Table of Contents

Foreword ................................................................................................................1 Preface to the 19th Edition ...............................................................................3 Chapter 1 .................................................................................................................5 Iqbl and the Revival of Religious Thought ............................................................5 The absence of the Islamic spirit among Muslims ........................................... 11 The logic of railway train ................................................................................... 15 Solidarity as a sign of life.................................................................................... 16 Chapter 2............................................................................................................... 23 Past and Present Thought of Muslims on the Role of Action in Mans Felicity . 23 Pathology ............................................................................................................. 23 The roots of distortion of our way of thinking about Islam ............................ 24 Action as the bedrock of Islamic training and education ................................ 24 The role of the Umayyads in the emergence of this distortion ........................ 25 Why the idea of holding action in contempt came into being ......................... 25 What is faith [mn]? .......................................................................................... 26 The Shah and murjiiyyah ................................................................................ 26 Two accounts ....................................................................................................... 29 Twisted way of thinking ..................................................................................... 33 The issue of sanctuary ........................................................................................ 34 Two Prophetic traditions .................................................................................... 35 Chapter 3 ............................................................................................................... 39 Dull vis--vis Vibrant Thinking .............................................................................. 39 Physical and spiritual life ................................................................................... 39 Firah or the essence of human life .................................................................... 40 Life means to have insight and ability ............................................................... 41 Life itself as not identical with its characteristics............................................. 41 Self-reliance ......................................................................................................... 42 Reliance on Allah [tawakkul] as a vibrant and dynamic concept .................... 44 Distorted and twisted tawakkul .......................................................................... 44 Asceticism [zuhd] in Islam .................................................................................. 45 Negative asceticism ............................................................................................. 45 The issue of guardianship [wilyah] of a tyrant ............................................... 46 Asceticism as a spiritual strength and not an economic weakness ................. 47

Our ascetics as morally bankrupt as well as economically handicapped ....... 48 Imm Al (a) and productive works ................................................................ 48 Chapter 4 .............................................................................................................. 53 Islamic Thought on Asceticism and Abandonment of the World ........................ 53 Asceticism and abandonment of the world ....................................................... 54 Is asceticism a natural disaffection? .................................................................. 54 Two types of asceticism unacceptable to Islam ................................................ 55 Another misconception about asceticism .......................................................... 58 The real meaning of asceticism .......................................................................... 61 Aims of Islamic asceticism.................................................................................. 61 1. Self-sacrifice ................................................................................................ 61 2. Sympathy .......................................................................................................... 63 Tradition from Imam Al (a) on the philosophy of asceticism ...................... 63 Chapter 5............................................................................................................... 67 The Philosophy of Asceticism in Islamic Thought ................................................ 67 Story about Imm al-diq (a) regarding sympathy ...................................... 70 3. Freedom and liberty .................................................................................... 70 Naturally essential conditions ............................................................................ 71 Conditions within mans freewill ....................................................................... 71 Habit brings about attachment and attachment leads to captivity ................. 71 Freemen always lead simple life ........................................................................ 72 The philosophy of modesty and simplicity in the life of leaders ..................... 72 Pretensions, or limitations, restrictions and captivity ..................................... 72 Asceticism of Gandhi .......................................................................................... 74 4. Consistency with the demand of time ......................................................... 75 5. Apprehension of spiritual pleasures ................................................................ 77 The enlightened ascetic according to Ab Al ibn Sn (Avicenna)............... 79

Transliteration Symbols
Symbol Transliteration Symbol Transliteration

Long Vowels

b th d r s f k m h y
Persian Letters

Short Vowels

a t j kh dh z sh gh q l n w ah a u i

Symbol

Symbol

Transliteration

Transliteration

p zh

ch g

Foreword

In the Name of Allah, the All-beneficent, the All-merciful

The precious legacy left behind by the Holy Prophets Household [ahl al-bayt] (may peace be upon them all) and their followers preservation of this legacy from the menace of extinction is a perfect example of an allencompassing school [maktab], which embraces the different branches of the Islamic knowledge and has been able to train many of the talented personalities by quenching them with this gushing-forth fountain. This school has presented scholars to the Muslim ummah who, by following the Holy Prophets Household (a), have occupied the station of clarifying the doubts and skepticisms brought forth by the various creeds and intellectual currents both inside and outside the Muslim society, and throughout the past centuries, they have been the presenters of the firmest answers and solutions to these doubts. Anchored in the responsibilities it is shouldering, the Ahl al-Bayt (a) World Assembly has embarked upon defending the sanctity of rislah [apostleship] and its authentic beliefstruths which have always been opposed by the chiefs and leaders of the anti-Islamic sects, religions and trends. In this sacred path, the Assembly regards itself as a follower of the upright pupils of the Ahl al-Bayts (a) schoolthose who have always been ready to refute those accusations and calumnies and have tried to be always in the frontline of this struggle on the basis of the expediencies of time and space. The experiences in this field, which have been preserved in the books of the scholars of the Ahl al-Bayts (a) school, are unique in their own right. It is because these experiences have been based upon knowledge [ilm] and the

2 Foreword ____________________________________________________________________

preeminence of intellect and reasoning, and at the same time, devoid of any iota of blind prejudices as well as whims and caprices. These experiences address the experts, scholars and thinkers in such a manner that is acceptable to a healthy mind and the pure human natural disposition [firah]. In a bid to assist those who are in quest of truth, the Ahl al-Bayt (a) World Assembly has endeavored to enter the new phase of these worthy experiences within the framework of research and writing works of the contemporary Shah writers or those who, through the divine guidance, embraced this noble school. This Assembly is also engaged in the study and publication of the valuable works of the pious predecessors and outstanding Shah personalities so that those who are thirsty of truth could quench their thirst from this refreshing fountain by listening and embracing this truth, which the Holy Prophets Household (a) has offered as gift to the entire world. It is hoped that the dear readers would not deprive the Ahl al-Bayt (a) World Assembly of their valuable views and suggestions as well as constructive criticisms in this arena. We also do invite the scholars, translators and other institutions to assist us in p ) Islam. We ask God, the Exalted, to accept this trivial effort and enhance it -Mahd (may Allah, the Exalted, expedite his glorious advent). It is appropriate here to express our utmost gratitude to the late al-Shahd yatullh Murta Muahhar for writing the book,1 and to Dr. Mansoor Limba for translating it, as well as to all our honorable colleagues in accomplishing this task especially the dear ones in the Translation Office for performing their responsibility.

Cultural Affairs Department Ahl al-Bayt (a) World Assembly

Murta Muahhar, Ihy-ye Tafakkur-e Islm, 24th ed. (Tehran: Sadra Publications, Shahrvar 1385 AHS (2006)), 206 pages.

Preface

In the Name of Allah, the All-beneficent, the All-merciful

The Revival of Islamic Thought consists of a series of five lectures given with the same title by the martyred professor yatullh Muahhar at Huayniyyah Irshd1 in 1349 AHS (circa 1970). The first lecture entitled Iqbl and the Revival of Religious Thought was given on Ordbehest 7, 1349 AHS (April 27, 1970) in commemoration of the Islamic reformer Allmah Iqbl of Lahore, Pakistan. The succeeding lectures were delivered with an interval of one week from each other. Along with the topic The Struggle between Truth and Falsehood, this book was first published in 1360 AHS (circa 1981) and so far it has been published 18th times. Since the present topic is not necessarily related to that of the struggle between truth and falsehood, it is decided to publish it separately for the 19th time and naturally it is typeset anew and the aesthetic elements of the book are taken into consideration. As such, this book is presented in a better form in this edition. It is hoped that it is acceptable and pleasant to the esteemed readers. As pointed out by the martyred professor himself, it is obvious that this topic is broad and these five lectures are just an introduction to it. Of course, there are also relevant discussions in his other works such as Ihy-ye Tafakkur-e Dn [Revival of Religious Thought] in the book Dah Guftr [Ten Discourses].

Huayniyyah Irshd: an Islamic center in northern Tehran where yatullah Muahhar used to deliver lectures and speeches. [Trans.]

4 Preface ____________________________________________________________________

It is hoped that like his other works, this work of the martyred thinker and close student and confidant of Imm Khomein (r)1 would be beneficial and influential in the propagation of the Islamic thought. We pray to God, the Exalted, for success in rendering service. yatullh Murta Muahhars Works Supervisory Council Shahrvar 17, 1380 AHS (September 8, 2001)

The abbreviation, r stands for the Arabic invocative phrase, ramatullh alayhi, ramatullh alayh, or [may peace be upon him/her/them], which is mentioned after the names of pious people. [Trans.]

Chapter 1
Iqbl and the Revival of Religious Thought

) ( :
In the Name of Allah, the All-beneficent, the All-merciful All praise is due to Allah, the Lord of the worlds, the Creator of all existents. May salutations and peace be upon Allahs servant, Messenger, beloved, favorite, the keeper of His secret, and the propagator of His messageour Chief, Prophet and Master Abl-Qsim Muammad ().1 I seek refuge in Allah from the accursed Satan.

The abbreviation, , stands for the Arabic invocative phrase, allallhu alayhi wa lihi wa sallam [may Gods blessings and peace be upon him and his progeny], whic h is mentioned after the name of the Holy Prophet Muammad ( ). [Trans.]

6 Chapter 1 ____________________________________________________________________

O you who have faith! Answer Allah and the Apostle when he summons you to that which will give you life.1 The topic I supposed to discuss here today which is Arban usayn (40th day after the event in Karbal) was Union with the Martyrs because of the fact that today is a day when two [important] events took place and these two events made Arban as such. One was the account of arrival of the first formal pilgrims to the shrine of Ab Abd Allh [Imm al-usayn] (a).2 That was the day of arrival of Jbir ibn Abd Allh al-Anr in Karbal from Medina for visitation [ziyrah]. Another is that in general, ziyrah to usayn ibn Al (a) on this day is accepted. That is, this day is the special day of ziyrah for Ab Abd Allh (a). The arrival of Jbir to visit the holy shrine of Ab Abd Allh and the tradition of paying homage to him from near and far distance by reciting transmitted salutations are both meant to be in unison with the martyrs. Initially, I would like to discuss this issue and state the philosophy of ziyrah from near and far distance under the same topic, but this discussion is postponed to another time because during the past few days it was decided in three meetings here in commemoration of the great Isla mic reformer Iqbl of Pakistan that I deliver half an hour of lecture on Iqbl and the Revival of Religious Thought and since the time had passed then, I had requested for resetting it to another time. Meanwhile, I sensed that the discussion on Iqbl and the Revival of Religious Thought cannot be covered in 30 minutes, and experience has shown that whenever only a short period of time is allotted to such subjects, it generally turns out to be ambiguous, incomplete and incomprehensible. Thus, we said, Let there be more time allotted in a series of lectures under the theme The Revival of Islamic Thought. It is the same theme of lectures given by Iqbl in Pakistanlectures which were highly academic and socially relevantand I am supposed to deal with the same theme. A book of this man is published.3 It is a collection of his lectures on seven occasions in Pakistan4 which were apparently delivered in academic
1

Srat al-Anfl 8:24. In this volume, the translation of Quranic passages is adapted from Sayyid Al Qul Qar, The Quran with a Phrase-by-Phrase English Translation (London: Islamic College for Advanced Studies Press, 2004). [Trans.] 2 The abbreviation, a stands for the Arabic invocative phrase, alayhis-salm, alayhimussalm, or alayhs-salm [may peace be upon him/them/her], which is mentioned after the names of the prophets, angels, Imms from the Prophets progeny, and saints ( a). [Trans.] 3 Its English rendition is Sir Mohammad Iqbal, The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam (New Delhi: Kitab Bhavan, 1981). [Trans.] 4 The lectures were actually delivered at Madras, Hyderabad, and Aligarh, India. See The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam, p. v. [Trans.]

The Revival of Islamic Thought 7 ____________________________________________________________________

settings because the level of these lectures was so high that it makes it improbable to have been given in the general public. They were certainly given in academic gatherings. All of them had the same theme. Of course, each of these lectures had a particular topic. One might be entitled Religious Experience.1 Another might have had the heading The Philosophical Test of Religious Experience.2 Yet another might have had the topic Freedom and the Immortality of Human Ego.3 One lecture might be titled The Spirit Islamic Culture and Civilization.4 Another might have been labeled The Principle of Movement in Islam.5 Still another might be known as Is Religion Possible?6 It is said that the last topic is borrowed from [Immanuel] Kant.7 Finally, a certain lecture dealt with the topic The Conception of God and the Meaning of Prayer.8 Anyway, all of these topics were discussed by Iqbl under the theme Revival of Religious Thought. I do not want to claim that everything he said about this highly significant theme is devoid of any criticism, or everything about it is what he had said. But considering the fact that he has introduced this theme and discussed its topics to the extent that a thinker could be able to do is indeed worthy of acknowledgment, recognition and appreciation. Today I have to devote more time expounding his words. This discussion has a broad scope and perhaps there was an opportunity and I was able to deal with the revival of Islamic thought in other meetings, but at the outset I would like to share to you the salient points of his ideas. Iqbl is a person who has gone to Europe and is very familiar with it. He is someone who attains high level of modern education. He is someone who is recognized by the Western world as a thinker, scholar and man of authority. He is not someone who confined himself in a corner in India and
1

Knowledge and Religious Experience constitutes the first chapter of The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam. [Trans.] 2 The Philosophical Test of the Revelations of Religious Experience constitutes the second chapter of The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam. [Trans.] 3 The Human EgoHis Freedom and Immortality constitutes the fourth chapter of The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam. [Trans.] 4 The Spirit of Muslim Culture constitutes the fifth chapter of The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam. [Trans.] 5 The Principle of Movement in the Structure of Islam constitutes the sixth chapter of The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam. [Trans.] 6 It constitutes the last chapter of The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam. [Trans.] 7 See Immanuel Kant, A New Exposition of the First Principles of Metaphysical Knowledge (1755), John A. Reuscher (trans.) in Lewis White Beck (ed.). Kants Latin Writings: Translations, Commentaries and Notes (New York: Peter Lang, 1986), pp. 57-109; Critique of Pure Reason, 1787 2nd edition, Paul Guyer and Allen W. Wood (trans.) (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998). [Trans.] 8 It constitutes the third chapter of The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam. [Trans.]

8 Chapter 1 ____________________________________________________________________

imagines something about Europe and then he wants to make criticisms. He has personally seen Europe and closely examined and scrutinized it. He is also very fond of modern knowledge and encourages the Muslim youth to learn modern science. He is not someone who is against modern science or discourages the Muslims from learning it. Notwithstanding these words of a person who pursued his higher education in Europe, who is well acquainted with Europe and who is wellversed and cognizant of the value of modern knowledge, the foremost thing which draws attention from his words and which he systematically states in his poems is that what is now called European civilization1the code of European life, the ideals which the European civilization offers to mankind today, the way and custom it teaches to humanity, the morality and mores, and finally the path of Europe todayhe considers not only something bad but that which is extremely menacing for humanity in general and the people of Europe in particular. That is, Iqbl who has gone to Europe and is much familiar with it considers the future of European civilization so much gloomy and perilous. Such words of him are plenty and I would like to read to you what I have written down from his writings in order for us to know what this man says about the civilization of Europe today, to what extent he is pessimistic about the European civilization in spite of his optimism for its knowledge and to what magnitude he warns the people of the East, the Muslims in particular, not to be influenced and lured by the European civilization. For example, Iqbl says:
Those whose eyes are blinded by imitation and slavery cannot comprehend the naked truth. How can this half-dead culture and civilization of Europe give a new life to Iran and Arab countries when it is on the verge of death itself?

He also says: The most salient feature of modern history is the high speed. With that rate of speed the Muslim world is psychologically moving toward the West. He says that the most salient feature of the modern history of these countries is that they are speedily moving toward the West. Then, in a bid to distinguish knowledge from Western civilization, he says: And in this movement nothing is incorrect or false. In terms of its rational aspect (that is, in terms of the scientific and intellectual aspect only), the European culture is one of the important phases of Islamic culture. That is to say, if we only take into account the intellectual and scientific dimension of Europe, there is no problem no matter how far we move toward
1

That is, Western civilization in general. [Trans.]

The Revival of Islamic Thought 9 ____________________________________________________________________

it, for knowledge is knowledge and the European knowledge is an offshoot and extension of Islamic sciences. European culture in the sense of European knowledge is an extension of Islamic culture: Our only fear is that the dazzling exterior of the European culture would stand in the way of our movement and prevent us from reaching the real essence of that culture. That is to say, What I am afraid of is that we would only look at what is apparent; we would only look at the natural sciences and technology but fail to see the inward to which humanity leads; that we cannot be able to examine and analyze [things]. In another part of his book, Iqbl says:
The intellect [aql] alone is incapable of saving humanity and the greatest flaw of the European culture is that it wants to save the ship of humanity from perdition through the intellect alone (that is, without consideration of the spirit, conscience and faith).

He also says: The exemplariness of Europe can never pose as a dynamic agent in its life. The exemplariness of Europe means its idealism; the ideal perfection which the European culture offers to humanity; the principles it formulates; the isms it coins and it imagines that by adopting these isms it can save humanity. Iqbl says that these isms have indeed failed to change the essence of Europe, to humanize it, and to push it beyond the stage of empty rhetoric. Simply put, Europe or the European talks a lot about benevolence and humanitarianism in its or his writings and declarations but since they only emanate from the mind or intellect and not from the soul, they are not imprinted in the conscience. The European talks about the human being but he is not humanitarian in practice. The European talks about human rights but in truth and essence, he pays no respect to human beings and their rights. The European talks about freedom within the framework of his isms but in reality he does not heartily believe in freedom. He talks about justice and equality but in the depth of his conscience he does not abide with justice and equality. Iqbl thus says:
Its outcome is the emergence of a perplexed I (that is, a perplexed spirit). Each of the democracies which are incompatible with each other is in search of itself. Their work is exclusively to benefit from their harvest to the advantage of the affluent.

What is the result of these talks about justice and these conflicting isms that emerged in Europe? It is to benefit from their harvest to the advantage of the affluent. Iqbl then says: Believe me. Todays Europe is the biggest hurdle to the moral advancement of humanity.

10 Chapter 1 ____________________________________________________________________

This is a point in the personality of Sir Iqbl which he promotes a lot. He likes the Muslims, especially the young Muslimsthose who are more or less familiar with the exterior of Western cultureto be aware of this point. The second point on which he lays much emphasis is that the flaw which exists in the European culture and civilization of today does not exist in the pristine Islamic culture and civilization. The fundamental or basic criticisms that the European culture is merely a materialistic culture cannot be applied to the Islamic culture. As such, elsewhere in his lectures he tries to introduce the essential pillars and merits of the Islamic culture and civilization. Again, I shall read some parts of it so that we can then proceed to the issue of the revival of religious thought. In that part of his lectures, he says thus:
Muslims are the owners of ideas and absolutely perfect ideals based upon revelation [wah]. Since they are expressed from the innermost dimension of life, they give an inward color to their externality. For a Muslim the spiritual foundation of life is something ideological and for the defense of this ideology he willingly sacrifices his life.

Let me summarize to you his words. Iqbl says that what Islam offers to humanitysince its support is religious faith emanating from divine revelationit can penetrate the innermost spirit of mankind. As it has shown and is showing, it has such power even in the present time. Thus, if, for example, Islam proposes freedom and liberation; if it proposes justice and humanitarianism; if it proposes human rights, they are proposals which have executive guarantee in the human soul. But what Europe proposes are proposals which are devoid of executive guarantee. Iqbl is of the opinion that todays humanity is in need of three things: 1. A spiritual explanation of the world; 2. Spiritual freedom of individual; and 3. Fundamental principles with global influence. 1. A spiritual explanation of the world: That is, the foremost thing which is needed by humanity is that world must spiritually or religiously explained and not materialistically. The first thing which has caused humanity to wander and because of which no idea or ideology as a real faith will emerge in humanity is materialism. It is the materialistic interpretation of the worldthat everything in the world is matter; the world is deaf and blind; the world is senseless; the world is silly or foolish; the world is aimless; the world knows no truth or falsehood; the world does not recognize right and wrong; truth and falsehood are on equal footing in the world; nothing in the world has a purpose and we are created in vain.

The Revival of Islamic Thought 11 ____________________________________________________________________

Iqbl says that it is this way of thinking which has damaged and is damaging the spirit of human civilization. The first thing that is urgently needed by mankind is a spiritual explanation of this world.

Did you suppose that We created you aimlessly?1 Absurdity has no place in the equation. The world has an Owner and that is God. The world is based on truth. The world is based on justice. Good and bad will not be in vain there. The world is hearing and seeingNeither drowsiness befalls him nor sleep.2 It is cognizant and intelligent. However, this (a spiritual interpretation of the world) alone is not enough. 2. Spiritual freedom of individual: This is contrary to Christianity. Individual freedom means the recognition of individuals personal dignity. If man interprets the world spiritually yet his person is not recognized, talents will not bloom. 3. Fundamental principles with global influence: Fundamental principles with global influence are supposed to justify the perfection of human society on a spiritual basis. These principles are the basic precepts of Islam. More than this, I will not cite example from Iqbl on these two points. Is Iqbl like us who go only to this extent? That is, would he just see the flaws and defects of European civilization and consider Islam as his living basis and point of reference and say, Thats all? No. One issue which he regards as part of his mission as well as that of any faithful Muslim intellectual refers to the third point. These seven lectures he undertook with the theme Revival of Religious Thought in Islam are meant for the third point. Even in his poems his main concern is more or less this very point. Of course, he always addresses the first point. In the poems recited in these meetings, you can see how much Iqbl is critical of Muslims blind imitation of the Western civilization. Regarding Islam as such and such, in his poems he has expressed everything he should and could express. The third point is: Does the real Islam exist among Muslims today or not? The absence of the Islamic spirit among Muslims Iqbl is aware of the fact that Islam exists as well as does not exist among Muslims. Islam exists in the sense Islamic rites are present among

1 2

Srat al-Muminn 23:115. Srat al-Baqarah 2:255.

12 Chapter 1 ____________________________________________________________________

Muslims. The sound of adhn1 can be heard among people. At the time of daily ritual prayers they would go to the mosque. Their dead were buried according to the Islamic rites. They prepare a banquet for their newly born children. The names are mostly Islamic onesMuammad, asan, usayn, Abd al-Ram, and Abd al-Ramn. Yet, the spirit of Islam is not present among these people. The spirit of Islam is dead in Muslim society. As such, Iqbl believes in the revival of Islamic life in the sense that the Islamic life must be revived and there is a possibility for its revival because Islam is not dead. It is the Muslims who are [spiritually] dead. Why is it so? It is because there is its heavenly scripture. There is the tradition [sunnah] of its Prophet. And they are all vibrant. That is, the world has failed to produce something better than them. Whatever the Quran presented is not the same with that of the Ptolemaic system2 for us to say that another theory has come and the previous one is abrogated. The natural sciences are not based on the [Aristotelian] four elements3 such that we could say science has come and declared that these four elements of yours are not actually elements but compounds. Elements are more than these things. Islam itself is alive with a vibrant basis or foundation. So, where the flaw lies? The flaw lies in the Muslims thought. That is the way Muslims think. The Muslims conception of Islam is not dynamic but a static one. It is like planting a live seed in a way contrary to agricultural principles. This seed will remain under the soil without growing. Its roots will not spread out and absorb soil nutrients. It is also like a young tree which you want to transfer from one place to another. This young tree is alive but if you plant it in an inverted position, that is, its roots are on top above the soil and its leaves buried underground, the same thing will happen. The Commander of the Faithful Imm Al (a) has an elegant description of the future of Islam and Muslims. The Imm (a) says:
1 2

Adhn: the Muslim call to prayer. [Trans.] Ptolemaic system: a theory, developed by Ptolemy about 150 CE, in which a motionless Earth is said to be at the center of the universe with the Sun, Moon, and planets revolving around it in eccentric circles and epicycles; the fixed stars are attached to an outer sphere concentric with Earth. The Ptolemaic system gave the positions of the planets accurately enough for naked-eye observations, although it also made some ridiculous predictions, such as that the distance to the Moon should vary by a factor of two over its orbit. It held sway in Europe, supported by the Church of Rome, until the rise of the Copernican system. [Trans.] 3 According to the cosmology of Aristotle (384-322 BCE) as expounded in his On the Heavens and Physics, the universe or cosmos is divided into the earthly or sublunary region and the heavens. In the sublunary region, substances are made up of the four elements, viz. earth, water, air, and fire. See Aristotle, Physics and On the Heavens, in Jonathan Barnes (ed.), The Complete Works of Aristotle: The Revised Oxford Translation (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1984). [Trans.]