Womens Head-coverings in North-Western Europe in the Viking Age

Brgia Vadesbana (Brenda Gerritsma) Feb 1, 2008 Contact: thepassingstranger hotmai!"com

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#ab!e o$ Contents
Introduction..........................................................................................................................3 Head Coverings - t!"es # $orms.......................................................................................3 Vei"s and carves.............................................................................................................3 Head%ands......................................................................................................................11 Caps................................................................................................................................1& Hairnets..........................................................................................................................'1 Head Coverings ( Cu"tura" )raditions...............................................................................'' Viking *u%"in................................................................................................................'' Ang"o- a+on..................................................................................................................'3 ,ents..............................................................................................................................'candinavians................................................................................................................'& $ranks.............................................................................................................................'. Head Coverings ( $a%rics # *!es ...................................................................................'. Woo"...............................................................................................................................'. i"k.................................................................................................................................'/ 0inen..............................................................................................................................31 *!es...............................................................................................................................31 Conc"usion.........................................................................................................................33 2i%"iograph!......................................................................................................................33

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%ntrod&ction
)e+ti"es in north-4estern Europe o5ten su55er 5rom soi" conditions 4hich are not conducive to preservation6 and this is particu"ar"! true o5 the more 5ragi"e 5a%rics common"! used in head-coverings. Improvements in techno"og! and a4areness 4ithin the archaeo"ogica" communit! have great"! e+panded our kno4"edge and understanding o5 costume histor! in recent decades6 ho4ever. 7ore and more 5inds o5 te+ti"es 5ragments and impressions "e5t in various conte+ts are %eing preserved and ana"!sed and ne4 ana"!ses o5 o"d 5inds are sho4ing us a much %roader picture o5 Ear"! 7edieva" te+ti"e traditions. I present here an overvie4 o5 5ema"e 5orms o5 headdress in Ire"and6 2ritain6 candinavia and 4estern continenta" Europe in the Viking Age and the historica" traditions the! come 5rom6 organi8ed %oth %! st!"e o5 head4ear and %! cu"ture. Inc"uded is some in5ormation a%out the te+ti"es themse"ves6 headdress construction 4here avai"a%"e to me6 and the d!es6 4hich 4ere used to co"our them. ad"! I 4as una%"e to inc"ude eastern European traditions in this paper6 due to a "ack o5 sources current"! avai"a%"e to me. Hope5u""! the! ma! %e added at some 5uture date.

'ead Co(erings ) *t+!es , Forms

Vei!s and *car(es
)here is "itt"e evidence o5 4omens dress in the Viking Age in Ire"and. A 13th centur! stone carving at ,e""s 9rior! :,i"kenn! Count!; sho4s a 4oman 4earing a short 5o"ded head-c"oth 4ith a %and over it. <"der6 more 4orn stone carvings sho4 4omen 4ith either hair dressed to ear or shou"der "ength6 or short head dresses. 2ut archaeo"ogica" evidence comes on"! 5rom Viking contro""ed *u%"in6 though it is uncertain 4hether the evidence indicates candinavian 5ashion or Irish in5"uence. 1

Heckett6 '113 pg -3

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)here is evidence o5 short narro4 vei"s or scarves %eing 4orn in *u%"in. A "ength o5 si"k6 d!ed purp"e 4ith "ichen6 and measuring a minimum o5 /.1 mm "ong and '31 mm 4ide 4as 5ound.' )he piece sti"" has %oth se"vedges6 indicating the 5a%ric 4as 4oven to that 4idth. )he ends are hemmed so it is di55icu"t to determine i5 it 4as cut 5rom a "onger piece or not. )he vei" is not 4ide enough to cover the %ack o5 the head6 and ma! have %een secured 4ith a %and or pinned to a cap6 %and or p"ait o5 hair6 as it is too short to drape over the head and 4rap secure"! around the neck. )he piece is %roken ho4ever6 and ma! have %een "onger. I5 /.1 mm 4ere appro+imate"! the origina" "ength6 the vei" 4ou"d hang to s"ight"! %e"o4 the shou"ders 4hen 4orn centred on the head.

*u%"in st!"e Woo" car5 :"ong-ro""ed hems;

)he other pieces are much shorter though o5 a simi"ar 4idth. )hese scarves 4ere rare"! stitched6 %ut 4oven to 4idth and the 4arp ends gathered and p"ied into decorative tasse"s. 2oth si"k and 4oo" scarves have %een 5ound6 in most cases o5 an open-4eave6 4ith 5ine threads and sho4 some traces o5 d!es6 in particu"ar indigotin :"ike"! 5rom 4oad; and
'

Heckett6 '113 pg 3

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madder. *raped over the head the! 4ou"d have %een open at the %ack and "ike"! 4ou"d have had to %e 4orn secured either 4ith a head%and o5 some sort6 or pinned to the hair or a hat. 3 )he "ightness o5 this c"oth makes it un"ike"! that it cou"d have %een used 5or much e"se %ut head-coverings6 as it 4ou"d not to"erate much stress.3 )he 4oo" 5a%rics 4ere a"" o5 good =ua"it!6 "ong stap"e 5"eeces6 com%ed and >-spun 5irm"!. )he average thread had a diameter o5 1.' mm6 and 5air"! high thread count at 1& 4arp ends per cm6 and 13 4e5t threads. )he ta%%! 4eave 4as open 4ith visi%"e space %et4een threads and 4as not 5u""ed. )his 5a%ric is not seen e"se4here in Europe6 though some gau8e-"ike 5a%ric 4as 5ound at Haitha%u :*enmark;6 some o5 4hich might have %een 4oo"6 simi"ar"! 4oven 4ith a s"ight"! "o4er thread count. No in5ormation is avai"a%"e on thread diameter6 so it is di55icu"t to determine i5 the 5a%ric 4as as "ight as the *u%"in pieces. -

*u%"in st!"e i"k car5 :short-no tasse"s;

)he si"ks are a"" ta%%! 4oven as 4e""6 though o5 di55erent =ua"ities.

ome o5 the pieces

are a"so 4oven o5 5ine6 >-spun thread in %oth sets6 though the threads are s"ight"! 5iner

3 3

ibid, pg 3 ibid6 pg & Heckett6 '113 pg /?-?1

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than the 4oo" at 1.1?-1.13 mm6 and have a higher thread count6 particu"ar"! in the 4arp6 at 31-31 threads per cm6 and 1&-'& in the 4e5t. & <ther si"k pieces have >-spun 4arp ranging 5rom 1.1- to 1.13 mm in diameter6 and unt4isted 4e5t o5 1.3- to 1.1 mm. )hese are a denser c"oth %ut sti"" too "ight to have %een suita%"e 5or garments other than head4ear. )he! have a thread count o5 1.-'. per cm in the 4arp and '&-33 in the 4e5t. )here are a"so 5ragments o5 a t!pe o5 si"k c"oth 4ith unt4isted threads ranging 5rom 1.11-1.1' mm in the 4arp and 1.3--1.- mm in the 4e5t6 %ut not much e"se is a%"e to %e determined 5rom them. )hese si"k 5a%rics are 4e"" kno4n in other parts o5 Europe6 and have %een 5ound a"" over Eng"and and candinavia. . Among Ang"o- a+ons vei"s are more secure"! assigned a p"ace. It is re"ative"! common to 5ind "ight4eight "inen ta%%! 4oven c"oth :preserved or c"oth impressions; "!ing in 5ront o5 %rooches 4orn on the shou"ders and chest o5 %uried individua"s. )hese 5a%rics range 5rom gau8! to c"ose-4oven %ut are genera""! o5 5iner 5a%rics than those 5ound on other parts o5 the %od!. )he 5a%rics appear to "ie in "oose 5o"ds6 or6 in the case o5 the denser 5a%rics6 in gathers and p"eats6 sometimes se4n in p"ace./ )he ma@orit! o5 these 5a%rics 4ere %"eached 4hite "inen6 though e+amp"es o5 net-"ike 4oo" 5a%rics6 inc"uding one d!ed a deep %"ue %"ack have %een 5ound. In one grave 4here a %rooch has 5a""en %eside the head and preserved part o5 the upper portion o5 the vei"6 the vei" appears to %e 5ine red ta%%!6 edged 4ith a patterned ta%"et 4oven %and6 ? mm 4ide6 and running across the temp"e and over the ear6 suggesting some 5orm o5 tie to secure the vei" a%out the head. In severa" mid &th - .th centur! graves there are "ight4eight "inen 5a%rics %ordered in ta%"et 4eave that are c"ear"! 4orn over other garments. )his %order ma! have on"! %een on the 5ront edge in some cases6 or ma! have %een se4n on on"! across the 5orehead6 a5ter 4hich the! detached 5rom the vei" to 5orm a tie. ? A .th centur!

& .

ibid6 pg ?1 ibid6 pg ?3-3 / Wa"ton-Aogers6 '11. pg 1-. ? Wa"ton-Aogers6 '11. pg 1-.-/

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comp"aint against nuns %! aint A"dhe"m mentions vei"s he"d in p"ace 4ith Bri%%ons se4n to them. 11

Ear"! to 7id- a+on Vei" 4ith attached %and

ma"" c"osed rings6 annu"ar %rooches6 and meta" c"ips shaped "ike modern stap"es %egin appearing near the ears in graves at this time. )he rings have sometimes %een interpreted as earrings6 %ut as the rings are permanent"! c"osed it is more "ike"! that these6 and the c"ips and %rooches 4ere part o5 the vei"ing arrangement. )he! ma! have %een a 4a! o5 securing ta%"et 4oven %ands to the vei" or a coi5 underneath6 or o5 strengthening the point at 4hich a %and edging the vei" in 5ront detached 5rom the vei" to 5orm ties.11 ing"e pins are a"so 5ound at the @a46 5orehead and under sku""s. )hese meta" o%@ects have a"so %een interpreted as possi%"! securing a %uria" shroud across the 5ace o5 the deceased.1' A "ong straight pin appears to have %een used to secure the vei" in the neck area. )hese pins6 ho4ever6 rare"! appear in graves on 4omen under the age o5 appro+imate"! 1.. )his
11 11

<4en-Crocker6 '113 pg 13Wa"ton-Aogers6 '11. pg 1-? 1' <4en-Crocker6 '113 pg 1-.

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ma! indicate a speci5ic change in status o5 a 5ema"e at this age6 most "ike"! marriage. )his is in contrast to 4hen the pep"os dresses genera""! %egan %eing 4ornC the appro+imate age at 4hich a 5ema"e is capa%"e o5 %earing a chi"d. )he 5a%rics interpreted as vei"s are a"so not 5ound on 4omen under the age o5 1&. 13 In the -th and ear"! &th centur! short 4hite "inen vei"s 4ere 4orn. Dau8! %"ack vei"s and at "east one red one are 5ound in Eorkshire. )hese vei"s hung around on"! the shou"ders and upper chest6 4ith the "ongest vei" 5ound on"! reaching to @ust a%ove the e"%o4s.13 )his is evident 5rom the 5act that meta" arte5acts 4orn "o4er on the %od! preserve other materia"s6 %ut the vei" materia" is on"! preserved around the head and shou"ders. )hese %egan "engthening in the &th and .th centuries and a 4ider range o5 5a%rics %egan %eing used. Vei"s are 5ound to the hips and even the thighs6 and the p"eats seen in some o5 the heavier ear"! vei"s had %ecome tight6 c"ose p"eats. Co"oured vei"s seem more common6 and according to "iterar! evidence6 ma! even have %een so "ong as to 5a"" to the ank"es.1- Vei"s a"so %ecome more common among gir"s in the .th centur!6 pro%a%"! due to the in5"uence o5 Christian mora"it!. 1& 2! the .th centur! vei"s appear to have %ecome a medium 5or disp"a!ing status and 5ashion sense6 4ith vei" options inc"uding p"ain6 or ornamented 4ith patterned %raid :and possi%"! %eads;6 4hite or co"oured6 smooth or p"eated6 and 4orn 4ith or 4ithout a head%and andFor coi5. Ho4ever the! 4ere 4orn6 it 4ou"d seem that the vei"s did not entire"! cover the hair6 as A"dhe"ms comp"aint makes mention o5 cur"ed hair visi%"e at the 5orehead and temp"es. 1. 2"ack vei"s appear to have %een a sign o5 re"igious status. In the .th centur!6 A"dhe"m comp"ains o5 nuns rep"acing their %"ack or dark gre! vei"s 4ith 4hite or co"oured vei"s6

13 13

Wa"ton-Aogers6 '11. pg 1./6 '3' ibid6 pg 1-/6 1&1-' 1Wa"ton-Aogers6 '11. pg 1-?-&1& <4en-Crocker6 '113 pg 1-. 1. Wa"ton-Aogers6 '11. pg 1&--.6 <4en-Crocker6 '113. pg 13-6 1-.-/

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and in 2!8antine art 7ar! is o5ten depicted 4earing a %"ack vei" over a 4hite coi56 4hereas secu"ar6 court "adies are more o5ten portra!ed in 4hite or patterned vei"s. 1/ In the 11th and 11th centuries most art depicts 4omen 4earing vo"uminous vei"s6 covering the head and neck and hiding the hair. )his appears to have %een 4orn %! a"" 4omen e+cept ver! !oung gir"s. <ne possi%"e variation o5 this head covering is a "arge rectangu"ar vei"6 draped "oose"! a%out the head and pinned at one end to the head on the opposite side. )his is not a practica" st!"e 5or ph!sica" "a%our6 and ma! %e more common among the upper c"asses that dominate in artistic depictions. Another possi%i"it! 5or a c"oser 5itting vei" is a rectang"e or ova" 4ith a ho"e cut out near one "ong edge 5or the 5ace to emerge 5rom. <r the vei" ma! %e 4orn tucked into the neck o5 the go4n underneath rather than "oose a%out the shou"ders.1? 7ost o5 these vei"s are depicted as %eing unornamented though there are a 5e4 4hich ma! have %een pattern-4oven si"k.'1

0ate a+on Vei" 4ith head%and

1/ 1?

Wa"ton-Aogers6 '11. pg 1&<4en-Crocker6 '113 pg '1?-'1 '1 ibid6 pg 1-/6 ''3

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9ins are never sho4n in depictions6 %ut are common 5inds. )he! are usua""! sma""6 round-headed pins6 4hich cou"d have %een discreet"! used to ho"d the vei" in p"ace.'1 Ear"! in the period6 the 5ashions in ,ent 4ere a %it di55erent than other parts o5 Eng"and6 due most "ike"! to %eing sett"ed %! the Gutes and $risians rather than the Ang"es or a+ons. In the &th centur! Gutish 5ashions 4ere rep"aced 4ith 7erovingian. '' ,entish 4omen a"most certain"! 4ore vei"s. Vei"s 4ere 5ashiona%"e among 7erovingian 4omen6 "ike"! an import 5rom 2!8antine st!"es. <ne vei" 5a""ing to the hip appears to have %een made 5rom %rocaded 5a%ric. )he ground 5a%ric has disappeared6 so its unc"ear 4hat the vei" 4as made o5. )hese vei"s "ike"! 5ramed the 5ace more c"ose"! than the Continenta" 5ashion6 ho4ever6 as there is evidence that %rooches 4ere used to 5asten them under the chin6 and ,entish 4omen 4ere genera""! not 5ound to %e 4earing the e"a%orate earrings popu"ar in the $rankish courts.'3 7an! vei"s 5ound in ,ent edged 4ith go"d thread are 5rom this period. Whi"e some o5 the go"d-%rocaded %ands have %een interpreted as head%ands6 and the "ocation o5 some o5 these %ands support this6 some o5 the %ands a"so appear to 5a"" a"ongside the 5ace and are =uite possi%"! vei" edgings.'3 Among the $rankish courts6 e"a%orate and "ength! vei"s 4ere 5ashiona%"e. )he %uria" at Arnegunde contains a vei" o5 red si"k satin6 pinned at the temp"es6 4hich hung to the 4aist. Another %uria" at Co"ogne Cathedra"6 presumed to %e o5 a princess6 contained go"d threads %! the 5eet6 4hich have %een interpreted as the edges o5 a vei". Ca"5-"ength vei"s 4ere popu"ar in the 2!8antine Empire 4ith 4hom the $ranks had man! c"ose ties. 'Dermanic 4omen are sometimes portra!ed in Aoman scu"pture as 4earing "ong "oose vei"s sometimes secured %! head%ands.'&

'1 ''

ibid6 pg ''--& Wa"ton-Aogers6 '11. pg 1?1-1 '3 <4en-Crocker6 '113 pg 111-1 '3 Wa"ton-Aogers6 '11. pg 1-/ '<4en-Crocker6 '113 pg .?6 111 '& ibid6 pg .?

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)he evidence 5or vei"s in candinavia is a %it scarcer6 at "east in the archaeo"ogica" record. At 2irka6 severa" meta"-%rocaded %ands have %een 5ound 4ith 5ragments o5 si"k c"oth preserved %eneath them6 suggesting the possi%i"it! that the %ands had %een 4orn over a vei" or a cap. Dau8e-"ike c"oth has %een 5ound at *anish Haitha%u :Hede%!; dating to the ?th centur!6 it ma! %e 4oo" and the open-4eave o5 the c"oth is simi"ar to 4hat 4as 5ound in *u%"in6 dating 5rom the 11th and 11th centur!. ome more c"ose"! 4oven 4oo" 5a%ric at ,aupang in Nor4a! ma! a"so %e re"ated.'. )he <se%erg Hueen is a"so said to have %een 5ound 4ith evidence o5 a vei"6 possi%"! soumak 4oven6 ho4ever I have as !et not %een a%"e to access the recent research re"eased on the te+ti"es 5ound in the <se%erg %uria". )here is a 11th centur! %uria" at Horning in *enmark6 4here 5ragments o5 a "oose"! 4oven ta%%! c"oth6 d!ed %"ue6 have %een identi5ied as a vei" 4ith a ta%"et 4oven edging 5a""ing on %oth sides to the knees. )his %uria" o5 a high-ranking "ad! is %e"ieved to re5"ect $rankish 5ashion6 4hich seemed to %e popu"ar among the e"ite in *enmark at the time. '/ )he on"! artistic depiction I have seen record o5 is the 0e4is chessmen6 4hich 4ere 5ound in cot"and6 %ut appear Norse in st!"e. )he Hueens in the set are depicted 4earing short vei"s under their cro4ns.'?

'eadbands
Head%ands o5 si"k and 4oo" have %een 5ound in *u%"in. )4o "onger si"k ones measure -/1 mm "ong and %et4een /1-111 mm 4ide. <ne is sti"" knotted6 though the "oop is %roken6 %ut the %roken ends appear to 5it together. )he measurement o5 the "oop 4ou"d %e a%out 3?1 mm. A 5urther t4o %ands are made o5 shorter "engths knotted togetherC one t4o-piece %and measuring 3?1 mm6 and a three-piece %and measuring 3/1 mm. Heckett determined these 4ou"d %e su55icient to 4ear round the head. 31
'. '/

Heckett6 '113 pg /6 ?1 ,rag6 '11- pg '?-31 '? Heckett6 '113 pg . 31 Heckett6 '113 pg 3--I

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horter pieces in 4oo" and si"k measure appro+imate"! 3/1 mm as 4e"". At "east t4o o5 the 4oo" %ands appearing to %e a comp"ete "oom-pieces6 as 4arp "oops are present at one end o5 one6 4ith the other hemmed6 and the other piece appears to have the 5ringes tucked into hems at %oth ends. It is impossi%"e to te"" i5 the si"ks are a"so "oom-pieces as the ends are sti"" stitched do4n. <ne o5 the si"k %ands 4as 5ound 4ith a knot o5 5"oss! si"k !arn6 and the ends o5 the %and 4ere dra4n in as though the !arn ma! have %een se4n to the ends to a""o4 the %and to %e tied around the head. <ne o5 the 4oo" %ands a"so sho4s signs o5 simi"ar %unching at one end. 31 )hin go"d %ands 4ith candinavian associations6 per5orated at the ends to a""o4 5or a tie to %e threaded through have a"so %een 5ound in *u%"in. )hese ma! have %een used to ho"d scarves and vei"s in p"ace6 as cou"d go"d and si"ver %rocaded ta%"et 4oven %ands 5ound in *u%"in. uch %ands have a "ong histor! in Europe o5 %eing 4orn 4ith or 4ithout other head-coverings. )he undecorated 4oo" and si"k %ands o5 "oom 4oven c"oth ma! %e a "o4er status version o5 these ta%"et 4oven %ands. 3' )here are 5e4 depictions in art o5 Ang"o- a+on 4omen 4earing head%ands %ut 4ritten sources indicate the! 4ere a t!pica" garment o5 married 4omen6 so much so that a 5orm o5 sign "anguage deve"oped 5or use %! monks 4ho had vo4ed si"ence indicated a head%and or bindan as a sign 5or 4omen. )he 4ord binde in Ang"o- a+on re5ers to a 5i""et and appears most "ike"! to %e a go"d or si"ver :or %oth; %rocaded %and. It is possi%"e it ma! a"so have re5erred to %ands 4hich 4ere not %rocaded 4ith meta"6 %ut 4hich have disappeared 5rom the archaeo"ogica" record. 33 A simi"ar 4ord6 bnde6 re5ers to a so"id meta" %and. 33 )he %rocaded %ands appeared to have %een %rocaded on"! on the 5ront and
I I am enormous"! con5used %! this conc"usion. A"" evidence I have seen seems to indicate the average height o5 peop"e in this period is not much sma""er than average height no4. I am s"ight"! shorter than current average si8e and there is no 4a! in 4hich to 4ear a %and that short secure"! around m! head. A"" measurements o5 m! head re=uire over -11 mm6 even i5 pinned to something e"se. ince there seems to %e c"ear evidence these 4ere 4orn on the head6 I theori8e these ma! have actua""! %een 4orn as %inding 5or the hair6 rather than 4orn around the head itse"5. 31 ibid6 pg --& 3' ibid6 pg .-/ 33 <4en-Crocker6 '113 pg /' 33 ibid6 pg ''-

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possi%"! on the ends o5 "onger ties6 4ith the hair and vei" covering the undecorated parts6 though the "argest e+amp"e had %rocading on '-1 to 331 mm6 4hich 4ou"d stretch 5rom temp"e to temp"e or even 5rom %ehind one ear to %ehind the other. 3-

7eta"-%rocaded Head-%and common across Northern Europe

)here is one i""ustration :sho4ing the daughters o5 Aue"; that sho4s the %and %eing 4orn over vei"s6 and another i""ustration o5 Emma6 ,ing Cnuts 4i5e 4earing a sti55ened %and 4ith "ong6 possi%"! @e4e""ed6 em%roidered or %rocaded6 ties under her vei". 3& 9atterned ta%"et 4oven %ands have %een 5ound in Ang"o- a+on graves. Whi"e there is some evidence that these ma! have %een vei" edgings in some graves6 %eing 5ound 5a""ing a"ongside the 5ace6 in other graves the %ands appear to cross the 5orehead and over the ears6 suggesting the! 4ere head%ands. )he! ma! have %een se4n to the vei" around the 5ace and then "e5t "oose 5or the rest o5 their "ength6 a""o4ing them to %e used as ties to %ind the vei". ma"" c"osed rings6 %rooches and meta" c"ips simi"ar to modern stap"es appear around the temp"es and ears6 4hich 4ou"d rein5orce the point at 4hich the %and

33&

ibid6 pg ?&-. Heckett6 '113 pg &-.6 <4en-Crocker6 '113 pg ''3

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separates 5rom the vei". 3. )hese %ands 4ou"d have %een rich items6 as the! 4ere one o5 the most common"! %e=ueathed garment in 4omens 4i""s. 3/ In ,ent these head%ands common"! 4ere go"d %rocaded. At "east ten %uria"s have go"d strips on or near the head. )here are severa" other %uria"s that a"so contain the same t!pe o5 go"d strips used 5or %rocading6 %ut the position o5 the strips 4as not recorded6 and it is there5ore impossi%"e to sa! 5or certain the! 4ere a"so head%ands. )hese head%ands 4ere pro%a%"! ta%"et 4oven and "ike"! o5 si"k6 as the Continenta" e+amp"es o5 these t!pes o5 head%ands 4ere. )he go"d %rocading 4as made o5 go"d 5oi" cut into narro4 strips6 4hich 4ere %rocaded into the %ands6 then 5"attened and %urnished to "ook "ike a so"id go"d pattern. I5 %rocaded onto red si"k the! 4ou"d have "ooked remarka%"! simi"ar to the go"d and gi"ded @e4e""er! in"aid 4ith garnets or red g"ass that 4as %eing imported 5rom among the $ranks. 3? )he ,entish %ands 4ere pro%a%"! derived 5rom the 5ashions o5 the $ranks6 among 4hom some o5 the ear"iest e+amp"es o5 these %ands appeared :-th and ear"! &th centur!;6 4here the! 4ere re5erred to as vitta. )he! 4ere popu"ar in the "ater &th and .th centuries. A particu"ar"! e"a%orate e+amp"e comes 5rom a grave in Co"ogne Cathedra"6 4ith the go"d %rocaded in a soumak 4eave6 and a go"d and garnet ornament set on the %ro4. )he %ands 4ere so nota%"e6 the! appear 5re=uent"! in $rankish "iterature. )he! seem to %e especia""! associated 4ith %rides6 %ut married 4omen appear to have continued 4earing them6 at "east on ceremonia" occasions. Aoman scu"pture depicts 4omen 4ith "oose vei"s draped over their heads6 and secured %! head%ands. )he techni=ue o5 %rocading go"d 4as "ike"! "earned 5rom the ear"ier Da""o-Aomans6 4ho edged their garments 4ith it6 %ut the 5ashion 5or 5i""ets 4as 2!8antine. 31 According to "iterar! sources6 narro4 %rocaded 5i""ets 4ere 4orn %! %oth men and 4omen in candinavia6 especia""! among midd"e c"ass 4omen and 4arriors. At 2irka6 '1 ma"e graves6 and 1- 5ema"e graves have the distinctive go"d and si"ver strips on ta%"et
3. 3/

<4en-Crocker6 '113 pg 1-/--? ibid6 pg ''3 3? <4en-Crocker6 '113 pg ?& 31 ibid6 pg ?.6 .?

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4oven %ands. i"ver is more common than go"d in candinavia6 %oth in the re"ative num%ers o5 go"d and si"ver %rocaded %ands 4orn in candinavian6 and in comparison to other areas o5 Northern Europe.31 ome o5 the %ands have 5ragments o5 si"k "!ing under them6 suggesting the %and 4as 4orn 4ith a cap or vei" :theres evidence o5 stitching some o5 the 5ragments;. Viking Art6 ho4ever o5ten depicts 4omen %areheaded6 4ith their hair knotted6 and sometimes con5ined 4ith a head%and to keep it in p"ace.
3'

)his is sho4n on the <se%erg cart and

the ,insta 5igure6 %oth o5 4hich appear to have a %and6 not across the 5orehead6 %ut running a"ong the hair"ine. In some graves it 4ou"d appear it cou"d a"so have %een 4orn on"! around the %ack o5 the head. 33

7eta" 2rocaded Head%and 4orn in di55erent positions

)he scar5-"ike head%and6 ho4ever6 4as on"! 4orn %! 4omen. )his ma! have %een the head covering re5erred to in sagas as sveigr6 a garment 4orn %! married 5ree4omen. )he 4ord is re"ated to another candinavian 4ord meaning Jto %end or %o4K6 suggesting to 4as some kind o5 c"oth t4isted around the head. In one saga a man taunts another %! c"aiming the %andage the second man is 4earing around his head and covering his e!e "ooks "ike a 4omans head-c"oth. )his 4ou"d c"ear"! suggest that the narro4 %rocaded

31 3'

Heckett6 '113 pg .-/ ibid6 pg .-/6 -3 33 E4ing6 '11& pg --

- 1- -

5i""et is not 4hat is meant here. 33 It ma! %e simi"ar to the short6 narro4 scarves 5ound in *u%"in.

Caps
evera" 4oo" and si"k caps have %een 5ound in *u%"in6 the most common 5orm %eing a%out 1&1 mm 4ide and 3/1 mm "ong :un5o"ded;. )he 5ront edge is usua""! ro""ed6 or 5o"ded and se4nC the %ottom edge dou%"e 5o"ded and hemmed :average 5o"d - mmF- mm on the 4oo" caps6 and '-3 mm in the si"k caps;C and the %ack over-se4n 4ith the se"vedge edge turned in '-'- mm. A curved "ine o5 running stitch shaped the peak o5 the hat to the sku""6 and the peak is "e5t revea"ed. )he over-se4ing on the %ack o5ten 4as not continued past the %eginning o5 the curved "ine o5 stitching6 and in some cases the %ack 4as not stitched together at a""6 the %ack edges %eing ro""ed and stitched "ike the 5ront. )ies 4ere se4n to the 5ront %ottom corners o5 the cap. None have %een 5ound sti"" attached6 %ut si"k ri%%ons and %raids have %een 5ound6 4hich ma! have %een used 5or ties6 and the 5ronts o5 the caps sho4 signs o5 stress consistent 4ith having %een pu""ed %! ties. 3-

*u%"in Woo" Caps - 1. c"osed %ack6 '. open %ack :4rong 5a%ric;

33 3-

ibid6 pg -'-3 Heckett6 '113 pg 33

- 1& -

It is unc"ear 4hether the 4oo" caps 4ere "oom-pieces as the %ottom edged are hemmed6 %ut most had se"vedges on %oth sides so 4ere 4oven to the 5inished 4idth6 "ike"! speci5ica""! 5or making caps 4ith. )he 4idth is s"ight"! narro4er than that o5 the 4oo" scarves. 3& )he si"k caps have on"! one se"vedge or none e+tant6 suggesting these 4ere cut do4n 5rom 4ider c"oth to match the parameters o5 the 4oo" caps. 3. )he se4ing on the 4oo" caps 4as on average '-3 stitches per cm and a%out 1-3 mm "ong6 on the si"k it 4as 3-& stitches per cm and 1-' mm "ong per stitch. In most cases the 5i%re used to stitch the cap 4as the same as the cap 4as made o5. )he 4oo" se4ing thread 4as >-spun and -p"ied 4ith t4o strands6 and around 1 mm in diameter. )he co"ours ranged 5rom reddish-%ro4n to %"ack6 4ith %"ack predominant. )he si"k se4ing thread 4as used in %oth sing"e and dou%"e strands : -p"ied; 4ith diameters ranging 5rom 1.3-1 mm and appeared go"den to dark %ro4n in co"our :these co"ours ma! %e the resu"t o5 the soi" in 4hich the! 4ere 5ound;. A"" e+tant %eginnings o5 a "ine o5 stitching had knots to secure the end6 4ith no instances o5 taking severa" stitches in p"ace as "ater %ecame common. )he variations in techni=ue and ski"" suggest that the pieces 4ere made on an individua" %asis as needed or 4anted6 rather than %eing commercia""! produced %! a specia"ist. 3/ )he 5act that these caps have %een 5ound in more than one "ocation in *u%"in suggests that the caps ma! have %een in genera" use in the communit!. It is not comp"ete"! certain 4ho 4ore these caps %ut6 %ased on compara%"e garments in other cu"tures6 e+perts %e"ieve it is more "ike"! to %e 4omen and chi"dren. )he range o5 si8es and the p"acement o5 ties on some o5 the caps suggest the! 4ere 4orn %! a 4ide range o5 ages. )he vei"-"ike materia" is not ver! sturd! and ma! have %een origina""! %een meant to %e pinned to dressed hair or "oose"! tied as t!ing them more 5irm"! 4ou"d cause the 5a%ric to pu"" and tear =uick"!. )he! ma! have %een 4orn under the kinds o5 vei"s seen in Ang"o- a+on and 2!8antine art. Whi"e such under-caps in those cu"tures 4ou"d "ike"! %e made o5 "inen6 4hich 4as readi"! avai"a%"e and com5orta%"e6 theres no reason 4oo" and si"k cou"d not have %een used the same 4a!. 3?
3& 3.

ibid6 pg 33 ibid6 pg 3& 3/ ibid6 pg 11'-3 3? Heckett6 '113 pg 3.-?

- 1. -

evera" sho4 signs o5 repairC darning6 patches6 and ties rep"aced. <ne cap has a patch se4n on the inside over one ear. )his is an odd position6 as it has "e5t a ho"e visi%"e on the outside. 9ossi%"! this ho"e 4as created a5ter the patch had %een app"ied6 and the patch had %een intended to rein5orce a thin area that had not 4orn through !et. <r perhaps it 4as 4orn on"! as a nightcap or under another covering so com5ort on the ear 4as more important than appearance. -1 )hese sometimes e+tensive repairs suggest that these caps had a comp"e+ and "ength! pattern o5 use6 possi%"! as status s!m%o"s 4orn a"one or 4ith a 5i""et 4hen 5irst made6 and gradua""! %eing put to more genera" use as the! %ecame 4orn6 or handed do4n to !ounger 5ami"! mem%ers6 servants6 or such. -1 )here are no e+tant caps or hairnets 5ound among the Ang"o- a+ons6 ho4ever6 some kind o5 coi5 does seem "ike"!. Coi5s and caps o5 various sorts have a "ong histor! in Northern Europe and %oth the vei" o5 the nuns ha%it :4ith its roots in ear"! medieva" dress; and the 7os"em vei" are t!pica""! 4orn 4ith a cap andFor head%and to ho"d the hair secure"! and provide a %ase 5or the vei". -'

9i""%o+ Hat
-1 -1

ibid6 pg 3&-. ibid, pg 3? -' Wa"ton-Aogers6 '11. pg 1&16 1&-

- 1/ -

)he Ang"o- a+on "anguage has three terms 5or kinds o5 hats6 ht :hat;6 cuffie :"oose 5itting hood or scar5; and scyfel :hat or cap 4ith some 5orm o5 pro@ection;. -3 A cuffie is re"ated to the modern 4ord coi56 %ut cou"d a"so %e re"ated to the 4ord cufle6 a monks co4"6 suggesting the cuffie 4as shaped more "ike a hood. )here is a"so the possi%i"it! o5 some kind o5 round hat6 perhaps in a pi""%o+ st!"e. )he &th centur! pot "id 5rom pong Hi"" is o5ten interpreted as pi"ed up hair6 %ut ma! %e hair con5ined in a pi""%o+ st!"e hat. ome $rankish and Dermanic art 5rom the ?th and 11th centuries a"so depict such a hat6 -3 and one has %een 5ound in the 7erovingian or Caro"ingian "eve" at Aask4erd6 the Nether"ands. -- uch hats appear in the archaeo"ogica" record in Dreen"and as 4e""6 though the! are dated past the scope o5 this paper. -& A 5urther possi%i"it! is some 5orm o5 hat 4ith a pro@ection o5 some sort that shades the 5ace6 4hich ma! %e 4hat is meant %! the scyfel. Scyfel is a cognate o5 the Ice"andic skupla or skypill6 4hich re5ers to a 4omens hood6 4hich hides or shades her 5ace. uch a hat is depicted in the 11th centur! Eng"ish Har"e! 9sa"ter. -. Caps simi"ar to the *u%"in caps 4ere 5ound in Eork6 0ondon and 0inco"n6 2irka : 4eden;6 and 7asku :$in"and;. )he c"osest compara%"e ones are the ones at Eork :in the 11th centur! "a!er at Coppergate; and 0inco"n6 a"" o5 4hich are si"k o5 simi"ar 4eaves to the *u%"in si"k caps6 and "ike them6 had one se"vedge edge and one cut one. )he %asic pattern6 inc"uding the curved "ine shaping the peak to the head 4as present6 though at "east one Eork cap had the peak snipped o55. )he cap 5ound at a"tergate6 0inco"n 4as open at the %ack. It has %een suggested that the simi"arities %et4een the si"ks ma! even indicate that the 5a%ric cou"d have come 5rom the same %o"t6 possi%"! so"d in pieces %! a trave""ing merchant6 ho4ever variations in rein5orcement o5 the se"vedge during 4eaving and the 5act that caps have %een 5ound in conte+ts ranging 5rom the ear"! 11th centur! to ear"! 11th makes it more "ike"! that the 5a%ric 4as mere"! a common"! avai"a%"e 5a%ric at the time6 particu"ar"! in trade to4ns. -/
-3 -3

<4en-Crocker6 '113 pg /1 <4en-Crocker6 '113 pg ''1-' -ibid, pg .? -& <stergard6 '113 pg '1?-'1 -. <4en-Crocker6 '113 pg ''1-' -/ Heckett6 '113 pg 3?--'

- 1? -

Gorvik Cap :in "inen6 4ith head%and;

At 2irka6 the evidence is "ess 5irm. A si"k 5ragment 4ith evidence o5 stitching6 is descri%ed as a sma"" cap %! Agnes Deiger6 4hich she suggests 4as 4orn on the %ack o5 the head6 and secured 4ith a meta"-%rocaded %and6 the si"ver strips o5 4hich preserved the 5ragment. A headdress 5ound at 7asku is simi"ar in shape and dimensions as the *u%"in caps6 %ut is made o5 a thicker 4oo" t4i"" 5a%ric6 4hich 4ou"d have stood up around the head in a sti55er 5ashion. A 5resco in ,iev sho4s the daughters o5 the ,ing o5 ,iev in 4hat appear to %e c"ose-5itting caps6 though the! appear more generous"! constructed than the *u%"in caps.-? In the candinavians sagas6 a t!pe o5 headdress ca""ed a faldr :Jto 5o"dK; is mentioned6 a good description o5 the *u%"in and Eork caps and sma"" scarves. <ne saga seems to suggest a 4omans 5a"dr had a %u"ging appearance6 as though it 4ere stu55ed 4ith her hair6 and some o5 the 4omen on the <se%erg )apestr! do appear to have their hair dressed or covered in such a 5ashion. &1 It is possi%"e to tie the caps in such a 4a! as to accomp"ish this.

-? &1

Heckett6 '113 pg -'-3 E4ing6 '11& pg -3

- '1 -

A "ate 11th centur! statue 5rom Derman! sho4s 7ar! 4earing 4hat is possi%"! a c"ose5itting cap6 or a sma"" 4rapped headdress 4ith a c"oak c"osed %! an e"a%orate eag"e %rooch. )his gives credence to the idea that peop"e 4ho 4ear e"a%orate @e4e""er! 4ou"d not "ike"! 4ear garments that ha%itua""! covered them up. &1 Aoman scu"ptures 5rom a 5e4 centuries ear"ier a"so sho4 Dermanic 4omen 4earing caps or hairnets6 at "east in indoor settings.
&3 &'

cu"ptures in Ahine"and sho4 4omen 4ith dra4string caps over %und"ed hair.

9i""%o+ st!"e hats a"so appear in $rankish and Dermanic art. )he 11th centur! 9aris 9sa"ter sho4s a 4oman in a round hat6 carr!ing a scar5 or vei"6 and ?th centur! Caro"ingian i""umination sho4s a c"oth 4rapped round a simi"ar hat. In archaeo"ogica" 5inds there 4as a pi""%o+ hat 5ound in the Nether"ands in the 7erovingian or Caro"ingian "eve"s. &3

'airnets
Hairnets are ver! 5ragi"e in nature and 5e4 survive in the archaeo"ogica" record. even knotted si"k hairnets 4ere 5ound in *u%"in6 and one piece o5 sprang. &- )here is no evidence Ang"o- a+on 4omen 4ore sprang6 though it 4as kno4n in 2ritain in the 2ron8e Age. && No sprang pieces or other t!pes o5 hairnets have survived in Eng"and in the Viking Age6 &. though the soi"s are poor 5or te+ti"e preservation and ver! "itt"e te+ti"es 5rom the top o5 heads remain un"ess the! 4ere resting against meta". Caps o5 sprang 4ere kno4n to %e 4orn %! Dermanic 4omen in candinavia and is kno4n in Nor4a! and 4eden in the Viking Age. &/ )his ma! %e %ecause most sprang 4as pro%a%"! made in "inen 4hich rare"! survives in the archaeo"ogica" record. &?

&1 &'

Heckett6 '113 pg -3 Wa"ton-Aogers6 '11. pg 1&1-' &3 <4en-Crocker6 '113 pg /1 &3 ibid, pg ''1-'6 .? &Heckett6 '113 pg 11? && <4en-Crocker6 '113 pg /1 &. Wa"ton-Aogers6 '11. pg 1&1 &/ <4en-Crocker6 '113 pg .?-/1 &? E4ing6 '11& pg 13?

- '1 -

'ead Co(erings - C&!t&ra! #raditions

Vi.ing /&b!in
<ur kno4"edge o5 head4ear in Viking contro""ed *u%"in is primari"! 5rom the 11th and 11th centuries. Ver! "itt"e is kno4n a%out dress in other parts o5 Ire"and at the time. )he 4omen o5 *u%"in do not appear to have 4orn vei"s common"!. )his is not unusua"6 as vei"s kno4n to %e 4orn in other cu"tures during this period 4ere genera""! re"ative"! vo"uminous6 and impractica" 5or 4orking in. *u%"in 4as a trade to4n and the areas in 4hich the *u%"in caps and scarves 4ere 5ound 4ere primari"! popu"ated %! artisans6 rare"! than the 4ea"th! e"ite6 4ho might have had the "eisure to 4ear impractica" c"othing. A"so6 the caps and scarves 4ere 5ound in sett"ement areas6 discarded6 rather than %uried in graves6 4here peop"e 4ere common"! %uried in their 5inest. Art in Ire"and at this time sho4s 4omen 4ith their hair either dress to shou"der "ength6 or 4earing short vei"s or caps. It is unc"ear i5 this 4as a native 5ashion or candinavian in5"uence6 though the presence o5 simi"ar caps in Viking contro""ed Eork and 0inco"n suggests the "atter. carves and vei"s 4ere narro4 and short6 on"! a%out '31 mm 4ide6 and a%out &11 mm "ong. )he! 4ere 4oven to si8e6 4ith se"vedges on %oth sides6 and 4arp ends6 sometimes sti"" in "oops6 p"ied and ca%"ed into decorative 5ringes. )he! 4ere o5 de"icate gau8e or net "ike 5a%ric and 4ere 4oven o5 %oth 4oo" and si"k. )he! cou"d %e 4orn a num%er o5 4a!sC centred on the head and hanging "oose6 pro%a%"! pinned to the 4earers hair or some 5orm o5 cap or head%andC secured 4ith a %and overtopC tied %! the corners under the chin or at the nape o5 the neckC or gathered and tied "ike a head%and around the 5orehead. imi"ar to the scarves are the se4n caps. )he! 4ere a"so 4oven to si8e6 though on average narro4er than the scarves6 %eing %et4een 1&1 (1/1 mm 4ide 4here se"vedges cou"d %e identi5ied on %oth sides. 2ecause the ends 4ere se4n in it is di55icu"t to sa! 5or

- '' -

certain that the! 4oven to "ength as 4e""6 though it seems p"ausi%"e. )he! 4ere a"so shorter than the scarves6 at 3/1 mm un5o"ded. A t!pica" cap had a ro""ed6 or 5o"ded and se4n6 5ront edge :5ront edges 4ith cord 4hipstitched on are a"so present;. *ou%"ed 5o"ds o5 --'1 mm 4ere hemmed a"ong the %ottom edge 4ith ties se4n to the 5ront %ottom corner. )he %acks o5 the caps cou"d %e hemmed6 %ut other4ise "e5t unstitched6 or more common"!6 over-se4n 4ith the se"vedge edge turned in '-'- mm6 o5ten continuing on"! to 4here the peak 4as shaped. A "ine o5 running stitch curved across the peak o5 the hat6 shaping it to the sku""6 4ith the peak "e5t standing. No ties have %een 5ound sti"" attached to the caps6 %ut si"k %raids and ri%%ons have %een 5ound in conte+t 4ith the caps6 4hich ma! have %een used. )here is no sign em%roider! or decorative stitching 4as used on the caps. Narro4 %ands o5 si"k and 4oo" 4ere a"so uti"i8ed6 sometimes knotted together 5rom more than one short "ength. )hese 4ere "oom-4oven %ands and some o5 the shorter pieces ma! have had some kind o5 ties se4n to them to secure them %ehind the head. )hese %ands cou"d %e a "o4er status version o5 the meta"-%rocaded si"k ta%"et %ands 5ound in *u%"in and across 2ritain and the Continent. o"id narro4 meta" %ands 4ith a per5oration in the ends6 4hich cou"d have %een threaded 4ith ties6 have a"so %een 5ound. )hese 4ou"d have %een ver! high status s!m%o"s. ome knotted si"k hairnets and one piece o5 sprang have %een 5ound in *u%"in as 4e""6 so hairnets are a "ike"! 5orm o5 headdress. I5 the! 4ere t!pica""! made o5 "inen6 the! ma! have %een more common than the archaeo"ogica" record suggests.

0ng!o)*a1on
Ear"! in the Ang"o- a+on period in 2ritain 4omen tended to 4ear short vei"s6 on"! covering the head and shou"ders. It 4as common 5or them to %e pinned at the neck6 though not necessari"! c"ose"!. 2! the Viking age6 these had "engthened considera%"!.

- '3 -

)he archaeo"ogica" record sho4s man! e+tending to the hip or thigh6 %ut "iterar! evidence points to the 5act that some hung as 5ar as the ank"es. Whi"e %"eached 4hite "inen 4as t!pica" ear"! on6 and continued in use into the Viking Age6 a much 4ider range o5 5a%rics and st!"es had appeared. Vei"s 4ere o5ten p"ain %ut cou"d %e ornamented 4ith cost"! %raid and possi%"! %eads. 7ost common 4ere ta%"et 4oven %orders6 possi%"! on"! on the 5ront edge. ome o5 these %orders 4ere on"! se4n on the vei" across the 5orehead6 and then detached to 5orm ties to secure the vei". )he point o5 detachment 4as sometimes rein5orced 4ith %rooches6 rings6 or stap"e-"ike meta" c"ips. Vei"s cou"d a"so %e p"eated andFor 4orn 4ith or 4ithout a coi5 or a head%and :4hich 4as usua""! 4orn underneath6 %ut cou"d occasiona""! %e 4orn over top o5 the vei";. Vei"s appear to have %een the e+c"usive province o5 married 4omen in the ear"! period6 %ut %! the Viking Age6 a"" %ut the !oungest o5 gir"s 4ou"d have %een 4earing some 5orm o5 head covering. 2! the 11th and 11th centur! these head coverings 4ou"d cover the head and neck and concea" the hair comp"ete"!6 %ut in the ear"ier Viking age6 "iterar! evidence suggests hair 4as o5ten visi%"e at the 5orehead and temp"es. )he "ater vei"s 4ere a"so depicted as unornamented 5or the most part6 though a 5e4 seem to %e patterned si"k. It shou"d %e noted6 the vo"uminous vei"s o5 the "ate Viking Age are kno4n primari"! 5rom art6 as Christian %e"ie5s discouraged the practice o5 interring grave goods 4ith the dead. )he vei"s depicted are impractica" 5or 4ork6 %ut as art genera""! depicts ro!a"t!6 4ea"th! patrons and saints6 and 4hat "itt"e remains in the graves is "ike"! to %e B unda! 2est this is "ike"! to represent a high status andFor Bspecia" occasion 5ashion. )4o possi%"e variations o5 this 5ashion might %e a "arge rectang"e o5 5a%ric draped c"ose"! a%out the head and pinned 4ith sma""6 discreet pins at the side o5 the 5ace6 or a rectang"e or ova" 4ith a ho"e cut near one "ong edge through 4hich the 5ace can emerge. <ne 5ashion that is occasiona""! sho4n is to 4ear the vei" 4ith the ends tucked into the neck o5 the go4n. 0ike"! this 4ou"d have %een a sma""er vei".

- '3 -

Head%ands 4ere a t!pica" 5eature o5 Ang"o- a+on 4omens head4ear. Whi"e the most o5 the 5inds are o5 meta"-%rocaded ta%"et 4oven %ands6 this 4ou"d have %een an e+pensive item6 and 5i%re-%rocaded ta%"et %ands6 or non-%rocaded patterned or p"ain %ands 4ou"d pro%a%"! have %een 4orn on a da!-to-da! %asis and %! "o4er c"asses. )he %ands o5ten appear to %e %rocaded on"! on the 5ront6 presuma%"! %ecause the vei" and hair 4ou"d cover the rest. ome o5 the %ands seem to have %een =uite "ong6 and hang out 5rom under the vei" at the %ottom. )hese tie ends appear to have %een ornamented6 at "east some o5 the time6 possi%"! 4ith 5urther %rocading6 em%roider! or even @e4e""ed. o"id meta" %ands have a"so %een 5ound. Coi5s have not %een 5ound in Ang"o- a+on Eng"and6 though te+ti"e historians do consider them "ike"!. )he! 4ere common e"se4here in North-4estern Europe during this period and 4ou"d provide a 5irm %ase 5or the vei"6 as 4e"" as ho"ding the hair %ack. )he Ang"oa+on "anguage does have severa" 4ords 5or t!pes o5 hats6 inc"uding a cuffie6 4hich is o5ten trans"ated to mean a "oose 5itting hood or scar56 4hich 4ou"d 5it the description o5 the near%! *u%"in caps and scarves. <ther possi%i"ities 5or Ang"o- a+on hats inc"ude a pi""%o+ st!"e6 as possi%"! depicted on the &th centur! pong Hi"" pot "id6 and in the 11th centur! Har"e! 9sa"ter. <ne possi%"e reconstruction 5or ho4 these t!pes o5 headdress 4ou"d %e 4orn is to tie the coi5 at the chin or nape o5 the neck6 tie the 4ide %and o5 c"oth around the 5orehead6 and drape the vei" over top. .1 Hairnets have a"so not %een 5ound in this period in Eng"and6 though the! 4ou"d not survive 4e"" in an archaeo"ogica" conte+t in Eng"ish soi"6 and 4ou"d not %e visi%"e under the vei"s in most artistic depictions. )here is no evidence 5or sprang %eing a uti"i8ed techni=ue at this time.

2ents

.1

<4en-Crocker6 '113 pg 1&-

- '- -

Vei"s 4ere common among the 4omen o5 ,ent6 and man! 4ere rich"! decorated 4ith go"d %raid %orders and go"d threads running through the 4eave. <ne vei" appears to have %een %rocaded a"" over 4ith go"d thread. )he! seem to have %een 4orn c"ose around the 5ace6 as pins have %een 5ound under the chin6 and the e"a%orate earrings o5 the $rankish courts6 5rom 4hich ,entish 5ashion derived6 do not appear. Do"d %rocaded %ands 4ere =uite common in ,ent6 sometimes as 5i""ets6 and sometimes as vei" %orders. )he go"d strips6 4hich 5ormed the %rocading6 4as smoothed and %urnished to appear as though the designs 4ere 5ormed o5 so"id pieces o5 go"d. )he %ands themse"ves 4ere most "ike"! si"k6 and i5 the! 4ere done in red6 4ou"d have "ooked much "ike the garnet or red g"ass ename""ed go"d @e4e""er! that 4as then %eing imported into ,ent 5rom the $rankish territories. hort"! into the Viking age6 ho4ever6 the di55erences %et4een ,entish 5ashion and that o5 the rest o5 Ang"o- a+on Eng"and had most"! disappeared.

*candina(ians
)here is "itt"e evidence 5or vei"s in the archaeo"ogica" record in candinavia. ome si"k

5ragments have %een 5ound under a meta"-%rocaded %and in 4eden6 suggesting the %ands 4ere 4orn 4ith a vei" or cap6 and some gau8e-"ike 5a%ric simi"ar to the *u%"in caps and scarves has %een 5ound in *enmark. )he Hueens o5 the 0e4is Chess et6 4hich ma! have %een Nor4egian 4ork6 are 4earing 4hat "ooks "ike short vei"s under their cro4ns. 2rocaded 5i""ets 4ere routine"! 4orn %! %oth men and 4omen. In candinavia6 si"ver 4as a more common"! used meta" thread than go"d6 un"ike e"se4here. )hese %ands are sometimes sho4n %eing 4orn a"one in artistic depictions and in archaeo"og!6 and cou"d %e 4orn around the 5orehead6 the hair"ine6 or @ust the peak o5 the sku"". Women 4ore another 5orm o5 head%and as 4e""C %ased on "iterar! evidence6 it seems to have %een simi"ar to the short narro4 scarves 5ound in *u%"in.

- '& -

Caps "ike those 5ound in *u%"in 4ere a"so 5ound in Viking sett"ed Eork and 0inco"n6 and in 0ondon. <ne o5 the Eork caps has the peak trimmed o556 %ut other4ise the hats are6 5or the most part6 simi"ar. A 5ragment o5 stitched c"oth6 5ound under a %rocaded %and at 2irka6 suggests this 5ashion e+isted in candinavia as 4e"". prang hairnets 4ere a"so kno4n.

Fran.s
)he vei"s o5 $rankish 4omen 4ere o5ten depicted as ver! simi"ar in st!"e to that o5 2!8antine Empire6 4ith 4hom the $rankish kingdoms had c"ose ties. )he vei"s 4ere "ong and e"a%orate6 some o5 the 5inest 5ound %eing o5 red si"k satin6 or having go"d threads 4orked in at the edges. 2rocaded ta%"et %ands 4ere common6 and as a 5ashion "ike"! a"so derived 5rom 2!8antine st!"es6 though the techni=ue o5 meta"-%rocading pro%a%"! came 5rom the Da""o-Aomans. $rankish go"d-%rocaded %ands 4ere especia""! e"a%orate6 and inc"uded soumak-4rapped 4eave6 and 4ere so nota%"e the! o5ten 4ere mentioned in $rankish "iterature. )he! appear to have %een especia""! associated 4ith %rides6 %ut married 4omen seem to have continued 4earing them6 at "east on ceremonia" occasions. )here is some suggestion in $rankish art 5or coi5s or caps o5 some sort6 and hairnets and caps 4ere kno4n 5rom Aoman times. ome scu"ptures in Ahine"and a"so sho4 a 5orm o5 dra4string cap over %und"ed hair. ?th and 11th centur! i""uminations sho4 a pi""%o+ st!"e hat6 4orn %! 4omen6 and one has %een 5ound 5rom the 7erovingian or Caro"ingian "eve" in the Nether"ands.

'ead Co(erings - Fabrics , /+es

3oo!

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)he 4oo" 5a%ric 5ound at *u%"in has some simi"arities to 5a%ric 5ound e"se4here in northern EuropeC the particu"ar"! 5ine ta%%! 4oo"s are pecu"iar in the archaeo"ogica" record to *u%"in. It 4as a"" o5 "ight6 open-4eave ta%%!6 averaging 1& 4arp threads per cm6 and 13 4e5t threads and 4as not 5u""ed. )he threads 4ere a"" >-spun 5irm"!6 o5 "ong com%ed 4oo" stap"e and the average diameter o5 the threads 4as 1.' mm. )he 4ider 5a%ric 4as %et4een 131-1/1 mm 4ide 4here %oth se"vedges are e+tant6 and %et4een 3/13?1 mm "ong. )he %ands 4ere %et4een /1-1'1 mm 4ide. .1 1& 4arp threads per cm 4as a"so t!pica" o5 the narro4 %ands6 %ut 4hi"e one %and has a simi"ar 4e5t count to the 4ider 5a%rics6 the other has a 4e5t count o5 1.-'1 threads per cm. 7an! o5 the 5a%rics appear to have %een comp"ete "oom-pieces6 4oven speci5ica""! not @ust to 4idth6 %ut a"so "ength6 the scarves at "east6 having c"ear 4arp "oops p"ied into tasse"s on severa" pieces. .' A 5e4 o5 the Ang"o- a+on vei"s are o5 4oo"C the! are descri%ed as semi-transparent net"ike >F> spun ta%%ies o5 5ine6 smooth !arn. )hese 4eaves are 5ound in Eng"and :&th-.th centuries;6 Derman! :.th-/th centuries;6 and in the Viking Age6 in Ang"o- candinavian Eork6 Hi%erno-Norse *u%"in6 7ammen :*enmark;6 and Haitha%u : 4eden;. )he Viking Age 4eaves are a %it 5iner6 %ut genera""! the same technica""!. )he! 4ere o5ten d!ed %"ack6 %"ue or purp"e. .3 As the too"s 5or 4oo" production 5rom 5"eece to 5inished garment are present in a"" Northern Europe communities6 it is "ike"! the 4oo" 4as "oca""! produced. )here is a possi%i"it! such 5ine c"oth 4as produced %! a specia"ist6 and unusua" 4oo" 5a%rics 4ere kno4n to %e traded 4ide"!.

*i!.
)he *u%"in i"ks 4ere o5 three kinds6 >F> ta%%!6 >Fno t4ist ta%%!6 and no t4istFno t4ist ta%%!. Weaves var! 5rom gau8e-"ike to more so"id 4eaves 4ith thicker 4e5t threads that add sheen to the 5a%ric.
.1 .'

ome o5 the pieces have %oth se"vedges and 4arp "oops present6

Heckett6 '113 pg /? ibid, pg .3 Wa"ton-Aogers6 '11. pg &/-?

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4hich indicates man! pieces6 4ou"d have %een 4oven to si8e. A"" t!pes seem to have rein5orced se"vedges 4ith e+tra threads. )hese t!pes o5 5a%rics 4ere 4e""-kno4n in Europe6 4ith 5inds at Eork6 Ge""ing6 7ammen6 9erth6 0und and 0ondon )he no t4istFno t4ist si"ks 4ere a"" sma"" 5ragments6 and are distorted6 so the densit! o5 the 4eave is di55icu"t to esta%"ish. )he !arn diameters 4ere 1.11-1.1' mm in one set6 and 1.3--1.- mm in the other. )he >F> ta%%! is the 5inest 5a%ric6 4ith a !arn diameter o5 1.1?-1.13 mm6 and a thread count o5 1&-'&Fcm :4arp; + 1'-1-Fcm :4e5t;6 to 31-31Fcm :4arp; + 1?-3'Fcm :4e5t;. )he 4eave is open and some o5 the pieces have a 4e""-crimped !arn6 4hich gives the 5a%ric a crepe-"ike appearance6 though the t4ist o5 the threads is "ight to medium. )here are traces o5 decorative 5ringes on severa" o5 the pieces. )he one e+ception to the genera" parameters o5 the 5a%ric is the "argest si"k scar56 4hich has thicker !arn and a denser 4eave than the others. )he >Fno t4ist si"k is o5 a denser 4eave than the >F> ta%%ies. )he !arn diameter o5 the 4arp is 1.1--1.13 mm6 4hi"e the 4e5t ranges 5rom 1.3--1.11 mm6 4ith a thread count o5 1.-'1Fcm + '3-'.Fcm to '/-33Fcm-'&-31Fcm. )his c"oth is ver! simi"ar to the si"ks used 5or the Eork6 0inco"n and 0ondon caps. .3 7an! o5 the ta%"et 4eaves are %e"ieved to %e o5 si"k6 4hich 4as common on the Continent. Whi"e %rocading cou"d %e done on 4oo" or "inen6 on"! si"k seems to have survived 4ith an! 5re=uenc!. .- ome si"k %ands 5rom candinavia have rep"aced certain o5 the threads6 those never appearing on the sur5ace o5 the %and due to the pattern o5 4eaving6 4ith some organic thread :"inen or nett"e; 4hich has not survived. .&

.3 .-

Heckett6 '11. pg ?1-3 Cro45oot and Ha4kes6 1?&. pg -36 -& .& ,nudsen6 '11- pg 3&-3.

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A 5e4 rare t!pes o5 si"ks 4ere a"so 5ound.

i"k ta55eta 4as 5ound at 2irka6 .. and a satin

4eave 4as 5ound at Arnegunde :the %uria" is dated -/1-?1 CE6 %e5ore the Viking Age;. ./ i"k c"oth is "ess "ike"! to %e "oca""! produced. Whi"e si"k thread 4as %eing imported since at "east the ear"! .th centur! 5or use in em%roider!6 there is no evidence o5 si"k 4eaving in Europe at that time. .?

4inen
0inen 4as a 4ide"! avai"a%"e c"oth in the Viking Age6 %ut %ecause it does not survive 4e"" in archaeo"ogica" settings6 it is o5ten more di55icu"t to 5ind evidence o5. Its use 5or vei"s in Ang"o- a+on Eng"and and on the Continent is kno4n 5rom impressions and some 5ragments6 /1 )here 4ere no pieces o5 "inen 5rom *u%"in positive"! identi5ied as parts o5 headdresses. )his doesnt mean it 4asnt used6 on"! that it the soi" conditions are not conducive to its surviva". It ma! have %een used to make the same sorts o5 headdresses6 or even possi%"! a 5orm current"! unkno4n. /1

/+es
No traces o5 d!es 4ere 5ound on the *u%"in caps6 though a 5e4 sho4ed signs o5 the presence o5 mordants6 4hich ma! indicate the! 4ere d!ed once %ut the d!e deca!ed. /' Ho4ever6 some natura""! occurring mordants ma! have "eached in 5rom the soi". In the si"ks6 severa" d!es are present. )he "argest scar5 4as d!ed 4ith "ichen purp"e6 though 4hich "ichen is unkno4n. )4o o5 the si"k hats had traces o5 indigotin6 "ike"! 5rom

.. ./

Heckett6 '11. pg ?3 <4en-Crocker6 '113 pg .? .? Heckett6 '113 pg 11/1 Wa"ton-Aogers6 '11. pg 1-. /1 Heckett6 '113 pg 11? /' ibid, pg 1'?

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4oad6 and one had traces o5 madder. /3 ome o5 the pieces had a go"den %ro4n tint to them. )his ma! %e their natura" co"our6 ho4ever6 or co"our "eached in %! the soi". /3 *!e ana"!ses in Ang"o- a+on te+ti"es indicates d!ed c"oth 4as a "ot "ess common than previous"! thought6 and occurred 4ith greater 5re=uenc! in accessories such as vei"s and scarves and in trimmings than in 4ho"e garments. Aeds and purp"es tended to %e con5ined to threads 5or em%roider!6 narro4 %ands and headdresses. 2"ues6 greens6 %ro4ns and !e""o4s 4ere a %it more common on "arger pieces o5 c"othing6 and a"so used 5or accessories and trimsC %"ue in particu"ar. /)he same is true in candinavia6 4here und!ed c"othes 4ere the norm in da!-to-da! garments. 7ost und!ed c"othing came 5rom natura""! pigmented 4oo"s6 4hich 4ere rare"! d!ed6 and natura" or %"eached "inen. *!ed 4oo"s 4ere predominant"! 4hite origina""!. 2"ue is one o5 the commonest co"ours mentioned in re"ation to c"othing in the sagas. It is a"so the usua" co"our o5 a speci5ic t!pe o5 c"oth ca""ed 2irka-t!pe6 4hich is genera""! d!ed a deep %"ue6 as are the 5ine ta%%ies in high-status graves. 2"ue d!e came 5rom 4oad6 in northern Europe. Whi"e the chemica" component in 4oad is the same in indigo6 4hich produces more d!estu556 indigo is a tropica" p"ant that does not gro4 in Europe and 4ou"d have %een impractica" to import at that time6 4hen 4oad ass avai"a%"e. Idigotin is the on"! source o5 natura" %"ue d!e. /& Aeds primari"! come 5rom madder6 though some imported d!es si"ks 4ere co"oured 4ith kermes6 and %edstra4 4as a"so used. Whi"e madder 4as gro4n in %oth Eng"and and $rance6 it 4as sparing"! used in %oth p"aces and rare in candinavia. ,ermes is derived 5rom a %eet"e6 4hich "ives on the kermes oak in the 7editerranean. /.

/3 /3

ibid, pg 3 ibid, pg ?3 /Wa"ton-Aogers6 '11. pg &'-3 /& Wa"ton-Aogers6 '11. pg &3 /. E4ing6 '11& pg 1---.

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9urp"e is most common"! derived 5rom "ichen.

evera" "ichens 4i"" produce this d!e in

various shades. It 4as particu"ar"! 5avoured in *u%"in6 // %ut rare in much o5 Eng"and6 perhaps re5"ecting a scarcit! o5 the t!pes needed. /? Ee""o4 can come 5rom a num%er o5 sources6 one an unidenti5ied p"ant "a%e""ed BEe""o4 L 4hich is on"! kno4n in candinavia. ?1 Among the Ang"o- a+ons 4e"d and d!ers green4eed 4ere used. )he! give %right6 5ast !e""o4s6 and green4eed in particu"ar 4as common"! used 4ith 4oad to produce greens6 hence its name. ?1 2ro4n6 aside 5rom natura""! pigmented 4oo"6 came 5rom the tannins in 4a"nut she""s. Without a mordant6 it gives a rich6 reddish %ro4n6 ?' and over-d!ed 4ith 4oad6 a deep %"ue-%"ack. ?3

// /?

ibid, pg 1-3-Wa"ton-Aogers6 '11. pg &3-3 ?1 E4ing6 '11& pg 1-. ?1 Wa"ton-Aogers6 '11. pg &3 ?' E4ing6 '11& pg 1-?3 Wa"ton-Aogers6 '11. pg &3

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Conc!&sion
A rather 4ide range o5 garments 4ith 4hich to cover6 protect and dress the head 4ere avai"a%"e to 4omen in north-4estern Europe during the Viking Age. )here 4as considera%"e over"ap in st!"es %et4een cu"tures6 possi%"! due to increased amounts o5 trade %et4een them during this era6 though it is sti"" some4hat unc"ear in some cases ho4 4idespread certain st!"es 4ere. C"ear"! ho4ever6 headdress 4as a remarka%"! evocative and important part o5 a 4omans attire6 disp"a!ing to her contemporaries her 4ea"th and status6 her tastes6 her cu"ture and her %e"ie5s.

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Bib!iograph+
Cro45oot6 E"isa%eth6 onia Chad4ick Ha4kes. 1?&. JEar"! Ang"o- a+on 2raidsK 7edieva" Archaeo"og!M Vo" 11. Avai"a%"e at N httpMFFads.ahds.ac.ukFcata"ogueFadsdataFarch-.&?1FahdsFdisseminationFpd5Fvo"11F11O13'O1/&.pd5P6 :"ast accessed '& *ec6 '11.; Cro45oot6 E"isa%eth6 $rances 9ritchard # ,a! tani"and. )e+ti"es and C"othingM 11-113-1. )he 2o!de"" 9ress6 Wood%ridge. '111. *a4son6 )imoth!. J9ropriet!6 9ractica"it! and 9"easureM )he 9arameters o5 Womens *ress in 2!8antium6 A* 1111-1'11K6 2!8antine WomenM Varieties o5 E+perience6 A* /11-1'11. ed. 0!nda Dar"and. Ashgate 9u%"ishing6 0td.6 A"dershot. '11&. E4ing6 )hor. Viking C"othing. )empus6 troud. '11&. Heckett6 E"i8a%eth Wincott. J ome si"k and 4oo" head-coverings 5rom Viking *u%"inM uses and origins ( an en=uir!K6 )e+ti"es in Northern Archaeo"og!- NE A) IIIM )e+ti"e !mposium in Eork6 &-? 7a! 1?/.. ed. 9ene"ope Wa"ton and Gohn-9eter Wi"d. Archet!pe 9u%"ications6 0ondon. 1??1. Heckett6 E"i8a%eth Wincott. Viking Age Headcoverings 5rom *u%"in. Ao!a" Irish Academ!6 *u%"in. '113. ,nudsen6 0ise Aaeder. J2rocaded )a%"et-4oven 2andsM ame Appearance6 *i55erent Weaving )echni=ue6 Horning6 Hvi"eho@ and 7ammenK6 Northern Archaeo"ogica" )e+ti"es ( NE A) VIIM )e+ti"e !mposium in Edin%urgh6 -th-.th 7a! 1???. ed. $rances 9ritchard and Gohn 9eter Wi"d. <+%o4 2ooks6 <+5ord. '11-. ,rag6 Anna Hedeager. J*enmark-EuropeM *ress and $ashion in *enmarks Viking AgeK6 Northern Archaeo"ogica" )e+ti"es ( NE A) VIIM )e+ti"e !mposium in Edin%urgh6 -th-.th 7a! 1???. ed. $rances 9ritchard and Gohn 9eter Wi"d. <+%o4 2ooks6 <+5ord. '11-. 7uthesius6 Anna. J i"k in the 7edieva" Wor"dK6 )he Cam%ridge Histor! o5 Western )e+ti"es. ed. *. ). Genkins. Cam%ridge Qniversit! 9ress6 Cam%ridge. '113. <stergard6 E"se. Woven into the EarthM )e+ti"es 5rom North Dreen"and. Aarhus Qniversit! 9ress6 Aarhus. '113. <4en-Crocker6 Da"e. *ress in Ang"o- a+on Eng"and. )he 2o!de"" 9ress6 Wood%ridge. '113. Vanhaeke6 0isa and Chris Verhecken-0ammens. J)e+ti"e 9seudomorphs 5rom a 7erovingian 2uria" Dround in Harmignies6 2e"giumK6 Northern Archaeo"ogica" )e+ti"es

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( NE A) VIIM )e+ti"e !mposium in Edin%urgh6 -th-.th 7a! 1???. ed. $rances 9ritchard and Gohn 9eter Wi"d. <+%o4 2ooks6 <+5ord. '11-. Wa"ton-Aogers6 9ene"ope. J)he Ang"o- a+ons and Vikings in 2ritain6 A* 3-1-11-1K6 )he Cam%ridge Histor! o5 Western )e+ti"es. ed. *. ). Genkins. Cam%ridge Qniversit! 9ress6 Cam%ridge. '113. Wa"ton-Aogers6 9ene"ope. C"oth and C"othing in Ear"! Ang"o- a+on Eng"and. Counci" 5or 2ritish Archaeo"og!6 Eork. '11..

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