Fundamentals of Momentum, Heat and Mass Transfer

1
Chapter 1: Introduction 1.4 Fundamentals of Momentum, Heat and Mass Transfer

Advanced Heat and Mass Transfer b Amir Fa!hri, "u#en $han!, and %ohn &. Ho#ell
Transport phenomena are usually modeled in

continuum state for most applications.
The continuum criterion is usually expressed in terms

of the Knudsen number
(1.51)
1.4 Fundamentals of Momentum, Heat
and Mass Transfer
1.4.1 Continuum Flo# 'imitations
Kn
L
2
Based on the degree of rarefaction of gas or the gases

size, the flo regimes in !arious de!ices can be
classified into four regimes"
1. Continuum regime (Kn # $.$$1). The %a!ier&'to(es and
energy e)uations are !alid (ith no&slip*no +ump boundary
conditions).
2. Slip flow regime ($.$$1 # Kn # $.1). The %a!ier&'to(es and
energy e)uations can be used ith the application of slip or
+ump boundary conditions, i.e., alloing non&zero axial fluid
!elocity near the all of the ob+ect.
3. Transition regime ($.1 # Kn # 1$). The %a!ier&'to(es e)uation
is not !alid, and the flo must be sol!ed using molecular
based models such as the Boltzmann e)uation or ,irect
'imulation -onte .arlo (,'-.).
4. Free molecular flow regime (Kn/1$). The collision beteen
molecules can be neglected and a collisionless Boltzmann
e)uation can be used.
3
The mean free path, e). (1.10), can be reritten as

(1.51)
2 Boltzmann constant, 2 collision diameter, and p 2
!apor pressure.
.ombining e)s. (1.51) and (1.51) and applying the

e)uation of state, , one can obtain the transition
density from continuum !apor flo to rarefied or free
molecular !apor flo as
(1.53)
2
1.051
2
b
k T
p
b
k
g
p R T
2
1.051
2 Kn
b
tr
g
k
R D
4
4ssuming that the !apor is in the saturation state, the transition

!apor temperature corresponding to the transition density can be
obtained by using the .lausius&.lapeyron e)uation combined ith
the e)uation of state
(1.55)
p
sat
and T
sat
2 saturation pressure and temperature, 2 latent heat
of e!aporation, and the !apor density is gi!en by e). (1.53).
6)uation (1.55) can be reritten as

(1.55)
and sol!ed iterati!ely for using the %eton&7aphson*secant
method.
v
h
l
1 1
ln 0
tr g
v
sat g tr sat
T R
h
p R T T
_ _
+

, ,
l
tr
T
1 1
exp
sat v
tr
g g tr sat
p h
T
R R T T
1
_

1

1
,
]
l
5
Fi!ure 1.( .ouette flo
Momentum Transfer
The relation for .ouette flo

can be expressed as
(1.58)
2 shear stress (%*m
1
),
2 dynamic !iscosity (%&s*m
1
),
du/dy 2 !elocity gradient in the
y-direction, also (non as the
rate of deformation.
yx
du
dy

yx
1.4.) Momentum, Heat and Mass Transfer

6
Chapter 1: Introduction Transport *henomena in Multiphase +stems #ith *hase Chan!e b Amir Fa!hri , "u#en $han!
The !iscous force comes into play hene!er there is

!elocity gradient in a fluid. 9or a three&dimensional fluid
flo problem, the stress is a tensor of ran( to ith nine
components. :t can be expressed as summation of an
isotropic, thermodynamic stress and a !iscous stress"
(1.50)
here p is thermodynamic pressure, and I is the unit tensor
defined as
(1.5;)
p
+ I
1 0 0
0 1 0
0 0 1
1
1
1
1
]
I
7
9or a three&dimensional fluid flo problem,

the shear stress is a tensor of ran( to ith
nine components"
(1.5<)
The first subscript represents the axis

normal to the face on hich the stress acts.
The second subscript represents the

direction of the stress (see 9ig. 1.0).
xx xy xz
yx yy yz
zx zy zz

1
1
1
1
]

8
Fi!ure 1.- .omponents of the stress tensor in a fluid
9
The !iscous stress tensor can be expressed by %eton=s la of

!iscosity
(1.8$)
here 2 di!ergence of the !elocity (see 4ppendix .).
7ate of deformation or strain rate, ., in a three&dimensional flo is

another tensor of ran( to.
(1.81)
here 2 trans!erse tensor of .
2
2 ( )
3
D V I
V
( )
1 1
2 2
1 1 1
2 2 2
1 1
2 2
T
u u v u w
x y x z x
v u v v w
x y y z y
w u w v w
x z y z z

+ +

+ + +

+ +

1 _
_

1
,
,
1
1
_ _
1
1

]
, ,
1
1
_
_
1

1 ,
, ]
D V V
( )
T
V V
10
:n a .artesian coordinate system, the normal and shear

!iscous stresses can be expressed as
(1.81)
(1.83)
9or a multicomponent system, the !iscosity of the

mixture is related to the !iscosity of the indi!idual
component by
(1.85)
here x
i
is molar fraction of component i and
(1.85)
2
2
3
xx
u u v w
x x y z

_
+ +

,
xy
u v
y x

_
+

,
1
1
N
i i
N
i
i ij
j
x
x
2
1/ 2 1/ 2
1/ 4
1
1 1
8
j
i i
ij
j j i
M
M
M M
1
_ _
_
1
+ +

1
,
, ,
]
11
Heat Transfer
>eat transfer rate by conduction is related to the

temperature gradient by 9ourier=s la.
9or the one&dimensional heat transfer problem in

9ig. 1.;, in hich temperature !aries in the y&
direction only, the heat transfer rate is obtained
by 9ourier=s la
(1.88)
y
dT
q k
dy

12
Fi!ure 1./ ?ne&dimensional conduction.
13
9or heat conduction in a multidimensional

system, e). (1.88) can be reritten in the
folloing generalized form
(1.80)
here both the heat flux and the temperature
gradient are !ectors, i.e.,
(1.8;)
k T
q
x y z
q q q

+ + q i j k
14
@nli(e the isotropic materials hose thermal conducti!ity is a scalar,

the thermal conducti!ity of the anisotropic material is a tensor of the
second order"
(1.8<)
and e). (1.80) ill become
(1.0$)
xx xy xz
yx yy yz
zx zy zz
k k k
k k k
k k k
1
1
1
1
]
k
T
q k
15
:n a multicomponent system, mass transfer

can also contribute to the heat flux
(1.01)
here the second term on the right&hand side
represents the interdiffusional con!ection
term, and the third term is the contribution of
concentration gradient to the heat flux (the
diffusion&thermo or ,ufour effect).
1 1 1( )
T N N N
i j j
i i
i i u
i ij i j i i j j i
x x
D
T h cR T
D

_
+ +

,

J
J
q k J
16
9or a binary system

(1.01)
here are mass fraction of component 1 and 1

respecti!ely.
(1.03)
1 2
12 12
1 2
x x
D

D
12 33 13 23 1 2
12
1 2 12 33 13 23
x x
D

+
D D D D
D D D D
1 2
and
17
Fi!ure 1.0 9orced con!ecti!e heat transfer.
(1.05)
(1.05)
( )
w
q h T T

hL
Nu
k
18
T a b l e 1 . 5 Typical values of mean convective eat t!ansfe! coefficients

"ode #eomet!y
2
($/m %K) h
&i! flo's at 2 m/s ove! a 0.2 m s(ua!e plate 12
&i! at 2 atm flo'in) in a 2.5 cm%diamete! tu*e 'it a
velocity of 10 m/s
+5
$ate! flo'in) in a 2.5 cm%diamete! tu*e 'it a mass flo'
!ate of 0.5 ,)/s
3500
-o!ced convection
&i!flo' ac!oss 5 cm%diamete! cylinde! 'it velocity of 50
m/s
180
.e!tical plate 0.3 m i) in ai!
4.5
-!ee convection

o
( 20 /) T )
0o!i1ontal cylinde! 'it a diamete! of 2 cm in 'ate!
820
3vapo!ation -allin) film on a eated 'all
+000%24000
.e!tical su!face
4000%11300
/ondensation of 'ate! at 1
atm
5utside o!i1ontal tu*e
2500%25000
6ool
2500%3500
7oilin) of 'ate! at 1 atm
-o!ced convection
5000%100000
"eltin) in a !ectan)ula! enclosu!e
500%1500
8atu!al convection%
cont!olled meltin) and
solidification
9olidification a!ound a o!i1ontal tu*e in a supe!eated li(uid
pase can)e mate!ial
1000%1500

19
The third mode of heat transfer is radiation. Ahen matter

is heated, some of its molecules or atoms are excited to
a higher energy le!el. Thermal radiation occurs hen
these excited molecules or atoms return to loer energy
states. 4lthough thermal radiation can result from
changes of the energy states of electrons, as ell as
!ibrational and rotational energy of molecules or atoms,
all of these radiant energies tra!el at the speed of light.
The a!elength is related to the fre)uency by
(1.08)
4n electromagnetic a!e can also be !ieed as a

particle Ba photonB ith energy of
(1.00)
c
h
20
9or a blac(body, the spectral emissi!e poer can be obtained by

Clanc(=s la
(1.0;)
The emissi!e poer for a blac(body, is

(1.0<)
'ubstituting e). (1.0;) into e). (1.0<), 'tefan&Boltzmann=s la is

obtained
(1.;$)
9or a real surface, the emissi!e poer is obtained by

(1.;1)
:f the temperature of the surroundings is T

sur
, the heat transfer rate
per unit area from the small ob+ect is obtained by
(1.;1)
2
1
:
/( ) 2
( 1)
b
c T
c
E
e
:
0
b b
E E d
4
b S
E T
b
E E
4 4
( )
S w sur
q T T

21
Fi!ure 1.11 7adiation heat transfer beteen
a small surface and its surroundings.
T
'
22
Mass Transfer
Ahen there is a species concentration difference

in a multicomponent mixture, mass transfer
occurs.
To modes of mass transfer"
,iffusi!e & random molecular motion at the

microscopic le!el, can occur in a solid, li)uid or gas.
.on!ecti!e & combination of random molecular

motion at the microscopic le!el and bul( motion at
macroscopic le!el, can occur in li)uid or gas.
The species concentration in a mixture, , is

defined as the mass of species i per unit !olume
of the mixture ((g*m
3
).
i

23
The density of the mixture e)uals the sum of the

concentrations of all species, i.e.,
(1.;3)
The concentration of the i

t!
species can also be
represented by the mass fraction of the i
t!
species,
defined as
(1.;5)
:t follos from e). (1.;3) that

(1.;5)
1
N
i
i

i
i

1
1
N
i
i

24
The concentration of the i

t!
species can also be represented by
molar concentration defined as molar number of the i
t!
species per
unit !olume, , hich is related to the mass concentration
by
(1.;8)
The molar concentration of the mixture e)uals the sum of the molar
concentrations of all species
(1.;0)
The molar fraction of the i

t!
species is defined as
(1.;;)
hich leads to
(1.;<)
i
i
i
c
M
1
1
N
i
i
x
3
(,mol/m )
i
c
i
i
c
x
c

N
i
i
c c
25
The mean molecular mass of the mixture can be

expressed as
(1.<$)
The mass fraction is related to the molar fraction

by
(1.<1)
1
N
i
i
i
x M M
c

1
N
j
j
i i i i
i
j
x
x M x M
M
M
26
The molar fraction is related to the mass fraction by

(1.<1)
The local mass&a!eraged !elocity of all species is defined as

(1.<3)
The molar&a!eraged !elocity can be defined in a similar manner"

(1.<5)
The mass flux and molar flux relati!e to stationary coordinate axes
are defined as
(1.<5)
(1.<8)
1
/
/
N
j
j
i i
i
j
M
x
M
1 1
1
1
N N
i i
N
i i
i
N
i
i
i
i i
i
!
V
V V
%
1
1
;
N
i
N
i
i
i
i
i
c
x
c
V
V V
%
i i i
m V
&
i i i
c
n V
&
27
The fluxes defined in e)s. (1.<5) and (1.<8) are related by

(1.<0)
4pplying e)s. (1.<5) and (1.<8) into e)s. (1.<3) and (1.<5), the total
mass flux and molar flux are obtained.
(1.<;)
(1.<<)
The mass flux relati!e to the mass&a!eraged !elocity is

(1.1$$)
and the molar flux relati!e to the molar a!eraged !elocity is
(1.1$1)
4ccording to e)s. (1.<3) and (1.<5), e ha!e

(1.1$1)
i
i
i
M

m
n
&
&
1
N
i
i

m m V
%
& &
;
1
N
i
i
c
n n V
%
& &
( )
i i i
J V V
%
; ;
( )
i i i
c J V V
%
;
1 1
0
N N
i i
i i

J J
28
4ccording to e)s. (1.<5) B (1.1$1), the folloing relationships

beteen different fluxes are !alid"
(1.1$3)
(1.1$5)
9or a binary system that is uniform ith all aspects except

concentration, i.e., no temperature or pressure gradient, the
diffusi!e mass flux can be obtained by 9ic(=s la"
(1.1$5)
or alternati!ely
(1.1$8)
The mass and molar&flux relati!e to a stationary coordinate axes are

(1.1$0)
(1.1$;)
1
N
i i i i j i
j

+ +
m V J m J
%
& &
; ; ;
1
N
i i i i i i
i
c x
+ +
n V J n J
%
& &
1 12 1
D J
;
1 12 1
cD x J
1 1 1 2 12 1
( ) D

+ m m m
& & &
1 1 1 2 12 1
( ) x cD x

+ n n n
& & &
29
9igure 1.11 shos an

isothermal and isobaric
steady&state one&
dimensional binary system.
'urface (y2$) is
impermeable to species 1.
The mass flux of species 1 at

the surface (y2$) is
(1.1$<)
Fi!ure 1.11 ?ne&dimensional mass
diffusion.
y
"
$
1y
" &
1
( ) y
1
12 1
1
1
1
y
D
"
y

&
30
9or a multicomponent lo&density gaseous mixture, the

folloing -axell&'tefan relation can be used to relate the
molar fraction gradient of the i
th
component and the molar
flux by"
(1.11$)
The -axell&'tefan relation can also be reritten in

terms of mass fraction and mass flux
(1.111)
( )
1( )
1( )
( )
1
: 1: 2: : 1
N
i j
i i j
ij j j i
N
j i i j
ij j j i
x x
x
D
x x i N
cD

V V
n n
& &
L
1( )
(ln ) : 1: 2: : 1
N
i j j i
i i
ij j j j i
M
M i N
D M

J J
L
31
The diffusi!e mass fluxes for a system that contains

components can be obtained by sol!ing a set of B 1
e)uations
(1.111)
hich is referred to as the generalized 9ic( e)uation,
hich is applicable to a system ith concentration,
temperature, and pressure gradients.
1
ln : 1: 2: :
N
T
i i i ij j
j
D T i N
J d L D
32
The second term is diffusion caused by all other dri!ing forces,

including concentration gradient, pressure, and body force, here
is the multicomponent Fic# diffusi$ity. is obtained from
(1.113)
here
(1.115)
The multicomponent 9ic( diffusi!ities are symmetric ( )

and satisfy .
6)uation (1.111) can be rearranged to express the dri!ing force, d

i
,
in terms of mass flux, i.e.,
(1.115)
ij
D
ij
D
1( )
< <
N
i ij ij # i#
# # i
D D

D
<
i j
ij ij
i j
D D
x x

ij
D
ij ji
D D
1
1
N
i ij
i

D
1( )
1( )
(ln )
: 1: 2: :
T
T N
i j j
i
i
ij i j j j i
N
i j j
i
ij i j j j i
x x D
D
T
D
x x
i N
D

_

,
_

,
d
J
J
L
33
The diffusional dri!ing force di is obtained by

(1.118)
9or an ideal gas mixture, the generalized dri!ing force becomes

(1.110)
'ubstituting e). (1.110) into e). (1.111) and after some

manipulations, the final form of mass flux in the 9ic( form is
obtained as
(1.11;)
'imilarly, substituting e). (1.110) into e). (1.115), the final form of
the -axell&'tefan e)uations becomes
(1.11<)
1
1 1 1
ln
N
u i i
i i j j
j
i i i
cR T g h
T T p
T M M

_
+ +

,

d X X
1
N
u i i i i i i j j
j
cR T p p
+

d X X
1 1
ln
N N
T i
i i ij i j j j j # #
u j #
D T p p
cR T

_
+ +

,

J X X D
1( )
1 1( )
(ln ): 1: 2: :
N
i j j
i
u i i i i
ij j i j j i
T
T N N
i j j
i
i j j u
ij j i j j j i
x x
cR T p p
D
x x D
D
cR T T i N
D

_

,
_
+

,

J
J
X
X L
34
The multicomponent thermodiffusi!ity for species

i is expressed as
(1.11$)
here is the thermal diffusion ratio.
9or applications that in!ol!e mass diffusion in a

binary mixture containing species 1 and 1, the
multicomponent thermodiffusi!ity becomes
(1.111)
1 2
12 12
2
T T
i
M M
D D k
M
2
1( )
N
i j
T T
i ij ij
j j i
M M
D D k
M

T
ij
k
35
Table 1.( Thermal diffusion ratios for selected li2uids and lo#3
densit !ases
12
T
k
/omponents T(K) x
1
=i(uids /
2
0
2
/l
4
> n%/
+
0
14
228 0.5 1.08
/
2
0
4
7!
2
> /
2
0
4
/l
2
228 0.5 0.225
/
2
0
2
/l
4
> //l
4
228 0.5 0.0+0
/7!
4
> //l
4
228 0.02 0.122
//l
4
> /0
3
50 313 0.5 1.23
/0
3
50

> 0
2
5 313 0.5 %0.134
cyclo%/
+
01
2
> /
+
0
+
313 0.5 0.100
8e%0e 330 0.2 0.0531
0.+ 0.1004
0.224 0.0548
0.445 0.0++3
0.10 0.0145
0.50 0.0432
0.20 0.01++
36
(1.111)
The components of matrices A and 4 can be found belo.

(1.113)
(1.115)
(1.115)
(1.118)
6)uation (1.111) is in a form that can be !ery easily programmed

and it can be simplified for a !ariety of cases. 9or a binary mixture B
a simplest mixture, A and 4 are both a single !alue.
(1.110)
(1.11;)
[ ] [ ]
1 1
ln
T
D T
M

1

]
J A B
1( )
N
j
i
ii
j j i
i N iN i j ij
$
M M D M M D

1
+
1
1
]
1 1
ij i
i j ij i N iN
$
M M D M M D
_

,
( )
1
ii i i i N
M M +
( )
ij i N j
M M
1 2 12
1
$
M M D

2 2 1 1 1 2
2 1 1 2 1 2
x M x M M M
M M M M
M M M
+ +
37
Therefore, the diffusion mass flux of a binary mixture is"

(1.11<)
9or a mixture of se!eral species that are all !ery dilute in species %
( ), the 4 matrix is approximately
(1.13$)
and the A matrix is approximately
(1.131)
( )
12
ln
T
i i i
% D D T
1: fo! 1: 2:...: 1 and 1
i N
i N =
1
2
1
0 0
0
0
0 0
N
M
M
M

1
1
1
1
1
]
B
K
O M
M O O
K
( )
( )
( )
1
1 1
1
2 2
1
1 %1:
0 0
0
0
0 0
N N
N N
N N N N
M M D
M M D
$
M M D
1
1
1
1
1
1
]
O M
M O O
38
The mixture molecular mass is also approximately e)ual to the

molecular mass of the
th
component, . Therefore the
diffusion flux for each component is"
(1.131)
The mass flux of species 1 due to ordinary pressure, body force,

and thermal diffusion for a binary system becomes
(1.133)
?ne can reduce the generalized -axell&'tefan e)uation to the

folloing form by neglecting pressure, body force, and thermal
diffusion effects and assuming the mean molecular mass is constant
(1.135)
N
M M
( )
1
ln
T
i N i i
% D D T
1 2 12 1
1 12 1
1 2 12 1 2
1 2 1
( ) (ln )
T
u
M M D
D p
p
M M D
D T
R T

+
+
J
X X
1( )
: 1: 2: : 1
N
i j j i
i
ij j j j i
M
i N
D M

J J
L
39
:n order to sol!e for the mass flux D, e). (1.135) can be rearranged
to get
(1.135)
here
(1.138)
(1.130)
(1.13;)
The second mode of mass transfer, con!ecti!e mass transfer, may

be expressed in a manner analogous to e). (1.05)"
(1.13<)
here the species mass flux is again exemplified by transport from a
flat surface to a !apor stream floing o!er that surface.
1
:
1
: 1: 2: : 1
N
i e&& ij j
j
D i N
J L
1
:
? @
e&& ij
D

F
1( )
N
i k
ii
iN N ik k k k i
M M
'
D M D M

+

1 1
:
ij i
ij j iN N
' M i j
D M D M
_

,
1 1: 1: 1: 1:
( ) ( )
" w " w
" h h

&
40
Table 1.- 'ummary of fundamental las in momentum, heat and mass transfer
41
Table 1.- 'ummary of fundamental las in momentum, heat and mass transfer cont=d.
42
'herood number
(1.15$)
Three rates of diffusion transport e)uations for mass, momentum,

and heat for 1&, and constant properties"
9ic(=s la (binary diffusion)

(1.151)
%eton=s la !iscosity (!iscous fluid shear)

(1.151)
9ourier=s la (heat conduction)

(1.153)
12
"
h L
Sh
D

1
2: 12 y
d
" D
dy
&
( )
yx
d u
dy

( )
p
y
d c T
q
dy

43
4ll the rate e)uations are of the same form on flux

e)uals a constant times potential gradient.
The proportional constant is a function of method

in!ol!ed in the transport process, thus a transport
phenomenon can be predicted on the base of (noledge
of another transport phenomenon.
The con!ecti!e heat and mass transfer coefficients for

laminar and turbulent can be related by the folloing
e)uation
(1.155)
2/ 3
1/ 3
12
=e
=e
p
" "
h h k
c
h h D

44
56ample 1.):
'ho that the general -axell&'tefan e)uation (1.11$)
for the mass flux in a multicomponent gas system can be simplified
for a binary system to 9ic(=s la, e). (1.1$8).
+olution"
9or a binary system, the number of component, , is e)ual to 1.
The -axell&'tefan e)uation, (1.11$), for the first component (i21)
becomes
(1.155)
( )
1 2 1 1 2
12
1
x x x
cD

n n
& &
45
The molar fluxes of component 1 relati!e to stationary coordinate
axes can be obtained by e). (1.1$5), i.e.,
(1.158)
hich can be rearranged to
(1.150)
'ince , e). (1.150) can be rearranged to
(1.15;)
'ubstituting e). (1.15;) into e). (1.155), one obtains
(1.15<)
hich is identical to the 9ic(=s la, e). (1.1$8).
;
1 1 1 2 1
( ) x

+ + n n n J
& & &
;
1 1 1 2 1
(1 ) x x

n n J
& &
2 1
1 x x
;
2 1 1 2 1
x x

n n J
& &
;
1 12 1
cD x J
46
1.4.7 Microscale and 8anoscale Transport *henomena
.lassical theory of transport is still !alid for transport phenomena in

smaller scales (microscale*nanoscale).
6ffects of directly con!erting thermal energy into electricity
'eebec( effect & electrons flo from the hot side to the cold side of a
material under a temperature gradient, resulting in an electric potential
field balancing the electron diffusion.
Celtier effect & heat is carried by electrons in an electrical current in a

material held at a constant temperature.
Thomson effect & current flos through a conductor under a

temperature gradient.
The suitability of a thermoelectric material for energy con!ersion is

based on the figure of merit %
(1.15$)
here the 'eebec( coefficient, electrical resisti!ity and thermal
conducti!ity are , &e and #, respecti!ely.
2
e
(
R k
47
-icroscopically, the energy carriers in a substance include phonons,

photons, and electrons.
6nergy can be deposited differently to materials"
'imultaneously deposited to all carriers by direct contact
,eposited only to a selected carrier by radiation
9or short&pulsed laser heating of metal, the energy deposition in!ol!es

three steps"
(1) ,eposition of laser energy on electrons
(1) 6xchange of energy beteen electrons
(3) Cropagation of energy through media
To&temperature model" use if the pulse idth is shorter than the

thermalization time
>yperbolic conduction model" use if the laser pulse is shorter than

the relaxation time
48
The thermal conducti!ity, #, in solids can be bro(en into to components,

the thermal conduction by electrons (#
e
-
) and by phonons (#
p!
).
(1.151)
9rom (inetic theory, the thermal conduction of each component is gi!en by

(9li( et al. 1<<1),
(1.151)
(1.153)
here the subscripts e
-
and p! refer to an electron and a phonon, the
specific heats of the electron and the phonon are and , the a!erage
!elocities of an electron and a phonon are and , and the mean free
paths of an electron and a phonon are and , respecti!ely.
ph
e
k k k
+
:
1
3
e p e e e
k c c

1
3
ph ph ph ph
k c c
: p e
c

: p ph
c
e
c

ph
c
e

ph
49
The effect of impurities in a solid material can be described in terms of the

acoustic impedance (E) of the lattice a!es (>uxtable et al., 1$$5)
(1.155)
The speed of sound (mean !elocity of a phonon) is related to the elastic

stiffness of a chemical bond (') by
(1.155)
The a!elength or mean free path of a material also has temperature

dependence that can be approximated by
(1.158)
here ! is Clanc(=s constant.
The probability that a phonon ill transmit from material ( to material ) at

normal incidence is a function of the impedance of both materials.
(1.150)
( )
2
4
$
$
$
( (
)
( (

+
3
ph
ph
hc
k T

ph
E
c
ph
( c
50
Chysical boundaries in a material ha!e the effect of scattering the

energy carriers.
The scattering characteristics of boundaries either reflect or transmit

energy carriers.
(a) (b)
Fi!ure 1.1) -ean free path of electrons or phonons (a) far aay from
boundaries and (b) in the presence of boundaries
51
The effecti!e conducti!ities normal to the thin film #
eff*n
and along the thin
film layer #
eff*t
are"
(1.15;)
(1.15<)
here is the film thic(ness.
The electrical component of thermal conducti!ity in a solid can be

approximated.
The transition occurs hen the electrical conducti!ity of a metal suddenly

changes from high to lo conducti!ity ith the decrease in temperature.
:n a highly electrically conducti!e material, essentially all of the thermal

transport is carried through electrons.
(1.18$)
here is the Forenz number and is the electrical conducti!ity.
:
1
3
e&& #
k
k

:
2
1
3
e&& t
k
k

1
0
e
k L T

0
L
e

52
>eat and mass transfer are )uantitati!e in nature, i.e.,
The amount of energy that can be transferred by a gi!en heat

pipe design in order to determine its suitability for a particular
application.
The restriction of the dimensions of a certain flat&plate heat

exchanger in order to maintain a stable flo in a system.
To highly&recommended analytical tools can organize

and filter information so the design process can be
efficiently and effecti!ely executed.
,imensional analysis
'cale analysis
4pplicable to both single& and multiphase systems.

1.4.4 .imensional Analsis
53
,imensional analysis is used to interpolate the

experimental laboratory results (prototype models) to full
scale system.
To criteria must be fulfilled to perform such an

ob+ecti!e"
,imensional similarity, in hich all dimensions of the prototype

to full scale system must be in the same ratio.
,ynamic similarity, in hich rele!ant dimensionless groups are

the same beteen prototype model and full scale system.
The con!ecti!e heat transfer coefficient is a function of

the thermal properties of the fluid, the geometric
configuration, flo !elocities, and dri!ing forces.
54
.onsider forced con!ection in a circular tube ith a

length " and a diameter +. The flo is assumed to be
incompressible and natural con!ection is negligible
compared ith forced con!ection.
The heat transfer coefficient can be expressed as

(1.181)
here # is the thermal conducti!ity of the fluid, is !iscosity,
is specific heat, is density, , is !elocity, and is the
temperature difference beteen the fluid and tube all.
6)uation (1.181) can also be reritten as

(1.181)
( : : : : : : : )
p
h h k c * T D L
( : : : : : : : : ) 0
p
' h k c * T D L
p
c
T
55
:t can be seen from e). (1.181) that eight dimensional

parameters are re)uired to describe the con!ection
problem.
The theory of dimensional analysis shos that it is

possible to use feer dimensionless !ariables to
describe the con!ection problem.
Buc(ingham=s G theorem (Buc(ingham, 1<15)
H dimensionless !ariables re)uired to describe problem 2 H

dimensional !ariables & H primary dimensions re)uired to
describe problem
,imensionless !ariables can be identified using Buc(ingham=s

G theorem and are formed from products of poers of certain
original dimensional !ariables.
4ny of such dimensionless groups can be ritten as

(1.183)
( )
a b c d e & g h i
p
h k c * T D L
56
'ubstituting dimensions (units) of all !ariables into e). (1.183) yields

(1.185)
9or to be dimensionless, the components of each primary

dimension must be summed to zero, i.e.,
(1.185)
hich gi!es a set of fi!e e)uations ith nine un(nons.
2 3
2 3
" A
a b c d e &
g h i
c d e a b c e & h i c d & a b d g a b d
+ + M +t M L
T L L
L T LT Lt MT L t
L t T
+ + + + + + + +
_ _ _ _ _ _

, , , , , ,
0
2 3 0
0
0
0
c d e
a b c e & h i
c d &
a b d g
a b d
+
+ + +
+
+
+ +
57
4ccording to linear algebra, the number of distincti!e

solutions of e).(1.185) is four (<&525), hich coincides
ith the G theorem.
:n order to obtain the four distincti!e solutions, e ha!e

free choices on four of the nine components.
:f e select , the solutions of e).

(1.185) become ,
hich gi!e us the first nondimensional !ariable
(1.188)
hich is the 7eynolds number ( ).
0 and 1 a d i &
0: 1: 1: 0: b c e g and 1 h
1
*D

1
Be
58
'imilarly, e can set and get

the solutions of e). (1.185) as
. The second nondimensional !ariable becomes
(1.180)
hich is the %usselt number ( ).
9olloing a similar procedure, e can get to other

dimensionless !ariables"
(1.18;)
(1.18<)
hich are the Crandtl number ( ) and the
aspect ratio of the tube.
1: c 0 and 0 a & i
1: 0: 0: 0: b d e g
2
hD
k

2
8u
3
p
c
k

4
L
D

3
6! /
and 1 h
59
6)uation (1.181) can be reritten as

(1.10$)
or
(1.101)
:f the flo and heat transfer in the tube are fully

de!eloped, no change of flo and heat transfer in the
axial direction, e). (1.101) can be simplified further"
(1.101)
The number of nondimensional !ariables is three, as

opposed to the nine dimensional !ariables in e). (1.181).

1 2 3 4
( : : : ) 0 '
8u (Be: 6!: / ) & L D
8u (Be: 6!) &
60
56ample 1.7:
9or boiling and condensation processes, obtain the appropriate
dimensionless parameters using a similar procedure to the one
abo!e.
+olution:
The heat transfer coefficient for boiling or condensation depends on the
properties of the fluid, a characteristic length ", the temperature
difference , buoyancy force , latent heat of !aporization ,
and surface tension, "
(1.103)
T ( )
v
g
l
v
h
l

? : : : : : : ( ) : : @
p v v
h h k c L T g h
l l
61
There are 1$ dimensional !ariables in e). (1.103) and there are fi!e
primary dimensions in the boiling and condensation problem.
Therefore, it ill be necessary to use (1$ B 5) 2 5 dimensionless
!ariables to describe the li)uid&!apor phase change process, i.e."
(1.105)
here the Irashof number is defined as"
(1.105)
The ne dimensionless parameters introduced in e). (1.105) are

the Da(ob number, Da, and the Bond number, Bo, hich are defined
as
(1.108)
(1.100)
( )
8u #!: Ca: 6!: 7o &
3
2
( )
#!
v
g L
l
Ca
p
v
c T
h
l
2
( )
7o
v
gL
l
62
Table 1.; pro!ides a summary of the

definitions, physical interpretations, and
areas of significance of the important
dimensionless numbers for transport
phenomena in multiphase systems.
Table 1.< summarizes the existing

correlations in literature for !arious heat
transfer modes for both single&phase and
to&phase systems in different geometric
configurations.
63
Table 1./ 'ummary of dimensionless numbers for transport phenomena

64
Table 1./ 'ummary of dimensionless numbers for transport phenomena cont=d

65
Table 1.0 .orrelations for con!ecti!e heat transfer for !arious modes and geometries

66
Table 1.0 .orrelations for con!ecti!e heat transfer for !arious modes and geometries cont=d

67

68

69

70

71

72

73

74
56ample 1.4:
,ry air at 35 J. and !elocity of 1.5 m*s flos o!er a flat plate of 1 m K 1 m
co!ered ith thin layer of ater (see 9ig. 1.13) . The plate surface
temperature is (ept at 3$ J.. .alculate the heat transfer due to con!ection
and e!aporation from the plate to air. The radiation heat transfer from the
li)uid surface and the heat conduction in the li)uid can be neglected.
$ate!
2m
2m
&i!
q
c,#v
q
eva
Fi!ure 1.17 D!y ai! flo's ove! a flat plate cove!ed 'it 'ate!
o
1.5m/s
35 /
u
T
o
30/
w
T

75
+olution:
The properties of the air at a!erage temperature of li)uid ater and air
(31.5J.) are
The diffusi!ity of ater !apor in the air is (see 4ppendix B)
7eynolds number is
4ccording to Table 1.<, the %usselt number is
3 + 2
1.1431,)/m : 1+.44 10 m /s:

3
2+.4 10 $/m%K: k

6!E0.40+.
2
2.042
%10 5 2
0 5 ai!
1.84 10 2.+4 10 m /s
T
D
p

5
+
1.5 2
Be 1.825 10
1+.44 10
L
u L
0.5 1/ 3
8u 0.++4Be 6! 252.54
L

76
The heat transfer coefficient is
The heat transfer from the plate to the air due to con!ection is
The 'chmidt number is
The 'herood number is
3 2
/ 252.54 2+.4 10 / 2 3.34$/m %K h Nuk L

( ) 3.34 2 2 5 +4.44$
s w
q h$ T T

+
5
1+.44 10
9c 0.+23
2.+4 10 D
0.33 0.33
9c 0.+23
9 8u 252.54 242.2+
6! 0.40+
_ _

, ,
77
The mass transfer coefficient is
The concentration of the ater !apor at the surface of flat plate is
The concentration of the ater !apor at the incoming air is
since the air is dry.
The latent heat for e!aporation is ta(en as that at 3$J., i.e., .
The heat transfer due to e!aporation is therefore
3
:
: F30
0.03420,)/m
v w
v sat -

o
:
0
v

2430.2 ,C/,)
v
h
l
: :
( )
eva " v w v v
q h $ h

l
5
12
9 / 242.2+ 2.+4 10 / 2 0.0032m/s
"
h D L

0.0032 2 2 (0.03420 0) 2430.2 1.0+$
78
'cale analysis can be demonstrated by analyzing a

thermal penetration depth for conduction in a semi&
infinite solid as shon in 9ig. 1.15.
:nitial temperature of the semi&infinite body is T

i
.
4t t2$ surface temperature is suddenly increased to T

0
.
4t gi!en time t, the thermal penetration depth is ,

beyond hich the temperature of the solid is not affected
by the surface temperature, i.e., the temperature
satisfies the folloing to conditions at the thermal
penetration depth"
(1.10;)
(1.10<)
( : )
i
T t T
0
x
T
x

1.4.9 +calin!
79
'cale analysis & process that uses the basic principles of

heat transfer (or other engineering disciplines) to pro!ide
order of magnitude estimates for )uantities of interest.
1.4.9 +calin!
Fi!ure 1.14 Thermal
penetration depth
for conduction in a
semi&infinite solid
80
The energy e)uation for this problem and the

corresponding initial and boundary conditions are"
(1.1;$)
(1.1;1)
(1.1;1)
'ince temperature difference occurs only ithin ,

the order of magnitude of x is the same as , i.e.,
(1.1;3)
2
2
1
0 0
T T
x t
x t

> , >

0
( ) 0 0 T x t T x t , , >
( ) 0 0
i
T x t T x t , > ,
x G
1.4.9 +calin!
0 x <
81
The order of magnitude of the term on the left&hand side of e). (1.1;$) is
(1.1;5)
here
The order or magnitude of the right&hand side of e). (1.1;$) is

(1.1;5)
6)uation (1.1;$) re)uires that the to orders of magnitude represented by

e)s. (1.1;1) and (1.1;5) e)ual each other, i.e.,
(1.1;8)
The order of magnitude of the thermal penetration depth is then

(1.1;0)
6)uation (1.1;0) indicates that the thermal penetration depth is proportional

to the s)uare root of time.
0 i
T T T
t G
2
2 2
1 T T T T
x x x

_

,
:
L
1 1 T T
t t

:
L
2
1 T T
t

:
L
1.4.9 +calin!
82
56ample 1.9:
.onsider transient heat conduction in a
rectangular domain ith dimensions of F
by > (see 9igure 1.15). ,iscuss the
condition under hich the problem can be
simplified to one&dimension.
1.4.9 +calin!
83
x
y
.
L
/
T 0 T
1
T 0 T
2
Fi!ure 1.19 >eat
conduction in a
rectangular domain
84
+olution:
The go!erning e)uation for transient heat conduction in a to&
dimensional domain is
(1.1;;)
The orders of magnitude of x and y are, respecti!ely, the same as "
and -, i.e.,
(1.1;<)
The orders of magnitude of the to terms on the left&hand side of
e). (1.1;;) are
(1.1<$)
(1.1<1)
1.4.9 +calin!
2 2
2 2
1 T T T
x y t

+

: G x L y / :
2
2 2
1 T T T T
x x x L L L

_

,
:
2
2 2
1 T T T T
y y y / / /
_

,
:
85
The condition under hich the problem can be simplified as 1&, is

(1.1<1)
i.e.,
(1.1<3)
2 2
2 2
T T
x y

?
/ L ?
86
56ample 1.(:
:n order to study blood steady flo in the
coronary arteries, a lab model ith all
dimensions three times larger then the
original
dimensions. The or(ing fluid is a glycol&
ater
mixture that has the same density and
!iscosity
of the blood. Ahat is the !elocity of the scale
model relati!e to that of the original modelM
1.4.9 +calin!
87
+olution:
'ince the flo is steady state, the 'trouhal and Aomersley
numbers are irrele!ant. The dynamic similarity only re)uires that
the 7eynolds numbers for the original model and scale model be
e)ual, i.e.,
(1.1<5)
'ubstituting the definition of the 7eynolds number to e). (1.1<5),
one obtains
(1.1<5)
'ince the !iscosities of original and scale models are the same,
, and the dimension of the scale model is three times of
that of the original model, , e). (1.1<5) re)uires that
1.4.9 +calin!
Be Be
, p
, p

3
, p
L L
/ 3.
p ,
u u
, p
uL uL

_ _

, ,

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1

Chapter 1: Introduction 1.4 Fundamentals of Momentum, Heat and Mass Transfer

Transport phenomena are usually modeled in

The continuum criterion is usually expressed in terms

Based on the degree of rarefaction of gas or the gases

The mean free path, e). (1.10), can be reritten as

.ombining e)s. (1.51) and (1.51) and applying the

4ssuming that the !apor is in the saturation state, the transition

6)uation (1.55) can be reritten as

The relation for .ouette flo

1.4.) Momentum, Heat and Mass Transfer

The !iscous force comes into play hene!er there is

9or a three&dimensional fluid flo problem,

The first subscript represents the axis

The second subscript represents the

1.4.) Momentum, Heat and Mass Transfer

The !iscous stress tensor can be expressed by %eton=s la of

7ate of deformation or strain rate, ., in a three&dimensional flo is

:n a .artesian coordinate system, the normal and shear

9or a multicomponent system, the !iscosity of the

>eat transfer rate by conduction is related to the

9or the one&dimensional heat transfer problem in

9or heat conduction in a multidimensional

@nli(e the isotropic materials hose thermal conducti!ity is a scalar,

:n a multicomponent system, mass transfer

9or a binary system

here are mass fraction of component 1 and 1

The third mode of heat transfer is radiation. Ahen matter

4n electromagnetic a!e can also be !ieed as a

9or a blac(body, the spectral emissi!e poer can be obtained by

The emissi!e poer for a blac(body, is

'ubstituting e). (1.0;) into e). (1.0<), 'tefan&Boltzmann=s la is

9or a real surface, the emissi!e poer is obtained by

:f the temperature of the surroundings is T

Ahen there is a species concentration difference

To modes of mass transfer"

,iffusi!e & random molecular motion at the

.on!ecti!e & combination of random molecular

The species concentration in a mixture, , is

1.4.) Momentum, Heat and Mass Transfer

The density of the mixture e)uals the sum of the

The concentration of the i

:t follos from e). (1.;3) that

1.4.) Momentum, Heat and Mass Transfer

The concentration of the i

The molar fraction of the i

The mean molecular mass of the mixture can be

The mass fraction is related to the molar fraction

The molar fraction is related to the mass fraction by

The local mass&a!eraged !elocity of all species is defined as

The molar&a!eraged !elocity can be defined in a similar manner"

The fluxes defined in e)s. (1.<5) and (1.<8) are related by

The mass flux relati!e to the mass&a!eraged !elocity is

4ccording to e)s. (1.<3) and (1.<5), e ha!e

4ccording to e)s. (1.<5) B (1.1$1), the folloing relationships

9or a binary system that is uniform ith all aspects except

The mass and molar&flux relati!e to a stationary coordinate axes are

9igure 1.11 shos an