Sean Nalty April 24, 2006 Professor Ayers-HIUS 723 For generations, political istorians ar!

e" #it election statistics an" t e #ritings of political elites tol" t e story of A!erican "e!ocracy in t e nineteent cent$ry as a tri$!p of egalitarianis! an" t e presence of an infor!e" citi%enry& In recent years, istorians "issatisfie" #it a narro# foc$s on electoral politics a'e so$g t to (roa"en t e !eaning of political engage!ent to incl$"e t e actions of non-elites, t e large !a)ority of 'oters& * e "e(ate o'er # at sort of (eliefs an" aspirations t ese 'oters carrie" #it t e! to t e polls co!es t ro$g in +ic ar" ,& -allely.s The Two Reconstructions /20001 an" +ic ar" 2ensel.s The American Ballot Box in the Mid-Nineteenth Century /20041& 2ot #or3s see3 to ans#er t e 4$estion5 6 at "i" t e act of 'oting !ean for or"inary A!ericans, partic$larly # ite an" (lac3 !ales7 * ro$g an e8a!ination of social !o'e!ents an" t eir connection to parties, t e $se of (ot 4$antitati'e an" 4$alitati'e so$rces, as #ell as t e li!its to a rational c oice t eory of politics, t is paper #ill ig lig t t e 'ery "ifferent ans#ers to t e a(o'e 4$estion gi'en (y eac a$t or& 6 ile -allely see3s to (ring social !o'e!ents as a !a)or factor into is analysis of t e s$ccess of t e 9Secon" +econstr$ction,: 2ensel 'irt$ally ignores any e'i"ence of an anti-party, grassroots acti'is! # ile concentrating on a 'oter.s i"entity as a partisan& -allely "oes a nice )o( in (ringing t e rea"er.s attention to t e fact t at 9protest an" contention a'e al#ays reg$late" t e politics of African A!erican electoral concl$sion&: /;1 * at sai", -allely !ig t a'e "one a !ore effecti'e )o( in act$ally connecting t e #ay in # ic social !o'e!ents affecte" t e sp ere of electoral an" instit$tional politics& For instance, -allely presents t e pict$re of ci'il rig ts organi%ations see!ingly #or3ing in tan"e! #it t e <o nson A"!inistration to foc$s p$(lic attention on t e nee" for ci'il rig ts legislation& * o$g -allely certainly $n"erstan"s t e i!portance of t e protests in s aping p$(lic opinion, ot er possi(le e8planations !ig t a'e e4$al pla$si(ility& =ne e8planation, "escri(e" in <& ,ills * ornton.s Dividing Lines /20021, #o$l" foc$s on t e #ays in # ic African A!erican elites p$s e" for incl$sion in !$nicipal

politics rat er t an organi%ining a !ass protest !o'e!ent& * e "i'isions o'er t e 3in" of strategy !ost effecti'e for ci'il rig ts organi%ations also (eco!e less clear in -allely.s acco$nt& 6as t e legalist approac of t e National Association for t e A"'ance!ent of >olore" People essentially t e sa!e strategy as t e pacific, "irect-action, st$"ent protests of t e St$"ent Non'iolent >oor"inating >o!!ittee or later in t e "eca"e t e !ilitant 2lac3 Pant er Party7 =('io$sly no, ($t -allely still co!(ines all of t ese approac es toget er #it o$t a"e4$ately "isting$is ing t eir "ifferent ai!s an" o()ecti'es& Anot er e8planation, in'ol'es t e possi(ility t at ci'il rig ts gro$ps an" t e <o nson A"!inistration "i" not necessarily #or3 toget er for t e sa!e en"s, ($t !ig t a'e "isplaye" so!e antagonis! to#ar" eac ot er& In"ee", -allely 4$otes <o nson?s a"!ission t at e so$g t legislation t at #o$l" 4$ell criticis! fro! li(erals in is o#n party as #ell as t ose acti'ists #is ing for a to$g er stance against t e segregationist regi!es& /@;61 * e fear of f$rt er protest !o'e!ents, I #o$l" clai!, force" <o nson, li3e is pre"ecessor, to act !ore "ecisi'ely in fa'or of African A!erican ci'il rig ts, rat er t an s are in a co!!on goal or strategy #it gro$ps s$c as t e NAA>P& Unli3e -allely.s foc$s on t e intersections of social !o'e!ents #it for!al electoral an" instit$tional politics, 2ensel specifically states t at is interest lies in re'ising 9t e gol"en age of "e!ocracy: 'ie# s$ppose"ly el" (y nineteent -cent$ry political istorians& /2;01 * o$g e

appro'ingly cites t e arg$!ents of Alenn Altsc $ler an" St$art 2l$!in.s Rude Repu lic /20001, 2ensel says re!ar3a(le little a(o$t t e c$lt$ral (asis of politics o$tsi"e t e polling place& As a conse4$ence, e !isses an opport$nity to "isc$ss o# aspects of !aterial c$lt$re s ape" t e "egree in # ic A!ericans (eca!e politically engage"& Altsc $ler an" 2l$!in.s clai!s, o#e'er, t at t e a'erage A!erican 'oter of t e nineteent cent$ry el" a rat er a!(i'alent 'ie# of political engage!ent !ay nee" so!e 4$alification& A recent st$"y fro! ,ar3 Neely, The Boundaries o! the American "olitical Culture in the Civil #ar $ra /20001, as offere" e'i"ence t at ele!ents of !aterial c$lt$re fo$n" in t e researc collections of or"inary A!ericans, s$c as ne#spapers, lit ograp s, an" pins, all re'eal a !$c !ore politically a#are p$(lic t an Altsc $ler

an" 2l$!in or e'en 2ensel.s st$"y #o$l" ten" to s$ggest& Again, t e 4$estion of o# (est to e8plain 'oting (e a'ior gets at t e pro(le! of inferring t e !oti'ations an" (eliefs of $!an actors fro! frag!entary #ritten an" 'is$al so$rces& 6 ile so!e 'oters $n"o$(te"ly 'ote" for a straig t tic3et #it o$t a (asic co!!an" of t e iss$es, co!!itte" partisans clearly feare" t at #it o$t iss$es, a large !a)ority of t e 'oters !ig t t$rn to ot er t ir"-party !o'e!ents, s$c as t e Bno#-Not ings or Free Soilers& * erefore, 2ensel.s analysis !ig t a'e profite" (y a "isc$ssion of t e po#er of t ir"-party an" anti-party feelings "$ring t e entire perio" of is st$"y& Si!ilarly, t e relations ip of c $rc es, t e #or3place, an" e'en t e o!e to a !ale 'oter.s political i"entity goes largely $ne8plore" in (ot -allely an" 2ensel.s #or3s& * e $se of 4$antitati'e analysis an" !ore tra"itional so$rces "iffers !ar3e"ly in (ot -allely an" 2ensel.s e8ploration of 'oting in t e nineteent an" t#entiet cent$ries& -allely (ases !ost of is arg$!ents $pon t e e8tensi'e rele'ant secon"ary literat$re in t e fiel"s of istory an" political science& In essence, 'ery little e'i"ence t at e $ses #o$l" stri3e any specialist in eit er of t e 9*#o +econstr$ctions: as ne#, ($t is strengt lies in is a(ility to f$se t e t#o perio"s toget er t ro$g is !o"el of coalition-($il"ing an" instit$tional sta(ili%ation&

6 ereas -allely loo3s to 4$antitati'e analysis to pro'i"e so!e #ay of getting at t e str$ct$ral o(stacles to a per!anent, #inning iracial +ep$(lican coalition, 2ensel ar"ly treats t e 4$antitati'e analysis of t e 9ne#: political istorians at all& Instea", 2ensel tries to get (eyon" t e o$tco!e-(ase" ass$!ptions of t ese istorians an" s e" lig t $pon t e e8periences of co!!on 'oters& /'ii-'iii1 Ne'ert eless, 2ensel !ig t a'e strengt ene" is arg$!ent for t e essential "is)$nction (et#een 'oting an" policy-!a3ing (y act$ally tracing o# politicians conscio$sly crafte" electoral la# to s$it t eir p$rposes, # et er in "isfranc ising i!!igrants an" African A!ericans or gerry!an"ering "istricts to $rt t eir opponents& 2ensel #is es $s to ta3e t e testi!ony of 'oters as gen$ine, ($t e lea'es !$c of t e conte8t for t e earings o$t& 6 y "i" politicians an" parties contest certain "isp$te" elections an" not ot ers7 6 at role "i" t e )$"icial syste! play in s aping t e nat$re of nineteent -cent$ry elections7 * $s, # ere -allely

clearly s o#s t e po#er of instit$tions in A!erican politics, 2ensel c$rio$sly lea'es t e rea"er #it t e i!pression t at politics e8iste" as a largely co!!$nity-(ase" ga!e (et#een partisans #it no real conse4$ence (eyon" t e gain of spoils (y t e 'ictorio$s si"e& +ea"ing (ot -allely an" 2ensel toget er s o$l" gi'e one pa$se # en e!ploying a rational c oice t eory of 'oting (e a'ior& -allely tries to arg$e for a rational c oiceCinstit$tionalist !o"el # ere coalition-!a3ing prece"es an instit$tionali%ation of t e ne# coalition t ro$g t e crafting of policy an" a fa'ora(le )$rispr$"ence& * is pict$re of one e'ent /coalition-!a3ing1 necessarily lea"ing to anot er /policy-!a3ingCenforce!ent1 o(sc$res t e #ays in # ic t e process co$l" act$ally re'erse or fail to occ$r altoget er& For instance, -allely pro'i"es precio$s little analysis of t e #ay in # ic t e 6arren >o$rt, t ro$g its "ecisions li3e Brown, effecti'ely anticipate" an" "i" not si!ply react to t e actions of t e ot er t#o (ranc es of go'ern!ent& In t is case, t e >o$rt.s ref$sal to sanction a prece"ent a" pro"$ce" a pro(le! for t ose segregationists # o relie" $pon t e co$rts to s$stain t e! "$ring t e First +econstr$ction& Anot er e8a!ple occ$rs # en e "isc$sses t e forging of a per!anent lin3 (et#een African A!ericans an" t e De!ocratic Party "$ring t e Areat Depression& -allely "escri(es t e "ecision of African A!ericans as a 3in" of gra"$al one, (ro$g t a(o$t (y t e gro#ing (elief t at t e +ep$(lican Party a" effecti'ely a(an"one" African A!ericans an" t eir concerns& Still, -allely "oes not pro'i"e any sort of 'oting statistics or !$c ne#spaper an" personal correspon"ence to reinforce t is clai! an" t $s one co$l" pla$si(ly arg$e t at African A!ericans 'ote" De!ocratic to t ro# o$t t e 9"o-not ing: Hoo'er A"!inistration an" get econo!ic relief& * $s, African A!ericans 9)oine": t e De!ocratic Party initially for reasons t at pro(a(ly a" 'ery little to "o #it coalition-($il"ing& In contrast to -allely, 2ensel "e!onstrates t e li!its of t e istorian.s a(ility to ascertain t e !oti'es (e in" a person.s 'oting (e a'ior& 2ensel 4$ite properly e!p asi%es t e #illingness of partisans to e!ploy fra$" an" t reats of 'iolence in or"er to infl$ence t e co$rse of elections& Ne'ert eless, I (elie'e 2ensel p$s es is criti4$e of rational-c oice t eory f$rt er t an is

e'i"ence can s$stain it& First, 2ensel.s acco$nt "ra#s !ainly $pon fe"erally conteste" elections in t e nort ern an" (or"er states, # ile ignoring t e Deep So$t t at occ$pies !$c of -allely.s "isc$ssion& In !a3ing t e point t at 'oters respon"e" to et noc$lt$ral infl$ences, 2ensel !ig t a'e consi"ere" # et er t at arg$!ent #o$l" a'e #or3e" in a region s$c as t e Deep So$t , # ere race pro'e" a !$c !ore "i'isi'e iss$e t an et nicity& * ro$g o$t t e co$ntry, iss$es of race an" et nicity often appeare" in ca!paign literat$re an" partisan speec es, s$ggesting t at 'oters "i" not only recei'e long "isco$rses o'er econo!ic policy& Also, I t in3 e ten"s to conf$se t e presence of s$(stanti'e policy iss$es #it si!ply (eing econo!ic ones& * ro$g o$t t e nineteent cent$ry, politicians relie" $pon t e social clea'ages of race an" et nicity to gain an" !aintain office& Iss$es li3e i!!igration, # ic a" an i!portant econo!ic "i!ension to

t e! as #ell, co$l" pro'i"e 'oters #it a real, tangi(le iss$e t at co$l" play $pon alrea"y e8isting pre)$"ices an" protect a #or3er?s econo!ic interests& * $s, people co$l" 'ote for a partic$lar can"i"ate for a !$ltit$"e of reasons, so!e rational an" ot ers not& I "o conce"e t at so!e 'oters "i" not possess a strong $n"erstan"ing of t e contrasting positions of t e can"i"ates "$ring elections, ($t 2ensel $nfort$nately ai!s to esta(lis a national pattern on t e (asis of )$st 4E fe"erally "isp$te" elections o'er @7 years& * e fact t at states el" elections year-ro$n" t ro$g o$t t is perio" apparently "i" not #arrant i! to ta3e a loo3 at instances of fra$" an" coercion t ere& As a $sef$l correcti'e to t e istorian.s pres$!ption of rationality, 2ensel #or3s 'ery #ell, ($t e !isses an opport$nity to generali%e is fin"ings nationally an" also in'estigate # et er local an" state elections generate" "ifferent types of iss$es an" 'oting (e a'ior t an fe"eral elections& 2ot -allely an" 2ensel present a contrasting portrait of 'oting in nineteent cent$ry A!erica& 6 ile eac a$t or a"!its t at 'oting entaile" consi"era(le fra$", t e t#o "isagree on # et er 'oters t e!sel'es carrie" any sort of "eep con'ictions a(o$t p$(lic policy& -allely ta3es a !ore 9ne#: political istory approac an" ass$!es t at African A!ericans, # en not inti!i"ate" or forci(ly pre'ente" fro! 'oting, rationally place" t eir tr$st in t e +ep$(lican an"

later De!ocratic parties& 2ensel, o#e'er, co!plicates any easy ass$!ption of rationality (y ig lig ting t e !essy an" "ist$r(ing $n"ersi"e of "e!ocracy, t e (allot (o8 itself& * o$g istorians cannot rea"ily "iscern t e !oti'ation of co$ntless n$!(ers of 'oters, t ese t#o #or3s pro'i"e a!ple foo" for t o$g t # en one tries to $n"erstan" t e social !eaning of 'oting in a s$ppose"ly "e!ocratic syste!&