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Competition and market types in economic analysis Pricing and output decisions in perfect competition Pricing and output decisions in monopoly markets Implications of perfect competition and monopoly for managerial decisions

Perfect competition (no market power)

large number of relatively small buyers and sellers standardized product very easy market entry and exit non-price competition not possible

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Monopoly (absolute market power, subject to government regulation)

one firm, firm is the industry unique product or no close substitutes market entry and exit difficult or legally impossible non-price competition not necessary

Monopolistic competition (market power based on product differentiation)

large number of small firms acting independently differentiated product market entry and exit relatively easy non-price competition very important

Oligopoly (product differentiation and/or the firms dominance of the market)

small number of large mutually interdependent firms differentiated or standardized product market entry and exit difficult non-price competition important

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Examples: perfect competition

agricultural products financial instruments commodities

Examples: monopoly
pharmaceuticals with patents regulated utilities (although this is changing) last chance gas station on the edge of the desert

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Examples: monopolistic competition

boutiques restaurants repair shops

Examples: oligopoly
oil refining processed foods airlines internet access and cell phone service

Basic business decision: entering a market using the following questions

How much should we produce? If we produce such an amount, how much profit will we earn? If a loss rather than a profit is incurred, will it be worthwhile to continue in this market in the long run (in hopes that we will eventually earn a profit), or should we exit?

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Key assumptions of the perfectly competitive market:

The firm is a price taker (it must accept the market price) The firm makes the distinction between the short run and the long run

Additional key assumptions of the perfectly competitive market:

The firms objective is to maximize its profit (or minimize loss) in the short run The firm includes its opportunity cost of operations in its total cost of production

Perfectly elastic demand curve: consumers are willing to buy as much as the firm is willing to sell at the going market price
The firm receives the same marginal revenue from the sale of each additional unit of product; equal to the price of the product There is no limit to the total revenue that the firm can gain in a perfectly competitive market

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Perfectly Elastic Demand Curve

Total revenue/Total cost approach:

Compare the total revenue and total cost schedules and find the level of output that either maximizes the firms profits or minimizes its loss

Marginal revenue/Marginal cost approach

Produce a level of output at which the additional revenue received from the last unit is equal to the additional cost of producing that unit (i.e. MR=MC) Both the TR/TC and MR=MC approach lead to the same price/output decision For the perfectly competitive firm, the MR=MC rule may be restated as P=MC because P=MR in perfectly competitive market

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Case A: economic profit The point where P=MR=MC is the optimal output (Q*) profit = TR TC Q* =(P - AC)

Case B: economic loss

The firm incurs a loss. At optimum output, price is below AC however, since P > AVC, the firm is better off producing in the short run, because it will still incur fixed costs greater than the loss

Contribution margin: the amount by which total revenue exceeds total variable cost CM = TR TVC

if CM > 0, the firm should continue to produce in the short run in order to defray some of the fixed cost

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Shutdown point: the lowest price at which the firm would still produce
At the shutdown point, the price is equal to the minimum point on the AVC If the price falls below the shutdown point, revenues fail to cover the fixed costs and the variable costs. The firm would be better off if it shut down and just paid its fixed costs.

In the long run, the price in the competitive market will settle at the point where firms earn a normal profit over the long run.
Economic profit invites entry of new firms
Shifts the supply curve to the right Puts downward pressure on price Reduces profits to normal levels Shifts the supply curve to the left Puts upward pressure on price Increases profits to normal levels.

Economic loss causes exit of firms

Perfectly competitive markets in action:

the earlier the firm enters a market, the better its chances of earning above-normal profit for a period of time as new firms enter the market, firms must find ways to produce at the lowest possible cost, or at least at cost levels below those of their competitors firms that find themselves unable to compete on the basis of cost might want to try competing on the basis of product differentiation

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A monopoly market consists of one firm (the firm is the market)

The firm has the power to set the price which maximizes profit. The profit maximizing price is limited by the demand curve for the product, and in particular, the price elasticity of demand.

Assume demand is linear: it is downward sloping because the firm is a price setter Assume MC is constant and choose output where MR=MC, set price at P*

Demand is the same as before, as is MR MC is upward sloping, which shows diminishing returns Set output where MR=MC

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Lessons on perfectly competitive markets

It is extremely difficult to make money over the long run. The firm must be as cost efficient as possible to survive. It might pay for a firm to move into a market before others start to enter, but that is a risk--demand may not materialize.

Monopoly market lessons

The most important lesson is not to be arrogant or complacent and assume the firms ability to earn economic profit can never be diminished. Changes in the business environment eventually break down a dominating companys monopolistic power

In the case of perfect competition, the firm has virtually no power to set the price--they are price takers and make normal profits. A monopoly has market power to set its price. All firms attempt to produce at a quantity where MR=MC to maximize profit or minimize loss.

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