.
o
COnduction band
-----------E,
- E"
E.
(.)
t-}:)
... ...
)
...
E ,
- - Ed
'" e!'
----------- ... E"
a
(b)
Figure 4.5 J The energy-band diagram showing (,l) Ihe di screle donor energy sHift
ionized. .. .. .. .. :: ::
: :: Si = Si= Sj = Si= Si = Si :::
II II II II II II
::: Si = 5i = Si = Si,:-:-:, B = Si :::
II II II 11----11 \I
::: $;= Si= Si= Si= Si= Si :::
II II II II II II
: : : Si = 5i = Si = 5i = Si = Si :::
::: Si = 5i = Si = Si = 5i = Si :::
II II II II II II
'" = "' = "i :>1: = "'
'" fI; = = "' rr=
::: Si = Si = Si ': a-!Si = Si = 5i :::
..
of a (a) with a boron at ..
and (b) l\howing the ioniZalion of the boron atom resulting in a h()le.
Figure 6: Two dimensional representation of a silicon lattice (a) doped with a boron atom and (b) showing the
ionization of the boron atom resulting in a hole.
this empty position does not have sucient energy to be in the conduction band, so its energy is far smaller
than the conduction-band energy.
Figure 6b shows how valence electrons may gain a small amount of thermal energy and move about in the
crystal.
The empty position associated with the boron atom becomes occupied, and other valence electron positions
become vacated.
These other vacated electron positions can be thought of as holes in the semiconductor material.
Figure 7 shows the expected energy state of the empty position and also the formation of a hole in the valence
band. The hole can move through the crystal generating a current, while the negatively charged boron atom
is xed in the crystal.
9
2 Dopant Atoms and Energy Levels
t
t -,.------.. -. -E,
band
--+) -)+----,-1)---
+ + +
' ..
(a)
(b)
Figure 4.7 I The enctgy.band diagram showing (0) the discrele .cceplor cnctg)' SlOIC
and (h) th.e effect or an <lccepto( state being ioni zed.
energy would have to be greater thall that of the valence electrons, since the net charge
srale of the boron atom would now be negative. Howevcr. the electron occupying tbi.'
"empty" positi on docs nO{ have sufficient energy to be in the conduction band, so its
energy is far smaller tlt"Jl the conduclionballd eJlergy. Figure 4.6b shows how va
lence electrons may gain a small amount of thermal energy and move about in the
cry lal. The "empty" position associated with Ihe boron alom becomes occupied. and
other valence electron positions become vacated. These other vacated electron posi-
tions can be thought of as holes in the semiconductor material.
Figure 4.7 shows the expected energy state of the "empty" position and also the
fonnation of a hole in the valence band. The hole can move through the crystal gen-
erating a current. while the negatively charged boron atom is fixed in the crystal. The
group III alom accept s an electron from the valence band and so is refcrred to as an
acceptor impurity mom. The acceptor atOm can generate holes in the valence band
without generating electrons in the conduction band. This type of semiconductor ma-
terial is referred to as a ,,type materi,,1 (p for Ihe chnrgcd hole).
The pure singlccrYSlal semiconductor material is called an intrinsic materia1.
Adding controlled amounls of dopant atoms, either donors or acceptors. creates a
material called an extrinsic semicondcH,'IQr. An eXlrinsic semiconductor will have ei-
ther a preponderance of electrons (n type) or a preponderance of holes (I' eype).
4.2.2 Ionization Energy
We can calculate Ihe approxirnilte distance of the donor electron from the donor im-
puri ty ion, and al 0 the approXimate energ), required to elevate the donor electron
into the conduction band. This energy is referred to as the ionization energy. We will
use the Bohr model of the atOm for these calculations. The justification for using thi s
modei is that the most prObable distance of an electron from the nucieus in a hydro
gen atom, determined from quantum mechanics, is the same as the Bohr radius. The
energy levels in the hydrogen atom determined from quantum mechanics are ,,1so the
same as obtained from the Bohr theory.
In the case of the donor impurity atom, we may visualize the donor electron or-
biting Ihe donor ion. which is embedded in the semiconduclor maleri,,1. We will neeel
to use the pcnniHi vity of the semiconductor material in the calculations rather than
117
Figure 7: The energy-band diagram showing (a) the discrete acceptor energy states and (b) the eect or an
acceptor state being ionized.
The group III atom accepts an electron from the valence band and so is referred to as an acceptor impurity
atom.
The acceptor atom can generate holes in the valence band without generating electrons in the
conduction band. This type of semiconductor material is referred to as a p-type material (p for the
positively charged hole).
The pure single-crystal semiconductor material is called an intrinsic material.
Adding controlled amounts of dopant atoms, either donors or acceptors, creates a material called an extrinsic
semicondctor.
An extrinsic semiconductor will have either a preponderance of electrons (n type) or a preponderance of holes
(p type).
3 The Extrinsic Semiconductor
The Extrinsic Semiconductor
We dened an intrinsic semiconductor as a material with no impurity atoms present in the crystal.
An extrinsic semiconductor is dened as a semiconductor in which controlled amounts of specic dopant or
impurity atoms have been added so that thermal equilibrium electron and hole concentrations are dierent
from the intrinsic carrier concentration.
One type of carrier will predominate in an extrinsic semiconductor.
3.1 Equilibrium Distribution of Electrons and Holes
Equilibrium Distribution of Electrons and Holes
Adding donor or acceptor impurity atoms to a semiconductor will change the distribution of electrons and holes
in the material.
Since the Fermi energy is related to the distribution function, the Fermi energy will change as dopant atoms
are added.
If the Fermi energy changes from near the midgap value, the density of electrons in the conduction band and
the density of holes in the valence band will change.
These eects are shown in Figures 8 and 9.
Figure 8 shows the case for E
F
> E
Fi
and Figure 9 shows the case for E
F
< E
Fi
.
When E
F
> E
Fi
, the electron concentration is larger than the hole concentration, and when E
F
< E
Fi
, the
hole concentration is larger than electron concentration.
When the density of electrons is greater than the density of holes, the semiconductor is n type; donor impurity
atoms have been added.
10
4.3 The Extril1sic Sem'ccnductor
carrier concentration. One type of carrier will predominate in an extrinsic semicon
ductor.
4.3.1 Equilibrium Distribution of Electrons and Holes
Adding donor or acceptor impurity atoms to a !Semiconductor will change the distrib
ution of electrons and holes in the material. Since the Fermi energy is relaled to the
distribution function, the Fermi energy will change a.s dopant atom, are added. If the
Fermi energy changes from near lhe midgap value, the density of electrons in lhe con
duction band anel Ihe density of holes in the valence band will change. These effects
are shown in Figures 4.8 and 4.9. Figure 4.8 shows the case foJ' E" > En and
Figure 4.9 shows the caSe for E F < E Pi, When E F > E F; , the electron coneentra
lion is Jarger rhan Ihe hole concentration, and when EF < EF;, the hole concentration
j,.{E}
EFj
Area = ,,,, =::
elec{101'I
concentration
Area = Po.
!l ole concentration
{,(E) =O /,{e) I
Figure 4.81 Density of states functi ons. Fenni-Dirac
probability functi on. and areas re))rc5cming clectron
and hole concchtf<ltions for the case when F above
lhe iJ1[(jnsit: f:urn; energy_
i21
Figure 8: Density of states functions, Fermi-Dirac probability function, and areas representing electron and hole
concentrations for the case when E
Fi
is above the intrinsic Fermi energy.
122 CHAPTER 4 The Semioonductor in Ec,u .Ib m
\
.
\ fr()
eF; ---\---------------
""
- - - - -'..- - - - --
.......
Area = =
declron
concentration
",
F.
("I.e) - 0
Area = 1'0=
hole COIICenlrdt.i oo
Me} - I
Figure 4.9\ Density of states functions. f'emli - Dirac
probability function. and areas f('.presenting electron and
hole concentrations for the case when ,.. is below tbe
intrinsic Fermi energy.
,
is larger than the electron concentration. When the density of electrons i grearer lhan
(he density of holes. the semiconductor is n type; donor impurity atoms have been
added. When the density of holes is greater than the density of electrons. the semi-
conductor is p type; acceptor impurity atoms have been added. The Fermi energy:
le\'el in a semiconductor changes the electron and hole conce.ntralions change and,
again. the Fermi energy changes as donor Or acceptor impurities are added. The
change in Ihe Fermi level as a function of impurilY concentrations will be
in Section 4.6.
TI,e expre sions previously derived for the thermal-equilibrium concentration
electrons and holes. given by F<luati ons (4.11) and (4. 19) are general equations fi
Iro and Po in terms of the Fermi energy. These equation ' arc again given as
N [-(E .. - Ef' )]
no = .. exp kT
Figure 9: Density of states functions, Fermi-Dirac probability function, and areas representing electron and hole
concentrations for the case when E
Fi
is below the intrinsic Fermi energy.
When the density of holes is greater than the density of electrons, the semi-conductor is p type; acceptor
impurity atoms have been added.
The Fermi energy level in a semiconductor changes as donor and acceptor impurity are added. The expressions
previously derived for the thermal-equilibrium concentration electrons and holes, given by Equations (11) and
(20) are general equations for n
0
and p
0
in terms of the Fermi energy.
These equation are again
n
0
= N
c
exp
_
(E
c
E
F
)
kT
_
(29)
11
and
p
0
= N
v
exp
_
(E
F
E
v
)
kT
_
(30)
In an n-type semiconductor, electrons are referred to as the majority carrier and holes as the minority carrier.
In a p-type semiconductor it will be the inverse.
We may derive another form of the equations for the thermal-equilibrium concentrations of electrons and holes.
If we add and subtract an intrinsic Fermi energy in the exponent of Equation (11), we can write
n
0
= N
c
exp
_
(E
c
E
Fi
) + (E
F
E
Fi
)
kT
_
(31)
or
n
0
= N
c
exp
_
(E
c
E
Fi
)
kT
_
exp
_
(E
F
E
Fi
)
kT
_
(32)
The intrinsic carrier concentration is given by
n
i
= N
c
exp
_
(E
c
E
Fi
)
kT
_
(33)
so that the thermal-equilibrium electron concentration can be written as
Thermal-equilibrium electron concentration (expressed in terms of intrinsic concentration)
n
0
= n
i
exp
_
E
F
E
Fi
kT
_
(34)
Similarly, if we add and subtract an intrinsic Fermi energy in the exponent of Equation (20) we obtain
Thermal-equilibrium hole concentration (expressed in terms of intrinsic concentration)
p
0
= n
i
exp
_
(E
F
E
Fi
)
kT
_
(35)
As we will see, the Fermi level changes when donors and acceptors are added, but Equations (34) and (35) show
that, as the Fermi level changes from the intrinsic Fermi level, n
0
and p
0
change from the n
i
value.
If E
F
> E
Fi
then we will have n
0
> n
i
and p
0
< n
i
, thus n
0
> p
0
.
Similarly, in a p-type semiconductor, E
F
< E
Fi
so that p
0
> n
i
and n
0
< n
i
, thus p
0
> n
0
3.2 The n
0
p
0
product
The n
0
p
0
product
We may take the product of the general expressions for n
0
and p
0
as given in Equations (11) and (20), respec-
tively:
n
0
p
0
= N
c
N
v
exp
_
(E
c
E
F
)
kT
_
exp
_
(E
F
E
v
)
kT
_
(36)
which may be written as
n
i
= N
c
N
v
exp
_
E
g
kT
_
(37)
As Equation (37) was derived for a general value of Fermi energy, the values of n
0
and p
0
are not necessarily
equal.
However, Equation (37) is exactly the same as Equation (24), which we derived for the case of an intrinsic
semiconductor.
We then have that, for the semiconductor in thermal equilibrium,
n
0
p
0
Equation
n
0
p
0
= n
2
i
(38)
12
Equation (38) states that the product of n
0
and p
0
is always a constant for a given semiconductor material at
a given temperature.
Although this equation seems very simple, it is one of the fundamental principles of semiconductors in thermal
equilibrium.
It is important to keep in mind that Equation (38) was derived using the Boltzmann approximation.
If the Boltzmann approximation is not valid, then Equation (38) is not valid. An extrinsic semiconductor
in thermal equilibrium does not, strictly speaking, contain an intrinsic carrier concentration, although some
thermally generated carriers are present.
The intrinsic electron and hole carrier concentrations are modied by the donor or acceptor impurities.
3.3 Degenerate and Nondegenerate Semiconductors
Degenerate and Nondegenerate Semiconductors
In our discussion of adding dopant atoms to a semiconductor, we have implicitly assumed that the concentration
of dopant atoms added is small when compared to the density of host or semiconductor atoms.
The small number of impurity atoms are spread far enough apart so that there is no interaction between donor
electrons for example in an n-type material.
We have assumed that the impurities introduce discrete noninteracting donor energy states in the n-type
semiconductor and discrete, noninteracting acceptor states in the p-type semiconductor.
These types of semiconductors are referred to as nondegenerate semiconductors. If the impurity concentration
increases, the distance between the impurity atoms decreases and a point will be reached when donor electrons,
for example, will begin to interact with each other.
When this occurs, the single discrete donor energy will split into a band of energies. As the donor concentration
further increases, the band of donor states widens and may overlap the bottom of the conduction band.
This overlap occurs when the donor concentration becomes comparable with the eective density of states.
When the concentration of electrons in the conduction band exceeds the density of states N
c
, the Fermi energy
lies within the conduction band.
This type of semiconductor is called a degenerate n-type semiconductor. In a similar way, as the acceptor
doping concentration increases in a p-type semiconductor, the discrete acceptor encegy states will split into a
band of energies and may overlap the top of the valence band.
The Fermi energy will lie in the valence band when the concentration of holes exceeds the density of states N
v
.
This type semiconductor is called a degenerate p-type semiconductor. Schematic models of the energy-
band diagrams for a degenerate n-type and degenerate p-type semiconductors are shown in Figure 10.
128 C HAP T E R 4 l ite SemiccnduCtor in Equilibrium
t --,- - - .,.. E
f
.
' E
,
Filled
stal es
{c1cclrons)
----'----'----- f.',
V..a}cnccband
<al
t
Conduction band
!il ! Empty ".tes
L (holes)
g --+,---------------
];; --.-..,., ...,.....,_.--.- f
V OlICI\cc! b.md
(b)
Figure 4.11 I Simplified energy,band diagrams for degenerately doped (a) ".Iype and
(b) semiconduclors.
the densit y of states Nt" . the Fermi energy lies within the conduction band. This ty
of semiconductor is called a degenerate n-type semiconductor.
fn a similar way, as the acceptOr doping concentrati on increases in a p_l y
5emiconductor. the discrete acceptor encrgy states will split into a band of energi
and may overl ap the top of the valence band, The Fenni energy will lie in the vale
band when the concentration of holes exceeds the density of states N, .. This type
scmiconduClOr is called a degencmte p type semiconductor.
Schematic models of the energy-band diagrams for a degenerate n-typc and
gener(lte p-lype semiconductOr are in Figure 4. J I . The energy states below E
are mostly filled wi lh eleclrons and the energy states above EF are mostl y empty.
the degenerate n-typc semiconductor. the states between E F and Ec are mostly fill
with electrons; thus. the electron concentration in the conduction band is very lat
Simi larly. in the degenerate p-type semiconductor, the energy ,(Olates between E,. '
E
f
are mostly empty: thus, the hole concentration in the valence band is very larg
4.4 I STATISTICS OF DONORS AND ACCEPTORS
In the last chapler. we discussed the Fermi-Dirac distribution function, which giv
the probability thaI a particul ar energy state will be occupied by an electron. We n
to recon5ider thi s function ,md apply the prt>bability stati stics 10 Ihe donor and ac.
ceptor energy states.
4.4.1 Probability Function
One postul ate used in the derivation of the Fenni-Dirac probability function I
PauH exclusit'm principle. which states that onl y one particl e is permitted in
quantum state. The Pauli exclusion principl e also applies IQ the donor and accepl
$tates. ,
Suppose we have N; eloctrOns and gj quantum states, where the subscript i indio
cates the ith energy level. There are gi ways of choosing where to put the firsl pani,
cle. Euch donor level has twO possible spin orientations for the donor electron: thu
each donor level has two quantum States. The insertion of an electron inlO One qu
tum $late. however. precludes putting an electron into the second quantum Slate.
Figure 10: Simplied energy-band diagrams for degenerately doped (a) n-type and (b) p-type semiconductors.
The energy states below E
F
are mostly lled with electrons and the energy states above E
F
are mostly empty.
In the degenerate n-type semiconductor, the states between E
F
and E
c
are mostly lled with electrons, thus,
the electron concentration in the conduction band is very large.
Similarly, in the degenerate p-type semiconductor, the energy states between E
v
and E
f
are mostly empty:
thus, the hole concentration in the valence band is very large.
13
4 Statistics of Donors and Acceptors
Statistics of Donors and Acceptors
We discussed the Fermi-Dirac distribution function, which give the probability thaIta particular energy state
will be occupied by an electron.
We need to reconsider this function and apply the probability statistics to the donor and acceptor energy states.
4.1 Probability Function
Probability Function
One postulate used in the derivation of the Fermi-Dirac probability function was the Pauli exclusion principle,
which states that only one particle is permitted in quantum state.
The Pauli exclusion principle also applies to the donor and acceptor states. Suppose we have N
i
electrons and
g
i
quantum states, where the subscript i indicates the i-th energy level.
There are g
i
ways of choosing where to put the rst particle.
Each donor level has two possible spin orientations for the donor electron: thus each donor level has two quantum
states.
The insertion of an electron into one quantum state, however, precludes putting an electron into the second
quantum state. By adding one electron, the vacancy requirement of the atom is satised, and the addition of
a second electron in the donor level is not possible.
The distribution function of donor electrons in the donor energy states is then slightly dierent than the Fermi-
Dirac function. The probability function of electrons occupying the donor state is
n
d
=
N
d
1 +
1
2
exp
_
E
d
E
F
kT
_ (39)
where n
d
is the density of electrons occupying the donor level and E
d
is the energy of the donor level.
The factor 1/2 is a direct result of the spin factor just mentioned.
The 1/2 factor is sometimes written as 1/g where g is called a degeneracy factor. Equation (39) can also be
written in the form
n
d
= N
d
N
+
d
(40)
where N
+
d
is the concentration of ionized donors.
In many applications we will be interested more in the concentration of ionized donors than in the concentration
of electrons remaining in the donor state.
If we do the same type of analysis for acceptor atoms. we obtain the expression
p
a
=
N
a
1 +
1
g
exp
_
E
F
E
a
kT
_ = N
a
N

a
(41)
where N
a
is the concentration of acceptor atoms, E
a
is the acceptor energy level, p
a
is the concentration of
holes in the acceptor states and N

a
is the concentration of ionized acceptors. A hole in an acceptor state
corresponds to an acceptor atom that is neutrally charged and still has an empty bonding position.
The parameter g is, again a degeneracy factor.
The ground state degeneracy factor g is normally taken as four for the acceptor level in silicon and gallium
arsenide because of the detailed band structure.
4.2 Complete Ionization and Freeze-Out
Complete Ionization and Freeze-Out
The probability function for electrons in the donor energy state was just given by Equation (39).
14
If we assume that E
d
E
F
kT then
n
d

N
d
1
2
exp
E
d
E
F
kT
= 2N
d
exp
(E
d
E
F
)
kT
(42)
If (E
d
E
F
) kT, then the Boltzmann approximation is also valid for the electrons in the conduction band
so from Equation (11):
n
0
= N
c
exp
_
(E
c
E
F
)
kT
_
(43)
We can determine the relative number of electrons in the donor state compared with the total number of
electrons, therefore we can consider the ratio of electrons in the donor state to the total number of electrons in
the conduction band plus donor state.
Using the expressions of Equations (43) and (11), we write
n
d
n
d
+ n
0
=
2N
d
exp
_
(E
d
E
F
)
kT
_
2N
d
exp
_
(E
d
E
F
)
kT
_
+ N
c
exp
_
(E
c
E
F
)
kT
_ (44)
Dividing by the numerator term we obtain:
n
d
n
d
+ n
0
=
1
1 +
N
c
2N
d
exp
_
(E
c
E
d
)
kT
_ (45)
The factor E
c
E
d
is just the ionization energy of the donor electrons. At room temperature, then, the donor
states are essentially completely ionized.
At room temperature, there is also also essentially complete ionization of the acceptor atoms.
This ionization eect and the creation of electrons and holes in the conduction band and valence band, respec-
tively, are shown in Figure 11. The opposite of complete ionization occurs at T = 0 K: all electrons are
t) )
>., ++
Conduction band
) )
)
T T T
,
")
)
T
T t l.'
-------------------- EFi
!
"
----,,-,---..,-,---- C .
Valence band .
(a)
. . -
... ,.
t
>.
4. 4 c1 Donors aoo Acceptors
Conductiun band
--..::.:.....::.:.....::.:.....::.:...-- ..
--- ... ---------- -----. E,..;
c
u
g
II
iii
-=- -=- -=- -=- -=- -=- -=-
))))))L;"
+++++++ '
ValeDce band
(b)
.. .. .
-..
4.12 I En('rgy bnnd diagrams showi ng complete ioniZ:llion of (a) donor
and (b) acceptor slates.
t __ co_n_ d""_l io_n b_'n_d
Conduction b.1nd
t
------------- E,
---------- -- -------. r.F;
;",\
---- - --------------- E
f
,
u
u
e
2 _______ _
ValeD,,-e band
E
2 ::-.:=.:=.:=...:::....= if;.
iii _--------- '
:..:.:..!. .. \'
<a) (b)
Figure 4.131 Energy-band diagram at T = 0 K l'or (a) n-t)'pC and (b) V-tyJl<!
semiconductors.
The upposite of complete ionization occurs at l' = 0 K. At absolute lero de-
grees. all electrons are in their lowest possible energy state; that is, for an n-type
semiconductor. each donor Slate must contain an electron. therefore 11,1 = N d or
Nt = O. We must have. then. from Equation (4.50) that exp HEd - E,-) /kTI = O.
Since T = 0 K. this will occur lor cxp (-00) = O. which means lhat E f" > Ed. The
Fermi energy level muSt be above the donor energy level at absolute zero. In the case
of a p-type semiconductor at absolute zero temperature. the impurity at01m will not
contain any electrons. so that lhe Fermi energy level must be below the acceptor en-
ergy state. The di stribut ion of electrons among the various energy Slates. amI hence
the Fenni enc.rgy. is a function of temperature.
A detailed analysis. not given in this text. shows that at T = 0 K. the Fenni en-
ergy is halfway between E,. and Ed fm the n-type material and halfway between E.
and E. for the p-typc material. Figure 4.13 shows these effects. No electrons from
the donor State arc thennally elevated into the conduction band; thi s effect is call ed
/reeze-olli. Similarly. when nO electrons from the valance band are elevated into the
acceptor statcs. the effecl is also call ed freeze-out.
131
Figure 11: Energy-band diagrams showing complete ionization of (a) donor states and (b) acceptor states.
in their lowest possible energy state; that is, for an n-type semiconductor, each donor state must contain an
electron. Therefore n
d
= N
d
or N
+
d
= 0.
We must have, then, from Equation (39) that exp(E
d
E
F
)/kT = 0.
Since T = 0 K, this will occur for exp() = 0, which means that E
F
> E
d
. The Fermi energy level must be
above the donor energy level at absolute zero.
In the case of a p-type semiconductor at absolute zero temperature. the impurity atom will not contain any
electrons, so that the Fermi energy level must be below the acceptor energy state.
15
t) )
>., ++
Conduction band
) )
)
T T T
,
")
)
T
T t l.'
-------------------- EFi
!
"
----,,-,---..,-,---- C .
Valence band .
(a)
. . -
... ,.
t
>.
4. 4 c1 Donors aoo Acceptors
Conductiun band
--..::.:.....::.:.....::.:.....::.:...-- ..
--- ... ---------- -----. E,..;
c
u
g
II
iii
-=- -=- -=- -=- -=- -=- -=-
))))))L;"
+++++++ '
ValeDce band
(b)
.. .. .
-..
4.12 I En('rgy bnnd diagrams showi ng complete ioniZ:llion of (a) donor
and (b) acceptor slates.
t __ co_n_ d""_l io_n b_'n_d
Conduction b.1nd
t
------------- E,
---------- -- -------. r.F;
;",\
---- - --------------- E
f
,
u
u
e
2 _______ _
ValeD,,-e band
E
2 ::-.:=.:=.:=...:::....= if;.
iii _--------- '
:..:.:..!. .. \'
<a) (b)
Figure 4.131 Energy-band diagram at T = 0 K l'or (a) n-t)'pC and (b) V-tyJl<!
semiconductors.
The upposite of complete ionization occurs at l' = 0 K. At absolute lero de-
grees. all electrons are in their lowest possible energy state; that is, for an n-type
semiconductor. each donor Slate must contain an electron. therefore 11,1 = N d or
Nt = O. We must have. then. from Equation (4.50) that exp HEd - E,-) /kTI = O.
Since T = 0 K. this will occur lor cxp (-00) = O. which means lhat E f" > Ed. The
Fermi energy level muSt be above the donor energy level at absolute zero. In the case
of a p-type semiconductor at absolute zero temperature. the impurity at01m will not
contain any electrons. so that lhe Fermi energy level must be below the acceptor en-
ergy state. The di stribut ion of electrons among the various energy Slates. amI hence
the Fenni enc.rgy. is a function of temperature.
A detailed analysis. not given in this text. shows that at T = 0 K. the Fenni en-
ergy is halfway between E,. and Ed fm the n-type material and halfway between E.
and E. for the p-typc material. Figure 4.13 shows these effects. No electrons from
the donor State arc thennally elevated into the conduction band; thi s effect is call ed
/reeze-olli. Similarly. when nO electrons from the valance band are elevated into the
acceptor statcs. the effecl is also call ed freeze-out.
131
Figure 12: Energy-band diagrams at T = 0 K for (a) n-type and (b) p-type semiconductors.
The distribution of electrons among the various energy states. and hence the Fermi energy, is a function of
temperature. A detailed analysis shows that at T = 0 K the Fermi energy is halfway between E
c
and E
d
for
the n-type material and halfway between E
a
and E
v
for the p-type material.
Figure 12 shows these eects.
No electrons from the donor states are thermally elevated into the conduction band; this eect is called freeze-
out.
Similarly, when no electrons from the valance band are elevated into the acceptor states, the eecltis also called
freeze-out.
Between T = 0 K, freeze-out, and T = 300 K, complete ionization, we have partial ionization of donor or
acceptor atoms.
5 Charge Neutrality
Charge Neutrality
In thermal equilibrium the semiconductor crystal is electrically neutral.
The eletrons are distributed among the various energy stats, creating negative and positive charges, but the net
charge density is zero.
This charge-neutrality condition is used determine the thermal-equilibrium electron and hole concentrations as
a function of the impurity doping concentration.
5.1 Compensated Semiconductor
Compensated Semiconductor
A compensated semiconductor is one that cotrains both donor and acceptor impurity atoms in the same region.
A
compensated semiconductor can be formed. for example. by diusing acceptor impurities into an n-type
material or viceversa.
An ntype compensated semiconductor occurs when N
d
> N
a
and a p-type compensated semiconductor occurs
when N
a
> N
d
.
If N
d
= N
a
we have a completely compensated semiconductor that has, as we will show, the characteristics of
an intrinsic material.
5.2 Equilibrium Electron and Hole Concentrations
Equilibrium Electron and Hole Concentrations
Figure 13 shows the energy-band diagram of a semiconductor when both donor and acceptor impurity atoms
are added to the same region to form a compensated semiconductor. The gure shows how the electrons and
16
4 6 Charge NeutraJily
the impurity doping concentration. We will define a compensated :;cmiconductor and
then dClcnnine the electron and hole concentrations as a function of the donor and
acceptor concentrations.
4.5.1 Compen.'I3ted Semiconductors
A compensated semiconductor is one fhat conrains bolh donor and accep[or impurity
8toms in the same region. A compensated semiconductor can be formed. for exam-
ple. by diffusing "cceptor impurities into an n-type material, or by dOllor
impurities into a p-type material. An n-type compensated scmiconductor oCCUr s
when N
J
> ."I" and a p-type semiconductor occurs when No > N
J
.
If N. = Nd. we have a completely compensated semiconductor that has. as we will
show, the characteristics of an intrinsic material. Compensated semiconductors are
created quite narurally during de"ice fabrication as we will see later.
4.5.2 Equilibrium Electron and Hole Concentrations
Figure 4.14 shows the energy-band diagram of a semiconductor when both donor
and acceptor impurity atoms are added to the same region [0 form a compensated
Tmal electron
concentration
I
""
DonOT
electrons
---+ E,
/ . Ed
':'
Un-iollized
donors
Un joni7.ctI
+++
....
-
Nt (N
d
- tid)
loo;lcd donors
---------------En
NI,)- = (Na - Pel)
Ionized acceptors
=- -
+ + +
E.
E,
+
. ; ...
. '-
. .

Thermal
Po
A('(ep{or
holes
(
holes.
Total hole
conCenlt31ion
Figure 4.141 Energy-band diagJ"'.lnl of a compensated
semiconductor showing ionized and un-ionized donors
and acceptors.
133
Figure 13: Energy-band diagram of a compensated semiconductor showing ionized and un-ionized donors and
acceptors.
holes can be distribute among the various states.
The charge neutrality condition is expressed by equating the density of negative charges to the density of positive
charges:
n
0
+ N

a
= p
0
+ N
+
d
(46)
or
n
0
+ (N
a
p
a
) = p
0
+ (N
d
n
d
) (47)
where n
0
and p
0
are the thermal-equilibrium concentrations of electrons and holes in the conduction band and
valence band.
The parameter n
d
is the concentration of electrons in the donor energy states, so N
+
d
= N
d
n
d
is the
concentration of positively charged donor states.
Similar]y, p
a
is the concentration of holes in the acceptor states, so N

a
= N
a
p
a
is the concentration of
negatively charged acceptor states.
We have expressions for n
0
, p
0
, n
d
and p
a
in terms of the Fermi energy and temperature. If we assume complete
ionization, n
d
and p
a
are both zero, and Equation (47) becomes
n
0
+ N
a
= p
0
+ N
d
(48)
If we express p
0
as n
2
i
/n
0
then Equation (48) can be written as
n
0
+ N
a
=
n
2
i
n
0
+ N
d
(49)
which in turn can be written as
n
2
0
(N
d
N
a
)n
0
n
2
i
= 0 (50)
The electron concentration n
0
can be determined using the quadratic formula
Equilibrium electron concentration in compensated semiconductor
n
0
=
(N
d
N
a
)
2
+

_
N
d
N
a
2
_
2
+ n
2
i
(51)
17
The positive sign in the quadratic formula must be used, since, jn the limit of an intrinsic semiconductor when
N
a
= N
d
= 0, the electron concentration must be a positive quantity or n
0
= n
i
. Equation (51) is used to
calculate the electron concentration in an n-type semiconductor, or when N
d
> N
a
.
Although Equation (51) was derived for a compensated semiconductor, the equation is also valid for N
a
= 0.
The concentration of electrons in the conduction band increases above the intrinsic carrier concentration as we
add donor impurity atoms.
At the same time, the minority carrier hole concentration decreases below the intrinsic carrier concentration as
we add donor atoms.
We must keep in mind that as we add donor impurity atoms and the corresponding donor electrons, there is a
redistribution of electrons among available energy stales.
Figure ?? shows a schematic of this physical redistribution.
4.5 Charge Neutrality
.Solution
From Equation (4.60). the majority c .. \rrier electron concentration is
11 0 ::::
(
10" ) '
2 + (1.5 X 10"')' '" 10" CIll-
l
The miuodry carrier hole concenrrarion is fourtd
n' (1.5 x lOin)'
Po -.1. = 2.25 x LO' CIll-
l
ho I X 10
16
Comment
In this ell.an1ple. N
J
fI ; . sO that rhe lhcnnal-equilibriulO majority carrier electrUIl concen-
tratiQn is essentiall y equal to the donor impurity concentration. Thc thcrmru-equilibriulIl ma-
jority and minority carrier concentrations can differ by (llaoy orders of magoitude.
We have argued in OUf di scussion and we may note ffOOl the results of Exam-
ple 4.9Ih.t the concentnltion of electrons in the conduction band increases abO\'e the
intrinsic carricrconcenrration as We add donor impuri[y a(oms. At the same time, the
minority carrier hole concentration decreases below the intrinsic carrier concentra-
tion as we add donor atoms. We must keep in mind Ihat we add donor impurity
atOmS and the corresponding donor electrons. there is a redistribution of electrons
among .vailable energy Figure 4.15 shows a schematic of thi s physical redis-
tribution. A few of the donor electrons will fall into Ihe empty states in (he valence
fn(rinsic
etcelJons
------
----Cd
donuT';(, Un-jonilL'd d(1I10fS
-- ---- -- - -- -- - -- --- ---- - .... _-- J'j
> A few donor c\cctrons
annihilate some
hvlc ...
,
"'r;"\+""'r;"\+""'r;"\+,-----:>------- E,.
"!J '\!:..J V + .Intrinsic
.. -. ' ... '
Figure 4.15 I Energy-band diagram showing the
redistrcbution of electrons when donors are ,lidded.
1311
Figure 14: Energy-band diagram showing the redistribution of electrons when donors are added.
A few of the donor electrons will fall into the empty states in the valence band and, in doing so, will annihilate
some of the intrinsic holes.
The minority carrier hole concentration will therefore decrease.
At the same time, because of this redistribution, the net electron concentration in the conduction band is not
simply equal to the donor concentration plus the intrinsic electron concentration. We have seen that the
intrinsic carrier concentration n
i
is a very strong function of temperature.
As the temperature increases, additional electron-hole pairs are thermally generated so that the n
2
i
term in
Equation (51) may begin to dominate.
The semiconductor will eventually lose its extrinsic characteristics.
Figure 15 shows the electron concentration versus temperature in silicon doped with 5 10
14
donors per cm
3
.
As the temperature increases, we can see where the intrinsic concentration begins to dominate.
Also shown is the partial ionization, or the onset of freeze-out, at the low temperature. For the case of holes
we obtain in an analogous way
Equilibrium hole concentration in compensated semiconductor
p
0
=
(N
a
N
d
)
2
+

_
N
a
N
d
2
_
2
+ n
2
i
(52)
where the positive sign must be used.
Equation (52) is used to calculate the thermal equilibrium majority carrier hole concentration in a p-type
semiconductor, or when N
a
> N
d
.
18

i
?
4 . 5 Charge
)Ol h
Intrinsic
lOI S
E>:trins'ic
,
,
/
/
/
/
-.
10
1
.
1 /
Parti al
/
E
/
ionil.ation
I
3- I
10
1

1
I

I
" n
,
'
I
lOll
I
T
I I I I I I I
100 lOO 300 400 500 600 700
T (K)
Figure 4.16 I EleClrOIl conceil iration versus lelllperaturc
showing the three regions: punial ;onczalion. exrrinsic. and
intrinsic.
Using the quadratic fonnula, the hole concentration is given by
(4.62)
where the positive sign. again, must be used. EquatioJl (4.62) is used to calculate the
thennal.equilibrium majority carrier hole concentration in a ptype semiconductor.
or when Na > N". This equation also applies for IV<I = O.
Objective
Tocalculale the 11lennal-equilibriunl electron and hole concentrations in a p-lype
lcmiconductor.
Consider a silicon al T = 300 K in which Nu = 10
1
(0 cm-
1
and Nd =
3 X lOIS <:111-
3
. Assume Il i = 1.5 X 10
10
cm- ) .
Solution
Since N(; > Nd. (he compensated semiconductor is p-Iype and the Iherrnal-equilibrium ena-
jorit)' carner hole concentration is given by Equation (4.62) as
tOl t. - 3 X lOtS
p,, = +
2
(
101ft - 3 x IOl.S)'
2 + ( 1.5 x to"' )'
137
EXA MPl.E 4. 11
Figure 15: Electron concentration versus temperature showing the three regions: partial ionization, extrinsic
and intrinsic.
This equation also applies for N
d
= 0. Equations (51) and (52) are used to calculate the majority carrier electron
concentration in an n-type semiconductor and majority carrier hole concentration in a p-type semiconductor.
The minority carrier hole concentratjon jn an n-type semiconductor could theoretically be calculated from
Equation (52). However we would be substracting two numbers two big numbers which from a practical point
of view is not possible.
The minority carrier concentrations are calculated from n
0
p
0
= n
2
i
once the majority carrier concetration has
been determined.
6 Position of the Fermi Energy Level
Position of the Fermi Energy Level
We discussed how the electron and hole concentrations change as the Fermi energy level moves through the
bandgap energy.
We calculated the electron and hole concentrations as a function of donor and acceptor impurity concentrations.
We can now determine the position of the Fermi energy level as a function of the doping concentrations and as
a function of temperature.
6.1 Mathematical Derivation
Mathematical Derivation
If we assume the Boltzmann approximation to be valid, then from Equation (11) we have n
0
= N
c
exp[(E
c

E
F
)/kT].
We can solve for E
c
E
F
from this equation and obtain
E
c
E
F
= kT ln
_
N
c
n
0
_
(53)
where n
0
is given by Equation (51).
If we consider an n-type semiconductor in which N
d
n
i
then n
0
N
d
so that
E
c
E
F
= kT ln
_
N
c
N
d
_
(54)
We may note that if we have a compensated semiconductor, then the N
d
term in Equation (54) is simply
replaced by N
d
N
a
or the net eective donor concentration.
19
We may develop a slightly dierent expression for the position of the Fermi level.
We had from Equation (34) that n
0
= n
i
exp[(E
F
E
Fi
)/kT].
We can solve for E
F
E
Fi
as
E
F
E
Fi
= kT ln
_
n
0
n
i
_
(55)
Equation (55) can be used specically for an n-type semiconductor, where n
0
is given by Equation (51) to nd
the dierence between the Fermi level and the intrinsic Fermi level as a function of the donor concentration.
We may note that, if the net eective donor concentration is zero, that is, N
d
N
a
= 0 then n
0
= n
i
and
E
F
= E
Fi
.
A completely compensated semiconductor has the characteristics of an intrinsic material in terms of carrier
concentration and Fermi level position. For the case of a p-type semiconductor we obtain in a similar way the
formula
E
F
E
v
= kT ln
_
N
v
p
0
_
(56)
which, in the case N
a
n
i
becomes
E
F
E
v
= kT ln
_
N
v
N
a
_
(57)
We have also
E
Fi
E
F
= kT ln
_
p
0
n
i
_
(58)
These results are schematically shown in Figure 16
142 CHAPTER 4 tEl SemiconductC'. in Equilibrium
t ....
Ii,.
(a)
t
....... <'I'
----------- li,
g -------------------- Ef(
"
E ------------- 1'
E ,.
iii
( b)
li1gure 4.171 Position of Fermi level for an (3) n-Iypc: (Nd > N,,) and (I)) p-lype
(N,; > NJ !iemiCOllducLOr.
EF; > EF. The Fenni level for a plyp. semicondoctor is below ,.;. These resuln
are shown in Figure 4.17.
4.6.2 Variation of E
f
with Doping Concentration
and Temperature
We may plot the position of the Fermi energy level a$ a function of [he doping C<ln
centration. Figure 4.18 hows the Fermi energy l evel as <I function of donor ("'oncen,
[ration (n type) and as a function of acceptor concentrali on (p type) for
T = 300 K. As the doping levcl$ incrca$e. lhe fermi energy level moves closer to
conduction band for the ntype material and closer to the valence band for the pty
material . Keep in mind that lhe cqumions for the Fenni energy level that we have
rived assume [hat the Boltzmann approximati on is valid.
Nd(:m-")
10
1
2. 10
13
JOI4 1015 10
16
10
17
HI' t!
ntype
P Iype

10" 10" IOn 10"
.f\'d (em - 3)
Figure 4.18 I Posilion of Fermi level as a func tion of donor
concentration (n type) and acceplor concentrati on (p type).
I
Figure 16: Position of Fermi level for an (a) n-type (N
d
> N
a
) and (b) p-type (N
a
> N
d
) semiconductor.
6.2 Variation of E
F
with Doping Concentration and Temperature
Variation of E
F
with Doping Concentration and Temperature
We may plot the position of the Fermi energy level as a function of the doping concentration.
Figure 17 shows the Fermi energy level as a function of donor concentration (n-type) and as a function of
acceptor concentration (p-type) for silicon at T = 300 K.
As the doping level increases the Fermi energy level moves closer to conduction band for the n-type material
and closer to the valence band for the p-type material. The intrinsic carrier concentration is a strong function
of temperature, so that E
F
is a function of temperature aIso.
Figure 18 shows the variation of the Fermi energy level in silicon with temperature for several donor and acceptor
concentrations.
As the temperature increases, n
i
increases and E
F
moves closer to the intrinsic Fermi level. At high
temperature the semiconductor material begins to lose its extrinsic characteristics and begins to behave more
like an intrinsic semiconductor.
20
142 CHAPTER 4 tEl SemiconductC'. in Equilibrium
t ....
Ii,.
(a)
t
....... <'I'
----------- li,
g -------------------- Ef(
"
E ------------- 1'
E ,.
iii
( b)
li1gure 4.171 Position of Fermi level for an (3) n-Iypc: (Nd > N,,) and (I)) p-lype
(N,; > NJ !iemiCOllducLOr.
EF; > EF. The Fenni level for a plyp. semicondoctor is below ,.;. These resuln
are shown in Figure 4.17.
4.6.2 Variation of E
f
with Doping Concentration
and Temperature
We may plot the position of the Fermi energy level a$ a function of [he doping C<ln
centration. Figure 4.18 hows the Fermi energy l evel as <I function of donor ("'oncen,
[ration (n type) and as a function of acceptor concentrali on (p type) for
T = 300 K. As the doping levcl$ incrca$e. lhe fermi energy level moves closer to
conduction band for the ntype material and closer to the valence band for the pty
material . Keep in mind that lhe cqumions for the Fenni energy level that we have
rived assume [hat the Boltzmann approximati on is valid.
Nd(:m-")
10
1
2. 10
13
JOI4 1015 10
16
10
17
HI' t!
ntype
P Iype

10" 10" IOn 10"
.f\'d (em - 3)
Figure 4.18 I Posilion of Fermi level as a func tion of donor
concentration (n type) and acceplor concentrati on (p type).
I
Figure 17: Position of Fermi level as a function of donor concentration (n-type) and acceptor concentration
(p-type). 144
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
;;
0.2
'"
0
I
-0.2
'"
-0.4
- 0.6
- 0.8
- 1.0
0 100
Cunduclion l><Uld
200 JOO
T(K)
400 500
r'1gure 4.191 Position of r:crmi le vel as a function Of
tcmpc:r.ltuT for v(lriOllS doping conccntmlions.
rFmmS't)! {J3/.)
600
Fermi-level position no longer apply. At the low tempenlture where freeze-out cx,..
curs. the Fenni level goes above Ed for the n-type material and below Eo for the
p-type material. At absolute zero degrees, all energy states below EF are full and all
energy states ahove E f ' arc empty.
4_6_3 Relevauce ofthe Fermi Euergy
We have been calculating the position of the Fermi energy level as a function of dop-
ing concentrations and temperature. Thi s analysis may seem somewhat arbicmry aM
fictitious. However. these relati ons do become significant later ill our discussion of
pn JUJlctions and the other semiconductor devices we consider. An important point i$
that. in thennal equilibrium, the Fermi energy level is a constant throughout a sys-
tem. We will not prove thi s statement. but we can intuitively see its validity by con-
sidering the following example_
Suppose we have a particular material , A, whose electrons are distributed in the
energy states of an allowed band as shown in Figure 4.20a. Most of the energy Stales
below E fit contain electrons and most of the energy states above E F ,t are empty ot
electrons. Consider another material , B, whose electrons are di stributed in the
ergy states of an allowed band as shown in Figure 4.20b. The energy states below
E F8 are mostly full and the energy states above E P II are mostly empty. If these two
materials are brought into imirn3tc contact, the electrons in the entire system
tend to seek the lowest p",sible energy. Electrons from material A will flow into the'
lower energy states of material B, as indicated in Figure 4.2Oc, unrii (hennal cqw.,
librium is reached. Thermal equilibrium occurs when the distribution of electTOIIS,:II:
'!
Figure 18: Position of Fermi level as a function of temperature for various doping concentrations.
At the very low temperature freeze-out occurs: the Boltzmann approximation is no longer valid and the equations
we derived for the Fermi-level position no longer apply.
At the low temperature where freeze-out occurs the Fermi level goes above E
d
for the n-type material and below
E
a
for the p-type material.
6.3 Relevance of the Fermi Energy
Relevance of the Fermi Energy
21
An important point is that in thermal equilibrium, the Fermi energy level is a constant throughout a system.
We will not prove this statement. but we can intuitively see its validity by considering the following example.
Suppose we have a particular material, A, whose electrons are distributed in the energy states of an allowed
band as shown in Figure 19a.
Most of the energy states below E
FA
contain electrons and most of the energy states above E
FA
are empty of
electrons.
,

1
A. II.wed
=
==
_ _ _
- - -
- ---
-- ---
=
- =
-
t
(ej
4. 7 Summary
---- ----1 Allowed
, . . f \!nergy
: !>I:Ues
, .
(;rL_-",--_.J---:
, Ir
2
(b)
, F
- ----.
(d)
F'fgure 4.20 I The t--enni energy of (a) materia( A ill thetinaC equifjbrium. (0) maleriar B
in Ihem131 equilibrium, (c) materials A and B at the they ,ll'C phlC'ed in conwcl ,
and (d) ma(tri:.ds A and B in cOntact u(-therlllal equilibrium.
a functi on of energy. is the same in the two materials. This equilibrium <tate occurs
when the Fermi energy is the same in the twO materials as shown in Figure 4.20d.
The Fermi energy. important in the physics of the semiconductor, also provides a
good pictorial represcmation of the characteristics of the semiconductor materials
and devices.
4.71 SUMMARY
The concelllratl".lH of declrQlI s in tht cOlldllctkHl band is the illtegral over Ihe conducti on
band energy of the product of the density of states function in the conduction band and
the Fermi- Dirac 11fobabiJil'j function,
ThecQncc::ntration ofhvLes in the v:llencc hand i:. thc integral uver the valence bUIld
energy of the product oflhe dl!nsi(y ofst;}(cs fun<.:tion in Ihe valence band and the
prob3bility of a state being empt y, which is II - JF () \'
Using (he Ma.xwC:H-Bolumann approxi nllttion. Ihe fhermal equilibrium cOll(.'enlr.:ltion
of electrons in (he conduction band is given by
where N" is the effecti ve density of MalC!'. ill the conducti on bal\d,
1411
Figure 19: The Fermi energy of (a) material A in thermal equilibrium, (b) material B in thermal equilibrium,
(c) materials A and B at the instant thay are placed in contact and (d) materials A and B in contact at thermal
equilibrium.
Consider another material, B, whose electrons are distributed in the energy states of an allowed band as shown
in Figure 19b.
The energy states below E
FB
are mostly full and the energy states above E
FB
are mostly empty.
If these two materials are brought into contact, the electrons in the entire system will tend to seek the lowest
possible energy. Electrons from material A will ow into the lower energy states of material B, as indicated in
Figure 19c, until thermal equilibrium is reached.
Thermal equilibrium occurs when the distribution of electrons a function of energy is the same in the two
materials.
This equilibrium state occurs when the Fermi energy is the same in the two materials as shown in Figure19d.
22