UNIT 2

Introduction to a Book

HUMAN AGGRESSION Anthony Storr Penguin Books, 1971

HUMAN AGGRESSION Introduction Gi((on re$ogni=es 3uite $&e!r&y th!t the "ost 'e)&or!(&e "!ni,est!tions o, !ggression sh!re i'enti$!& roots h!t "!n is !n !ggressi#e $re!ture %i&& h!r'&y (e 'is)ute'. *ith the e+$e)tion o, $ert!in ro'ents, no other %ith #!&u!(&e !n' essenti!& )!rts o, hu"!n en'e!#or. *ithout the !ggressi#e, !$ti#e si'e o, his n!ture "!n #eter(r!te h!(itu!&&y 'estroys "e"(ers o, his o%n s)e$ies. No other !ni"!& t!kes )ositi#e )&e!sure in the %ou&' (e e#en &ess !(&e th!n he is to 'ire$t the $ourse o, his &i,e or to in,&uen$e the %or&' !roun' hi". In e+er$ise o, $rue&ty u)on !nother o, his o%n kin'. *e gener!&&y 'es$ri(e the "ost re)u&si#e e+!")&es o, ,!$t, it is o(#ious th!t "!n $ou&' ne#er h!#e !tt!ine' his )resent 'o"in!n$e, nor e#en h!#e sur#i#e' !s ! "!n-s $rue&ty !s (rut!& or (esti!&, i")&ying (y these !'.e$ti#es th!t su$h (eh!#ior is $h!r!$teristi$ o, &ess s)e$ies, un&ess he )ossesse' ! &!rge en'o%"ent o, !ggressi#eness. high&y 'e#e&o)e' !ni"!&s th!n ourse&#es. In truth, ho%e#er, the e+tre"es o, /(rut!&- (eh!#ior !re $on,ine' >. It is ! tr!gi$ )!r!'o+ th!t the #ery 3u!&ities %hi$h h!#e &e' to "!n-s e+tr!or'in!ry su$$ess !re !&so those to "!n0 !n' there is no )!r!&&e& in n!ture to our s!#!ge tre!t"ent o, e!$h other. he so"(er ,!$t is th!t %e "ost &ike&y to 'estroy hi". His ruth&ess 'ri#e to su('ue or to 'estroy e#ery !))!rent o(st!$&e in his )!th 'oes !re $rue&est !n' "ost ruth&ess s)e$ies th!t h!s e#er %!&ke' the e!rth0 !n' th!t, !&though %e "!y re$oi& in not sto) short !t his o%n ,e&&o%s0 !n' sin$e he no% )ossesses %e!)ons o, un)!r!&&e&e' 'estru$ti#eness !n' horror %hen %e re!' in ne%s)!)er or history (ook o, the !tro$ities $o""itte' (y "!n u)on "!n, %e kno% !&so !))!rent&y &!$ks the (ui&t2in s!,egu!r's %hi$h )re#ent "ost !ni"!&s ,ro" ki&&ing others o, the s!"e in our he!rts th!t e!$h one o, us h!r(ors %ithin hi"se&, those s!"e s!#!ge i")u&ses %hi$h &e!' to "ur'er, s)e$ies, it is not (eyon' )ossi(i&ity th!t he "!y yet en$o")!ss the tot!& e&i"in!tion o, homo sapiens. to torture !n' to %!r. ?. *h!t ,o&&o%s !re the re,&e$tions o, ! )sy$hother!)ist u)on the !ggressi#e $o")onent in hu"!n n!ture. he 1. o %rite !(out hu"!n !ggression is ! 'i,,i$u&t t!sk (e$!use the ter" is use' in so "!ny 'i,,erent senses. #ie%s %hi$h !re )ut ,or%!r' !re !nything (ut 'og"!ti$. A&& )sy$hother!)ists su,,er ,ro" the ,!$t th!t, Aggression is one o, those %or's %hi$h e#eryone kno%s, (ut %hi$h is ne#erthe&ess h!r' to 'e,ine. As !&though their kno%&e'ge o, ! ,e% )eo)&e "!y (e r!ther )ro,oun', their $on$&usions !re ne$ess!ri&y 'r!%n )sy$ho&ogists !n' )sy$hi!trists use it, it $o#ers ! #ery %i'e r!nge o, hu"!n (eh!#ior. he re'2,!$e' in,!nt ,ro" ! &i"ite' !n' high&y se&e$te' s!")&e o, the )o)u&!tion. Moreo#er, "!ny o, the theories %hi$h !re s3u!&&ing ,or the (ott&e is (eing !ggressi#e0 !n' so is the .u'ge %ho !%!r's ! thirty2ye!r senten$e ,or !#!i&!(&e in the )r!$ti$e o, )sy$hother!)y !re 'i,,i$u&t to su(st!nti!te s$ienti,i$!&&y, (e$!use the ro((ery. he gu!r' in ! $on$entr!tion $!") %ho tortures his he&)&ess #i$ti" is o(#ious&y !$ting )sy$hother!)ist is en'e!#oring to 'e!& %ith the )erson !s ! %ho&e. Psy$ho&ogists %orking in &!(or!tory $!n !ggressi#e&y. 4ess "!ni,est&y, (ut no &ess $ert!in&y, so is the neg&e$te' %i,e %ho thre!tens or !tte")ts $onstru$t e+)eri"ents in %hi$h. @or e+!")&e, !ggressi#e e"otions $!n (e "ore or &ess se)!r!te&y !rouse' sui$i'e in or'er to reg!in her hus(!n'-s !,,e$tion. *hen ! %or' (e$o"es so 'i,,use&y !))&ie' th!t it is use' !n' stu'ie'0 !n' the $on$&usions %hi$h they re!$h $!n (e st!tisti$!&&y e+)resse'. he 'is!'#!nt!ge o, ne!r&y (oth o, the $o")etiti#e stri#ing o, ! ,oot(!&&er !n' !&so o, the (&oo'y #io&en$e o, ! "ur'erer, it ought either !&& su$h e+)eri"ents is th!t the situ!tions u)on %hi$h they !re (!se' !re so restri$te' th!t they !re ,!r to (e 'ro))e' or e&se "ore $&ose&y 'e,ine'. Aggression is ! )ort"!nte!u ter" %hi$h is ,!ir&y (ursting !t it re"o#e' ,ro" &i,e !s it is &i#e'. Aggression, ,or e+!")&e, is ine+tri$!(&y "ing&e' %ith ,e!r !n' se+ in "!ny se!"s. 5et, unti& %e $!n "ore su(su"e' un'er this he!', %e $!nnot 'is$!r' the $on$e)t. situ!tions. It is #ery "u$h to (e ho)e' th!t, in ti"e, there %i&& (e ! rapprochement (et%een the )re$ise (ut 6. One 'i,,i$u&ty is th!t there is no $&e!r 'i#i'ing &ine (et%een those ,or"s o, !ggression %hi$h %e !&& 'e)&ore &i"ite' #ie%)oint o, the e+)eri"ent!&ist, !n' the &ess 'e,ine' (ut %i'er $on$e)tions o, the )sy$hother!)ist. !n' those %hi$h %e "ust not 'iso%n i, %e !re to sur#i#e. *hen ! $hi&' re(e&s !g!inst !uthority it is (eing In the "e!nti"e, %e "ust 'o the (est %e $!n %ith in$o")&ete !n' un)ro#e' hy)otheses. !ggressi#e7 (ut it is !&so "!ni,esting ! 'ri#e to%!r's in'e)en'en$e %hi$h is ne$ess!ry !n' #!&u!(&e )!rt o, 7. he )resent )reo$$u)!tion o, *estern so$iety %ith the )ro(&e" o, !ggression is, o, $ourse, 'i$t!te' (y the gro%ing u). he 'esire ,or )o%er h!s, in e+tre"e ,or", 'is!strous !s)e$ts %hi$h %e !&& !$kno%&e'ge7 (ut ,e!r o, 'estru$tion (y nu$&e!r %e!)ons %hi$h o#erh!ngs us !&&. he )ro(&e" o, %!r is "ore $o")e&&ing th!n the 'ri#e to $on3uer 'i,,i$u&ties, or to g!in "!stery o#er the e+tern!& %or&', un'er&ies the gre!test o, hu"!n e#er (e,ore in history. he $o")&e+ities o, the $ir$u"st!n$es %hi$h )ro#oke %!r !re su$h th!t no one "!n or !$hie#e"ents. So"e %riters 'e,ine !ggression !s /th!t res)onse %hi$h ,o&&o%s ,rustr!tion-, or !s /!n !$t no one #ie%)oint $!n )ossi(&y $o")rehen' the" !&&. Anyone %ho )ro"ises ! so&ution to ! )ro(&e" so %hose go!&2res)onse is in.ury to !n org!nis" 8or org!nis" surrog!te9-. In the !uthor-s #ie% these )erenni!& is too !rrog!nt to (e truste'0 !n' no su$h so&ution %i&& (e )ut ,or%!r' here. he !uthor (e&ie#es, 'e,initions i")ose &i"its u)on the $on$e)t o, !ggression %hi$h !re not in !$$or' %ith the un'er&ying ,!$ts ho%e#er, th!t i, st!(i&ity in %or&' !,,!irs is e#er to (e !$hie#e', the )sy$ho&ogi$!& )oint o, #ie% 'eser#es o, hu"!n n!ture %hi$h the %or' is !tte")ting to e+)ress. It is %orth noti$ing, ,or inst!n$e, th!t the %or's e3u!& $onsi'er!tion %ith the )o&iti$!&, e$ono"i$ !n' other !s)e$ts. he stu'y o, hu"!n !ggression !n' its %e use to 'es$ri(e inte&&e$tu!& e,,ort !re !ggressi#e %or's. *e attack )ro(&e"s, or get our teeth into the". $ontro& is, there,ore, re&e#!nt to the )ro(&e" o, %!r !&though, !&one, $!nnot )ossi(&y )ro#i'e ! $o")&ete *e master ! su(.e$t %hen %e h!#e strugg&e' %ith !n' overcome its 'i,,i$u&ties. *e sharpen our %its, !ns%er. ho)ing th!t our "in' %i&& 'e#e&o) ! keen edge in or'er th!t %e "!y (etter dissect ! )ro(&e" into its $o")onent )!rts. A&though inte&&e$tu!& t!sks !re o,ten ,rustr!ting, to !rgue th!t !&& inte&&e$tu!& e,,ort is the resu&t o, ,rustr!tion is to i")ose too neg!ti#e ! $o&oring u)on the )ositi#e i")u&se to $o")rehen' !n' "!ster the e+tern!& %or&'. :. he !ggressi#e )!rt o, hu"!n n!ture is not on&y ! ne$ess!ry s!,egu!r' !g!inst )re'!tory !tt!$k. It is !&so the (!sis o, inte&&e$tu!& !$hie#e"ent, o, the !tt!in"ent o, in'e)en'en$e, !n' e#en o, th!t )ro)er )ri'e %hi$h en!(&es ! "!n to ho&' his he!' high !"ongst ,e&&o%s. his is no ne% $on$e)tion. he histori!n Gi((on, in ! ,!"ous )!ss!ge, 'is)&!ys ! #ery si"i&!r i'e! o, hu"!n n!ture to th!t %hi$h )sy$hother!)ists )ro,ess. *here!s the &!tter re,er to se+u!& instin$ts !n' !ggressi#e instin$ts. Gi((on %rites o, /the &o#e o, )&e!sure !n' the &o#e o, !$tion-7 1.
;< o the &o#e o, )&e!sure %e "!y there,ore !s$ri(e "ost o, the !gree!(&e, to the &o#e o, !$tion %e "!y !ttri(ute "ost o, the use,u& !n' res)e$t!(&e 3u!&i,i$!tions. he $h!r!$ter in %hi$h (oth the one !n' the other shou&' (e unite' h!r"oni=e' %ou&' see" to $onstitute the "ost )er,e$t i'e! o, hu"!n n!ture.;

APPROACHING THE TEXT

In so"e genres the stru$ture o, the te+t is ,!ir&y st!n'!r'. Ho%e#er, this is not the $!se %ith the Introduction to a book, in %hi$h the !uthor $!n (e "ore ,&e+i(&e in his !))ro!$h, $hoosing to high&ight the !s)e$ts he $onsi'ers "ost i")ort!nt 8see OBSERAA IONS ,or this Unit9. he e+er$ise (e&o% in'i$!tes the stru$ture o, this )!rti$u&!r intro'u$tion !n' !i"s to gi#e )r!$ti$e in )re'i$ting the $ontent o, the in'i#i'u!& se$tions.

WORKSHEET 1

Predicting content he ,our gener!& he!'ings ,or the 'i,,erent se$tions o, this Introduction !re in'i$!te' (e&o%. he )hr!ses su""!ri=e the $ontents o, e!$h )!r!gr!)h. Without making reference to the text , )ut the )hr!ses in the or'er in %hi$h you think they "ight !))e!r. An e+!")&e h!s (een gi#en. a Possi(i&ity o, se&,2'estru$tion inherent in "!n-s !ggression b he )re#ious 'e,initions o, the $on$e)t o, !ggression7 neg!ti#e !s)e$ts c The advantages and disadvantages of a psychotherapists approach d St!te"ent o, "!n-s inn!te !ggression. e E&!(or!tion o, the $on$e)t o, !ggression in inte&&e$tu!& !$ti#ity, su))orte' (y ! 3uot!tion. f he i")&i$!tions o, the stu'y o, !ggression in %or&' !,,!irs !n' the )ro(&e"s o, %!r. g Positi#e !s)e$ts o, !ggression7 e.g. in inte&&e$tu!& !$ti#ity. 1 General statement of the subject - 1 Revie of previous definitions of the subject - 6 !uthors o n reformulation of the subject - - : Relevance of the subject and statement of authors approach - - advantages and disadvantages of psychotherapists approach "c# - No% ski" the te+t to $he$k your )re'i$tions, un'er&ining the )!rts o, the te+t %hi$h $orres)on' to the )hr!ses you h!#e inserte'.

INTENSIVE READING
An intro'u$tion to ! (ook $o""on&y ,o$uses on the !uthor-s )resent!tion o, $ert!in key ter"s. he e+er$ise (e&o% is inten'e' to 'r!% !ttention to the )resent!tion o, the )rin$i)!& the"e o, the (ook B !ggression B !n' t%o i")ort!nt )ur)oses o, the intro'u$tion, to 'e,ine !n' e+e")&i,y this the"e.

WORKSHEET 2

Identifying aspects of authors presentation of theme Re!' the ,irst t%o )!r!gr!)hs !n' un'er&ine 'es$ri)tions !n' e+!")&es o, 19

"!n-s !ggressi#e (eh!#ior, !n' 19 in,or"!tion !n' $o""ents on the 'e,inition o, the ter" aggression, !n' %rite the" in the !))ro)ri!te $o&u"n. Descriptions/Examples of mans aggressive behavior 'estroys "e"(ers o, o%n s)e$ies Information/Comments on definition of the term

par. 1

par.

re'2,!$e' in,!nt s3u!&&ing ,or the (ott&e

2 ter" use' in "!ny 'i,,erent senses

No% re!' the rest o, the te+t $!re,u&&y.

WORKSHEET 3

Discriminating units of information One %!y o, intro'u$ing ! the"e is (y $ontr!sting or $o")!ring 'i,,erent !s)e$ts o, it 8see, ,or e+!")&e, )!r!gr!)h 1 %here the !uthor $ontr!sts "!n-s (eh!#ior %ith th!t o, !ni"!&s9. P!r!gr!)hs 6, :, >, ? !n' 7 e!$h )resent one or "ore C)!irsD re)resenting t%o !s)e$ts o, ! )ro(&e", %hi$h $!n (e $ontr!ste' or $o")!re'. One o, those in )!r!gr!)h 6 is in'i$!te' in !((re#i!te' ,or" in the t!(&e on the ,o&&o%ing )!ge. Eo")&ete the t!(&e %ith t%o e+!")&es ,or e!$h o, the )!r!gr!)hs 8e+$e)t ,or )!r!gr!)h >, %hi$h h!s on&y one e+!")&e9

Par. !

Information Pairs 2 those forms of aggression hich e all deplore $ % those hich e must not diso n if e are to survive 2 $% 2 $% $% $% $% $% $% $% $% 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

Par. " Par. # Par. $ Par. %

WORKSHEET 4

&u id ed n ote' ta( in g 1. )ead $!re,u&&y the intro'u$tory )!r!gr!)h !n' the )!rt o, the te+t 'is$ussing the ter"F$on$e)t o, hu"!n !ggression. *tudy the notes t!ken on hu"!n !ggressi#eness !n' underline the senten$es %hi$h $ont!in this in,or"!tion in the te+t. 1. hen re!' the )!rt o, the te+t 'is$ussing the 'i,,i$u&ty o, 'r!%ing ! $&e!r2 $ut 'istin$tion (et%een the 'e)&or!(&e !n' the ne$ess!ry ,or"s o, !ggression. +nderline !&& the re&e#!nt )oints re,erring to the )ositi#e !n' neg!ti#e si'es o, hu"!n !ggression. ,ransfer this in,or"!tion in the t!(&e in note form. hen read the ,in!& )!r!gr!)h to i'enti,y the re&e#!n$e o, the to)i$ o, hu"!n !ggression !n' fill in the &!st ro%.

Is "!n !n !ggressi#e $re!tureG Positi#e si'es o, !ggression

1. 1. 6. 1.

M!n 'estroys "e"(ers o, his o%n s)e$ies. M!n 8e#en9 en.oys (eing $rue& to other )eo)&e. M!n is the $rue&&est o, !&& s)e$ies on e!rth.

Neg!ti#e si'es o, !ggression

Re&e#!n$e o, the to)i$

LANGUAGE WOR
WORKSHEET 4 )evising modal meaning
Be&o% is ! &ist o, so"e "o'!& #er(s, o, their neg!ti#e ,or"s, !n' their &o$!tion in the te+t. Un'er&ine the" together %ith the )rin$i)!& #er( !n' the su(.e$t. hen !ssign e!$h "o'!& #er( to one o, the gener!& $!tegories (e&o%, on the (!sis o, its ,un$tion in the te+t. )!r. 1, &ine 1 B %i&& &ine 16 B "!y )!r. 1, &ine 1> B ought to &ine 17 B $!n &ine 19 B $!nnot )!r. 6, &ine 6 B "ust not )!r. :, &ine 1H B %ou&' &ine 16 B $ou&' )!r. ?, &ine 16 B "ust )!r. 7, &ine 1> B $!nnot

-eaning A(i&ityFPotenti!&

-odal verbs

Pro(!(i&ityFPossi(i&ity

O(&ig!tionFNe$essity

O(&ig!tionFIesir!(i&ity

@uture

Eon'ition!&

Prohi(ition

WORKSHEET 5

+se and function of modal verbs Be&o% is ! syno)sis o, the intro'u$tion. @i&& in the (&!nks %ith ! suit!(&e "o'!& #er( or its negative form !n' in'i$!te in the "!rgin the "e!ning o, the "o'!& #er( $hosen. More th!n one !ns%er is )ossi(&e in se#er!& $!ses.

-eaning 1 JJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJ 1 JJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJ 6 JJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJ : JJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJ > JJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJ ? JJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJ 7 JJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJ K JJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJ 9 JJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJ 1H JJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJ 11 JJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJ 11 JJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJ 16 JJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJ 1: JJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJ

he $on$e)t o, !ggression h!s yet to (e $&e!r&y 'e,ine'. It is ! $on$e)t %hi$h 19JJJJJJJJJJJJJ h!#e nu"erous !))&i$!tions, so"e o, %hi$h 19JJJJJJJJJJJJJ not !&%!ys (e re&e#!nt. Ho%e#er, e#en though the ter" C!ggressionD 69JJJJJJJJJJJ (e !))&ie' "ore $!re,u&&y, it is ! ter" %hi$h %e :9JJJJJJJJJJJJ !(!n'on. h!t hu"!n (eings !re the "ost !ggressi#e $re!tures e#er to h!#e e+iste' is ! re!&ity %e >9JJJJJJJJJJJJJ ignore. But un,ortun!te&y, !ggression ?9JJJJJJJJJJJJJ !&%!ys )&!y ! )!rt in those %orthy !s)e$ts o, hu"!n en'e!#or, %ithout %hi$h "!n 79JJJJJJJJJJJJ sur#i#e. It is )erh!)s uto)ist to st!te th!t "!n K9JJJJJJJJJJJJJ !$hie#e %h!t he %!nts through his )ositi#e 3u!&ities !&one. Ne#erthe&ess, gi#en the $urrent st!te o, the (!&!n$e o, )o%er (et%een the n!tions, "!n 99JJJJJJJJJJJJ &e!rn to $ontro& his !ggression. He 1H9JJJJJJJJJJJJ $ontinue his egoisti$ (!tt&e to 'o"in!te the %or&', sin$e in so 'oing, he 119JJJJJJJJJJJJ 'estroy it, !n' hi"se&, in the )ro$ess. M!n 119JJJJJJJJJJJ (e inte&&igent enough to re!&i=e th!t he 169JJJJJJJJJJJ $ontro& his !ggression i, he %ishes, !n' th!t his 1:9JJJJJJJJJJJ "e!n the )ossi(i&ity o, %or&' )e!$e.

As you h!#e seen in )re#ious Units, &inkers ,u&,i&& the i")ort!nt ,un$tion o, sign!&ing the &ogi$!& 'e#e&o)"ent o, ! te+t. A %riter "!y, ho%e#er, no o#ert&y sign!& the &ink (et%een )!rts o, the te+t, !s ,or e+!")&e, in )!r!gr!)h 6 8&ines 1H21?9 o, the Introduction, %here $ontr!st (et%een the 'e,initions o, !ggression !n' the !uthor-s #ie% is not e+)&i$it&y "!rke'7 CSo"e %riters 'e,ine <8&o ever9 In the !uthor-s #ie% these 'e,initions i")ose &i"its<D. In the !(sen$e o, !n e+)&i$it &inker, then, the re!'er "ust i'enti,y the &ogi$!& &inks (et%een senten$es. he e+er$ise (e&o% !i"s there,ore to gi#e )r!$ti$e in 'eter"ining the ,un$tion o, un"!rke' senten$es in e+ten'e' 'is$ourse, %ith re,eren$e to !n !((re#i!te' #ersion o, the ,irst t%o )!r!gr!)hs o, the te+t.

WORKSHEET 6

)ecogni.ing logical lin(s bet/een parts of discourse In the te+t (e&o%, insert !n !))ro)ri!te &inker %here in'i$!te'. 5ou "!y $hose ,ro" the ,o&&o%ing &ist 7 and for example furthermore moreover ho ever for instance indeed in fact even though like ise similarly yet but nevertheless

h!t "!n is !n !ggressi#e $re!ture %i&& h!r'&y (e 'is)ute'. JJJJJJJJJJJ %ith the e+$e)tion o, $ert!in ro'ents, no other #erte(r!te h!(itu!&&y 'estroys "e"(ers o, his o%n s)e$ies. JJJJJJJJJJJJ , no other !ni"!& t!kes )ositi#e )&e!sure in the e+er$ise o, $rue&ty u)on !nother o, his o%n kin'. *e gener!&&y 'es$ri(e the "ost re)u&si#e e+!")&es o, "!n-s $rue&ty !s (rut!& or (esti!&, i")&ying (y these !'.e$ti#es th!t su$h (eh!#ior is $h!r!$teristi$ o, &ess high&y 'e#e&o)e' !ni"!&s th!n ourse&#es. In truth, JJJJJJJJJJ, the e+tre"es o, /(rut!&(eh!#ior !re $on,ine' to "!n0 !n' there is no )!r!&&e& in n!ture to our s!#!ge tre!t"ent o, e!$h other. JJJJJJJJJJJ %e "!y re$oi& in horror %hen %e re!' in ne%s)!)er or history (ook o, the !tro$ities $o""itte' (y "!n u)on "!n, %e kno% in our he!rts th!t e!$h one o, us h!r(ors %ithin hi"se&, those s!"e s!#!ge i")u&ses %hi$h &e!' to "ur'er, to torture !n' to %!r. o %rite !(out hu"!n !ggression is ! 'i,,i$u&t t!sk (e$!use the ter" is use' in so "!ny 'i,,erent senses. JJJJJJJJJJJ , !ggression is one o, those %or's %hi$h e#eryone kno%s, (ut %hi$h is ne#erthe&ess h!r' to 'e,ine. As )sy$ho&ogists !n' )sy$hi!trists use it, it $o#ers ! #ery %i'e r!nge o, hu"!n (eh!#ior. JJJJJJJJJJ , the re'2,!$e' in,!nt s3u!&&ing ,or the (ott&e is (eing !ggressi#e0 !n' so is the .u'ge %ho !%!r's ! thirty2ye!r senten$e ,or ro((ery. JJJJJJJJJJJJ , the gu!r' in ! $on$entr!tion $!") %ho tortures his he&)&ess #i$ti" is o(#ious&y !$ting !ggressi#e&y. *hen ! %or' (e$o"es so 'i,,use&y !))&ie' th!t it is use' (oth o, the $o")etiti#e stri#ing o, ! ,oot(!&&er !n' !&so o, the (&oo'y #io&en$e o, ! "ur'erer, it ought either to (e 'ro))e' or e&se "ore $&ose&y 'e,ine'. Aggression is ! )ort"!nte!u ter" %hi$h is ,!ir&y (ursting !t it se!"s. JJJJJJJJJJJ unti& %e $!n "ore su(su"e' un'er this he!', %e $!nnot 'is$!r' the $on$e)t.

VOCABULAR! WOR AND WORD BUILDING

@in' the %or's in the te+t 8)!r!gr!)hs !re gi#en9, 'e$i'e the %or' $&!ss, !n' %rite it !n' the tr!ns&!tion o, the %or' in the s)!$e )ro#i'e'. hen $o")&ete the t!(&e (y ,or"ing other %or's using !))ro)ri!te su,,i+es i, ne$ess!ry. Eonsu&t your 'i$tion!ry. *ORI BUI4IING 2oun 3erb 4d5ective

AOEABU4AR5 *ORL 0ord and Class ,ranslation 1 o c a t i o n !(&e 8:9

!$kno%&e'ge 869 !ggressi#e 819 !))!rent 8>9 !))&ie' 819 $h!r!$teristi$ 819 'e,ine 819 'estroy 819 'i,,use&y 819 hu"!n 8tit&e9 hy)otheses 8?9 i")u&ses 819

OBSERVATIONS INTRODUCTION ON TEXT T!PE

6unction7 *tructure7 o gi#e ! gener!& )resent!tion o, the to)i$ !n' the org!ni=!tion or orient!tion o, the (ook *here!s the stru$ture or so"e genres $!n (e )re'i$te' ,!ir&y !$$ur!te&y 8,or e+!")&e, ! rese!r$h re)ort %i&& ine#it!(&y in$&u'e ! se$tion on results !n' !&"ost $ert!in&y one on procedure9 there is ! "u$h gre!ter ,&e+i(i&ity !s to %h!t !n !uthor in$&u'es in his intro'u$tion. he ,o&&o%ing is ! &ist o, $o""on ,e!tures, !t &e!st one or t%o o, %hi$h !re &ike&y to !))e!r7 gener!& st!te"ent on the su(.e$t re#ie% o, )re#ious kno%&e'ge or rese!r$h in the !re! st!te"ent o, )ur)ose st!te"ent o, !))ro!$h st!te"ent o, re&e#!n$e o, the to)i$ 'e,inition o, ter"ino&ogy org!ni=!tion o, the (ook

here is !&so $onsi'er!(&e ,&e+i(i&ity !s reg!r's the or'er in %hi$h these ,e!tures "!y o$$ur, !&though the general statement !n' the $o""ents on organi'ation, i, they !))e!r, %i&& )ro(!(&y $o"e to%!r's the (eginning !n' to%!r's the en' res)e$ti#e&y. his )!rti$u&!r intro'u$tion is org!ni=e' !s ,o&&o%s7

1 Gener!& st!te"ent on the su(.e$t 1 Re#ie% o, the )re#ious 'e,initions o, the su(.e$t 6 Author-s o%n re,or"u&!tion o, the su(.e$t : Re&e#!n$e o, the su(.e$t !n' st!te"ent o, the !uthors !))ro!$h.

68C+* 82 &)4--4)7 -odal 3erbs ' 6orm9 -eaning and Practice

-E42I2& 68)-

PRESENT, FUTURE 4bility

(an) can*t) cannot e.g. I can/ cannot s%i". +e able to - ,or"s tenses !n' is so"eti"es use' inste!' o, can e.g. Will you be able to he&) "e 'o "y ho"e%ork to"orro%G (an) can*t "&ess ,or"!&9) may) may not N s"th. %hi$h is !&&o%e' or not !&&o%e' e.g. Can/ may I &e!#e e!r&y, )&e!seG 5ou can't/may not go sk!ting to"orro%. ,ay !n' might N %hen %e think s"th. is )ossi(&e, or %e !re un$ert!in e.g. Presi'ent Mones mig t win the ne+t e&e$tion. 8ItOs )ossi(&e9 I may/mig t a!e so"e ne%s ,or you ne+t %eek. 8Perh!)s I %i&&9 Note th!t may not !n' might not 'es$ri(e un$ert!inty, not i")ossi(i&ity. e.g. I may not a!e ti"e to ,inish tonight. 8I 'onOt kno%9 (ould N %hen %e !re un$ert!in, es)e$i!&&y %ith be e.g. He could be stu$k in the tr!,,i$. 8Perh!)s he is.9 ,ust !n' can*t N %e o,ten kno% th!t s"th. is i")ossi(&e 8190 so"eti"es %e "!ke ! guess ,ro" ,!$ts, !n' ,ee& !&"ost $ert!in $ert!in !(out s"th. 819 e.g. 819 Presi'ent Mones can't win the ne+t e&e$tion. 8ItOs i")ossi(&e.9 819 He must be stuc" in the tr!,,i$. 8IO" sure he is9 She can't be in It!&y. 8IO" sure she isnOt.9 ,ust !n' have to N to e+)&!in th!t s"th. is ne$ess!ry e.g. I must #inis "y ho"e%ork (e,ore K.HH. I a!e to % one M!ne !t 9.HH. Note7 there is ! 'i,,eren$e in so"e $onte+ts. *e use have to to 'es$ri(e o,,i$i!& ru&es7 e.g. ru&es !(out s$hoo& or .o(s, or !ny other org!ni=e' !$ti#ity. So"e s)e!kers use have to to 'es$ri(e !ny ru&e %hi$h $o"es ,ro" !n e+tern!& !uthority, i.e. %hi$h is "!'e (y so"eone e&se. e.g. At our s$hoo& %e a!e to wea$ uni,or"s. E#ery )&!yer in ! ,oot(!&& te!" as to a!e ! nu"(er. *hen the tr!,,i$ &ights !re re', you a!e to sto%& ,ustn*t . 'es$ri(es !n !$tion %hi$h is ,or(i''en0 e.g. 5ou mustn't c$oss the ro!' %hen the re' &ight is sho%ing. /on*t have to . 'es$ri(es !n !$tion %hi$h is not ne$ess!ry. e.g. 5ou don't a!e to tu$n on the $entr!& he!ting. ItOs

PAST
(ould) couldn*t) as able to e.g. M!ne could/ was able to swim %hen she %!s ,i#e. *hen I!#i' ,e&& in the ri#er, M!ne was able to res$ue hi". 8"!n!ge' to 'o it9 Was$ ere not allo ed$ permitted to e.g. He was not allowed togo sk!ting. ,ight$ may$ could - have past participle e.g. M!ri! mig / may/ could a!e ta"en the (us. 8I think )erh!)s she 'i'.9

Permission

Possibility or uncertainty

Impossibi' lity or certainty

,ust$ can*t - have - past participle e.g. 5ou must a!e le#t your )!ss)ort on the )&!ne. 8IO" sure you 'i'.9 M!ry can't a!e w$itten this. 8IO" sure she 'i'nOt9 &ad to) didn*t have to) didn*t need to) needn*t have done. here is no )!st ,or" o, must. *e use had to. e.g. *hen I %!s !t s$hoo&, %e ad to/ didn't a!e to wea$ uni,or"s. Note7 there is ! 'i,,eren$e (et%een didn*t need to !n' needn*t have done0 e.g. I didn't need to do !ny ho"e%ork yester'!y. 8I 'i'nOt h!#e to 'o s"th.9 I needn't a!e done !ny ho"e%ork yester'!y. 8I "!'e ! "ist!ke. I 'i' s"th. th!t %!s not ne$ess!ry.

8bligation

!uto"!ti$.

4dvice and opinion

1hould !n' shouldn*t N gi#e the s)e!kerOs o)inion o, %h!t is goo' or (!' !$tion. As this is !n o)inion it is o,ten use' ,or gi#ing !'#i$e. e.g. A'#i$e ' t in" you s ould tal" to your te!$her !(out it. O)inion ' t in" t e %olice s ould a$$est hoo&ig!ns. E+)e$t!tion hey s ould a$$i!e here !t !(out ?.HH. 2ught to !n' ought not to N $!n (e use' in the s!"e %!y !s should !n' shouldn*t0 e.g. ' t in" you oug t to tal" to your te!$her !(out it. Note7 they $!n (e use' in the s!"e %!y, (ut should is "ore ,re3uent&y use' th!n ought to. &ad better N h!s ! si"i&!r "e!ning. &ad is usu!&&y $ontr!$te' to *d. e.g. I think you'd bette$ tal" to your te!$her !(out it. *e'd bette$ not #o$get to turn o,, the $o")uter.

1hould$ ought to - have - past participle N they o,ten 'es$ri(e $riti$is" or re)ro!$h. e.g. I think you s ould a!e wo$"ed h!r'er. 8I think you %ere %rong.9 5ou s ouldn't a!e eaten so "u$hP