BRIEF HISTORY IN PHILOSOPHY: Three philosophical giants in history

The unexamined life is not worth living.

SOCRATES
(470399 B.C.) A. Brief Background Greek Philosopher One of his greatest contributions is his profound articulation that human beings possess a psyche (soul). o His notion of the soul goes beyond the materialistic conceptions of Democritus and Heraclitus. In the Pre-Socratics, the basic pre-occupation of philosophy is the discovery of Nature. The following pre-Socratics are often called natural thinkers, not philosophers in the strictest sense. o Thales: He believes that WATER is the fundamental element that makes up the physical universe. The seeds of all things have a moist nature and water is the origin of the nature of moist things. o Anaximander: He believes that the primary substance of all things is an INDEFINITE or BOUNDLESS realm (Indeterminate boundless). It is the eternal motion. It is the unoriginated and indestructible primary substance of things. o Anaximenes: He believes that AIR is the primary substance which constitutes all physical reality. All things appear what they are by virtue of how condensed or expanded the air is that makes up those things. o Pythagoras: He believes that everything is composed of NUMBERS, and that the study of Mathematics is the best purifier of the soul. o Heraclitus: He believes that FIRE and Flux is the basic unity and element of all things, since it has an element of deficiency and surplus; and a process of change and transformation. o Parmenides: He believes that the entire universe consists of one thing, which never changes, has no parts, and can never be destroyed. He calls this single thing the ONE. The One never changes and it must be motionless. If it would, then it wouldnt exist at all. o Leucippus and Democritus: They both believed that everything is composed of infinite number of particles or units called ATOMS. Since, the reality of space is a condition to create a coherent theory of motion and change. For Socrates, philosophy begins with the discovery of mans soul. o The excellence of the soul and how to attain it is his primary objective in philosophy. o What is more real is invisible to the naked-eye, so as the soul. He is one of the greatest critiques of the Sophists (viz., Protagoras, Gorgias, and Thrasymachus). o Protagoras believes that man is the measure of all things. Man is the source of all knowledge and understanding. o Gorgias believes that ingenuity and specious effectiveness in teaching is better rather than sound
argument. Rhetoric is the art of persuasion.

Thrasymachus believes that might is right. Injustice permeates greater in society than justice using power and authority. o He criticized these professional teachers or experts in philosophy simply because they teach philosophy in exchange for high fees, offered instruction in rhetoric, discourse, and politics. o Their presence and reputation decreases when they start questioning and attacking the established system of law, ethics, and religion of Athens. He wrote nothing but he conversed with his students more often. o

He o o o

came to life in and through the writings of Platos dialogue. The dialogue of Plato is a literary form to represent Socrates method. Such method is commonly called Socratic Method. Socrates is the center of all the philosophical conversations in his Dialogues, or better yet he is the mouthpiece of Plato in his works. He believed that one cannot acquire virtue or act rightly without knowledge. o Basic question: What makes a good person, good? o Answer: Knowing what is good by performing well. So to become a person of good character, one must learn the necessary and sufficient condition for becoming one. o That is, knowing what is good for the nourishment and cultivation of the soul and practicing it by living well. Knowing the difference between good and bad or right or wrong doesnt make a person good or virtuous. Since, the root of evil is ignorance. The solution or the way to overcome evil is knowledge of the Good. o But knowledge is not enough one must essentially practice it well. Therefore, to be a good or virtuous person doesnt necessarily mean that everything he says and does is perfect or has no taint of imperfections but more importantly he/she must examine him/herself every day and find a way on how he could improve the quality of his/her life. Knowledge and virtue are one, in the sense that the wise man, he knows what is right, will also do what is right. Ironic trial of Socrates: he was charged for (1) heresy and for (2) corrupting the minds of the young. Common brand to Socrates: (1) an intellectual midwife and (2) a gadfly of the state. For Socrates, there is no genuine philosophy until the mind turns around and examines itself. He said one must Know Thyself (Gnothi Seauton).

You can discover more about a person in an hour of play than in a year of discussion.

PLATO
(428/27348 B.C.) A. Brief Background Greek philosopher Original name: Aristocles A brilliant and devoted student of Socrates He came from a wealthy distinguished aristocratic family. His political dreams soon faded after the trial and death of Socrates. o Eventually, this is where he diverted his active public life to the private life of a philosopher. o This is where his passion in philosophy begins. Founder of the school: The Academy (387 B.C.) He wrote 20 books in philosophy. One of the well celebrated and controversial books is The Republic. o It is an ideal state or society. Some calls it a Utopia. o It is a thought-experiment of Plato, where a perfectly just, ordered and peaceful society is the ultimate goal.

 B.

He is the first feminist who advocates that women should also receive the same level of education given to men. o Since it is possible to have a philosopher-queen, not only philosopher kings. To explain The Republic, he makes use of the Allegory of the Cave, the Metaphor of the Divided Line, and the Theory of Forms.

The Myth of the Cave Plato describes our world like were in a large cave wherein since birth weve been chained by o ur legs and necks so that we cannot move. Since we cannot even turn our heads, what we can only see in front are mere images and shadows, and behind them is an elevation that rises abruptly from the level where the prisoners are seated. On this elevation, there are other human beings walking back and forth carrying artificial objects. Behind these walking human beings is a fire, and further back still is the entrance to the cave. When we see a shadow and hear someones voice echo from the wall, we assume that the sound is coming from the shadow, since they are not aware of the existence of anything else. The prisoners, like us, recognize as reality only the images and shadows formed or imprinted on the wall. If one of us were released from our chains, we are forced to stand up, turn around and walk with eyes lifted up toward the light of the fire (sun). Such ascent and movement is never easy, it is always painful. As we emerge into the fire (sun) we now see the Knowledge of the Truth. Illustration A Illustration B

C.

The Divided Line: The Platonic Levels of Being and Knowing In his metaphor of the Divided Line, he provides a more detailed level of Being and Knowing. In the process of discovering true knowledge, we move through the four stages of development. The progress of the soul is the ascent from lower to higher levels of Knowing, so that the soul also rises from lower to higher levels of Being.

D.

Theory of Forms Forms are those changeless, eternal, and nonmaterial essences or patterns of which the actual visible objects we see are only poor copies. For example, when we see or draw a circle, it is a physical circle. It is merely a copy of the Form of a Circle. There are five (5) fundamental questions we need to consider to understand this theory. 1. What are the Forms? o It is an Eternal pattern of which the object that we see is merely a copy. 2. Where do the Forms exist? o It exists independently from the physical world. o It exists neither in a place nor in space. o It exists in the mind of God. 3. What is the relation of Forms to Things? o The Form can be related to a thing in three ways. It is the cause of the essence of a thing. A thing may be said to participate in a Form. A thing may be said to imitate or copy a Form. 4. What is the relation of Forms to each other? o We can have a discourse or conversation only through merging together all the Forms. o Thinking and discourse continue for the most part on a level above concrete things. o We speak in terms of the essences or universals that things illustrate. 5. How do we know the Forms? o The mind can discover the Forms in three (3) ways. Through Recollection: the nature of the soul has a pre-knowledge of the Forms. We simply have to recollect it through education. Through Dialectic discourse: the power of abstracting the essence of things and discovering its relations to others. Though the Power of Desire (Eros or Love): a movement from the beautiful object to the beautiful thought and then to the very essence of Beauty itself.

Excellence is not an act. It is a matter of good habit.

ARISTOTLE
(384 322 B.C.) A. Brief Background Greek philosopher, Scientist, and Logician Great and prominent student of Plato. Tutor of Alexander the Great, son of King Philip of Macedonia. Founded the school: Lyceum. The Father of Western Logic (Syllogistic Logic). The first noted taxonomist in his time. At the invitation of his friend Hermeas, ruler of Atarneus and Assos in Mysia, Aristotle left for his court. He stayed three years and, while there, married Pythias, the niece of the King.

 B.

In later life, he was married a second time to a woman named Herpyllis, who bore him a son, Nicomachus.

Preliminary Questions in Aristotles Ethics What is the Good (Best) Life? What makes the Good good?

C.

Overview Aristotles ethics does not focus on what the right thing/act to do is but rather on how to be a good person. o It concentrates on defining good people and the qualities/virtues that make them good. o It is agent-centered morality and so it focused on is x a good person rather than is x right or wrong? The best and happiest life, according to Aristotle, involved living well in a community or society, respecting both other people and your own interests. The good (best) life means to have a happy life. But to achieve this, one must live a virtuous life. The virtuous life means to be aware and to practice moderation guided by prudent judgment. Therefore, the good (best) life means living well or a life living according to what is virtuous. What is a good person? A good person is a virtuous person. o The virtuous person has practical wisdom or phronesis, that is, the ability to know when and how best to apply the various moral perspectives. o The virtuous person knows how to live his life to the fullest. o The virtuous person understands life by living well.

D.

Nicomachean Ethics Basic Greek concepts that is essential in the Aristotles philosophy. Arete (excellence or virtue), Phronesis (practical or moral wisdom), and Eudaimonia (happiness or human flourishing). Nicomachean ethics focuses on the importance of habitually behaving virtuously and developing a virtuous character. Aristotle emphasized the importance of context to ethical behavior, and the ability of the virtuous person to recognize the best course of action. Aristotle argued that Eudaimonia is the goal of life, and that a person's pursuit of Eudaimonia, rightly conceived, will result in virtuous conduct. In brief, we can describe Aristotles ethics as: o Goal-directed ethics He believes that everything has a purpose or end. o Character-centered ethics This attitude toward ethics is called virtue ethics: each person's actions should make that person better and build a better character.

E.

Characteristics of the Good The good is the end of action. o In every action and decision, it is the end, since it is for the sake of the end that everyone does the other things. The good is complete. o The good is apparently something complete. Happiness meets the criteria for completeness, but other goods do not. o Happiness more than anything else seems unconditionally complete, since we always choose it because of itself, never because of something else. The good is self- sufficient, so is happiness. o Happiness is complete, also appears to follow from self-sufficiency, since the complete good seems to be self-sufficient. The good is most choice-worthy, so is happiness. o The complete good is most choice-worthy and happiness is most choice-worthy of all goods, since it is not counted as one good among many.

F.

Clearer Statement of the Best Good If something has a function, its good depends on its function. What sorts of things have function? The human function, that is, rational function. The human good is activity expressing virtue. The good must also be complete.

G.

What is Virtue? It is a state that decides in a mean relative to us which defined by reference to reason that an intelligent person would define it. In laymans term, virtue is a disposition of the soul or o Virtue is habituation guided by right intention. o Vice is habituation with wrong intention. It is avoidance of two extremes: Excessiveness and Deficiency. Best expressed in the Latin phrase: Medio Stat Virtus Virtue lies in the middle.

H.

Two Sorts of Virtue Virtue of Thought arises and grows mostly from teaching and hence needs experience and time Virtue of Character results from habit. o Virtues are those strengths of character that enable us to flourish. o Virtue comes about, not by a process of nature, but by habituation. o None of the virtues of character arises in us naturally.

I.

Three Forms of Friendship For Aristotle, human relationships, in general, and friendship, in particular, is a vital element in the cultivation of a good life. o Friendship oriented on pleasure. o Friendship grounded on utility or usefulness. o Friendship rooted on goodness.

Summary: Aristotles ethics does not focus on what the right thing/act to do is but rather on how to be a good person. o It concentrates on defining good people and the qualities/virtues that make them good. o It is agent-centered morality and so it focused on is x a good person rather than is x right or wrong? The best and happiest life, according to Aristotle, involved living well in a community or society, respecting both other people and your own interests. The good (best) life means to have a happy life. But to achieve this, one must live a virtuous life. The virtuous life means to be aware and to practice moderation guided by prudent judgment. Therefore, the good (best) life means living well or a life living according to what is virtuous. What is a good person? A good person is a virtuous person. o The virtuous person has practical wisdom or phronesis, that is, the ability to know when and how best to apply the various moral perspectives. o The virtuous person knows how to live his life to the fullest. o The virtuous person understands life by living well.