1

The Z-transform
M. Sami Fadali
Professor of Electrical Engineering
UNR
2
Z-transform Definition
Definition 2.1 Given the causal sequence
0 1 2 k
then its z-transform is
defined as
0 1
-1
2
-2
k
-k
k
-k

k=0
-1
=time delay operator
3
Example
Obtain the z-transform of the sequence
Solution Definition 2.1 gives
1

2 S
4
Z-transform Definition
Definition 2.2 Laplace transform the impulse
train representation of sampled signal
sT
k
k
k
k
skT
k
skT
k
sT
k
k
k
e z z u z U
e u
e u e u u s U*
kT t u
kT t u T t u T t u t u t u

- - - -
-
- - - - - - - -

-
- -

, ) (
) (
) (
... ) ( ... ) 2 ( ) ( ) ( ) (
0
0
1 0
0
2 1 0
*

o
o o o o
5
Identities Used Repeatedly
1 ,
1
1
1
0

-
-

a
a
a
a
n n
k
k
1 ,
1
1
0
<
-

a
a
a
k
k
6
Unit Impulse
Definition 2.1: U(z) = 1
Impulse-sampled version:
u *(t) = o (t), Laplace transform U*(s) = 1
z-transform obtained using Definition 2.2
same as Definition 2.1
-1 0 1
1
u k
k
k
( )
,
,

1 0
0 0
7
Sampled Unit Step
z-transform Definition 2.1
-1 0 1 2
. . . . . .
1
{ { u
k
k

0
111111 , , , , , ,...

-
- - - -

- - - - - -
0
3 2 1
... ... 1 ) (
k
k
k
z
z z z z z U
1 1
1
) (
1
-

-
z
z
z
z U
8
Sampled Exponential
z-transform Definition 2.1
( )

- - - -

- - - - - -
0
3 3 2 2 1
... ... 1 ) (
k
k
k k
z
a
z a z a z a z a z U

<

0 , 0
0 ,
) (
k
k a
k u
k
-1 0 1 2
. . . . . .
a
1
a
2
( )
a z
z
z
a
z U
-

1
1
) (
9
Z-transform Properties
Linearity: Use Definition 2.2 and the
linearity of the Laplace transform.
{ ) ( ) ( ) ( f ) ( f
2 1 2 1
z F z F k k o o - - Z
{
{ {
1
1 6
4
1
2
) ( 4 ) ( 1 2
) ( 4 ) ( 1 2 ) (
-
-
-
-

-
-
z
z
z
z
k k
k k z F
o
o
Z Z
Z
f ( ) ( ) ( ), , , , . . . k k k k - 2 1 4 0 1 2 o
Example
10
Time Delay
Use the time delay property of the Laplace
transform
{ ) ( ) ( f z F z n k
n -
- Z
f ( ) , , , , ... k k 4 2 3 4
{ {
( ) 1
4
1
4
) ( 1 4 ) 2 ( 1 4 ) (
2
2
-

-
-
-
z z z
z
z
k z k z F Z Z
Example
11
Time Advance
Change index of summation to m = k + 1
Proof Apply Defn. 2.1 to
{
{ ) 1 ( f .... ) 1 f( f(0) ) ( ) ( f
f(0) ) ( ) 1 ( f
1
- - - - - -
- -
-
n z z z z F z n k
z z zF k
n n n
Z
Z
{
)
`

-
(

-
-
- -

- -

) 0 ( f ) 1 + f( ) 0 ( f
) 1 + f( ) 1 + f( ) 1 ( f
) 1 (
0 =
) 1 (
0 = 0 =
k
k
k
k
k
k
z k z
z k z z k k Z
{
) 0 ( f ) (
) 0 ( f ) f( ) 1 ( f
0 =
z z F z
z m z k
m
m
-
)
`

-
(

-
-

Z
{ ), 2 ( f ), 1 ( f ) 1 ( f - k
12
Example
Use the time advance property to find the
z-transform of the causal sequence
{f(k)} = {4, 8, 16, .}
, 2 , 1 , 0 , 2 ) ( g
) 2 ( 2 ) ( f
2

-
-
k k
k g k
k
k
F z z G z z g zg z
z
z
z z
z
z
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) - -
-
- -
-
2 2 2 2
0 1
2
2
4
2
Easier solution:
Write the sequence as {f(k)} = 4{1, 2, 4, .} = {4 2
k
}
Use the linearity of the z-transform.
13
Discrete-Time Convolution
Proof: Let the convolution give {y(k)}
{
) ( ) (
) ( f ) ( f ) ( f ) ( f
2 1
0 =
2 1 2 1
z F z F
i k i k k
k
i

)
`

- -

Z Z
sequence) (causal , 0 ) ( f
) ( f ) ( f ) (
... ) ( ... ) 2 ( ) 1 ( ) 0 ( ) (
0
2
0
1
0
2 1
i k i k
z i k i z k y
z k y z y z y y z Y
k
k
k
i k
k
k
< -
(

-
- - - - -

-
- - -
14
DT Convolution Proof (cont.)
Change index summation index from k to j = k-i
sequence) (causal , 0 ) ( f
) ( f ) ( f ) (
0
2 1
i k i k
z i k i z Y
i i k
k
< -
(

-
) ( ) ( ) ( f ) ( f
) ( f ) ( f ) (
2 1
0 0
2 1
0 0
) (
2 1
z F z F z j z i
z j i z Y
i j
j i
i j
i j

- -

- -
15
Example
Find the z-transform of the convolution of
two sampled step sequences.
Solution:
By the convolution theorem,
z-transform = product of the z-transforms of
two step sequences.
F z
z
z
z
z
z
z
( )
-
|
\

|
.
|
-
|
\

|
.
|

-
|
\

|
.
|
1 1
1
2
16
Multiplication by Exponential
Proof
( )
LHS a k z
k a z
F a z
k k
k
k
k

- -

f
f
( )
( )
( )
0
0
{ ) ( ) ( f z a F k a
k

-
Z
17
Example
Find the z-transform of the exponential
sequence
f( ) = k e k
kT -

o
, , , , ... 0 1 2
( ) {
( )
T
T
k
T
e z
z
z e
k e
o
o
o
- -
-
-

1
1
1
) ( 1 Z
( )
f( ) = k e k
T
k
o
-
1 012 , , , , ...
z-transform of a sampled step
( )
F z z ( ) -
-
-
1
1
1
(same as earlier example a
-k
)
18
Complex Differentiation
Proof (Induction)
(i) Establish validity for m = 1.
(ii) Assume validity for any m and prove it for m + 1.
For m = 1, we have
{ ) ( ) ( f z F
z d
d
z k k
m
m
|
.
|

\
|
- Z
{
) ( ) ( f
) ( f ) ( f ) ( f
0
0 0
z F
z d
d
z z k
z d
d
z
z
z d
d
z k z k k k k
k
k
k
k
k
k
|
.
|

\
|
- |
.
|

\
|
|
.
|

\
|
-
|
.
|

\
|
-

-
Z
19
Proof (Cont.)
Assume
f f
m
m
k k k k ( ) ( ), , , , ... 012
{
) ( ) ( f
) ( f ) ( f ) ( f
0
0 0
z F
z d
d
z z k
z d
d
z
z
z d
d
z k z k k k k
m
k
k
m
k
k
m
k
k
m m
|
.
|

\
|
- |
.
|

\
|
-
|
.
|

\
|
-

-
Z
Substitute for F
m
(z)
{ { ) ( ) ( f ) ( f
1
1
z F
z d
d
z k k k k
m
m
m
-
-
|
.
|

\
|
- Z Z
{ ) ( ) ( f ) ( z F
z d
d
z k k z F
m
m
m
|
.
|

\
|
- Z
For any m, define
20
Example
Find the z-transform of the sampled ramp sequence
f(k) = k, k = 0, 1, 2, .
Solution: z-transform of a sampled step F z
z
z
( )
-1
Write f(k) as: f(k) = k 1 ,k = 0, 1, 2, .
Apply the complex differentiation property
{ ( )
( )
( ) ( )
2 2
1 1
1
1
1
-

-
- -
-
|
.
|

\
|
-
|
.
|

\
|
-
z
z
z
z z
z
z
z
z d
d
z k Z
Note: For the transform of kT multiply by T.
21
Inversion of the z-Transform
1. Long division: gives as many terms of
series as desired.
2. Partial fraction expansion and table
look-up: similar to Laplace transform
inversion.
22
Long Division
(i) Using long division, expand F(z) as a series
F z f f z f z
f z
t i
i
k
k
i
k
( ) ... - - -

- -

0 1
1
0
(ii) Write the inverse transform as the sequence
{
f f f
i 0 1
, ,..., ,...
23
Example
F z
z
z z
( )
. .

-
- -
1
0 2 01
2
Solution:
(i) Long Division
...... 26 . 0 8 . 0
... 26 . 0
08 . 0 16 . 0 8 . 0
10 . 0 8 . 0
1 . 0 2 . 0
1 1 . 0 2 . 0
3 2 1
1
2 1 -
1 -
1 -
2
- - -
- -
- -
-
- -
- - -
- - -
-
-
z z z
z
z z
z
z z
z z z
3 2 1
) 26 . 0 ( 8 . 0 0 ) (
- - -
- - - - z z z z F
t
(ii) Inverse Transformation
Inverse z-transform
24
Partial Fraction Expansion
(i) Find the partial fraction expansion of F(z)/z.
(ii) Obtain the inverse transform using
the z-transform tables.
Three types of z-domain functions F(z):
1. F(z) with simple (non-repeated) real poles.
2. F(z) with complex conjugate & real poles.
3. F(z) with repeated poles.
25
I: Simple Real Roots
Residue of a complex function F(z) at a
simple pole z
i
]
A z z F z
i i
z z
i
-

( ) ( )
Residue = partial fraction coefficient of the i
th
term of the expansion
( ) F z
A
z z
i
i i
n

1
26
Example
Obtain the inverse z-transform of the function
F z
z
z z
( )
. .

-
- -
1
0 3 0 02
2
Solution: Solve using two different methods.
(i) Partial Fraction Expansion (dividing by z)
F z
z
z
z z z
A
z
B
z
C
z
( )
( . . )
. .

-
- -
-
-
-
-
1
0 3 0 02
01 0 2
2
2 . 0 1 . 0
) (
-
-
-
-
z
Cz
z
Bz
z
Az
z F
27
Example (cont.)
A z
F z
z
F
B z
F z
z
C z
F z
z
z
z
z

(

-
(

(

-
-
-
-
(

(

-
- -

-
-
( )
( )
.
( . )
( ) .
( . )( . )
( . )
( ) .
( . )( . )
.
.
0
0 1
0 2
0
1
0 02
50
01
1 01
01 01
90
0 2
1 0 2
0 2 01
40
Partial fraction expansion
F z
z
z
z
z
z
z
( )
. .
-
-
-
-
50 90
01
40
0 2
28
Example (cont.)
(ii) Table Lookup
f k
k k
k
k k
( )
( ) ( . ) ( . ) ,
,

- - - -
<

50 90 01 40 0 2 0
0 0
o
Note
f(0) = 0, so the time sequence can be rewritten as
f k
k
k
k k
( )
( . ) ( . ) ,
,

- - - -
<

90 01 40 0 2 1
0 1
F z
z
z
z
z
z
z
( )
. .
-
-
-
-
50 90
01
40
0 2
29
Example (cont.)
(i) Partial Fraction Expansion (without dividing by z)
F z
z
z z
A
z
B
z
( )
. .
. .

-
- -

-
-
-
1
0 3 0 02
01 0 2
2
Partial fraction coefficients
]
]
A z F z
B z F z
z
z
-
-

-
-
-
-
-
-
( . ) ( )
.
.
( . ) ( )
.
.
.
.
01
1 01
01
9
0 2
1 0 2
01
8
0 1
0 2
30
Example (cont.)
Partial Fraction Expansion
1 1
2 . 0
8
1 . 0
9
2 . 0
8
1 . 0
9
) (
- -
-
-
-

-
-
-

z
z
z
z
z
z
z z
z F
(ii) Table Lookup (use the delay theorem)
f k
k
k
k k
( )
( . ) ( . ) ,
,

- - -
<

- -
9 01 8 0 2 1
0 1
1 1
(Verify: same answer as before)
31
II: Complex Conjugate & Simple
Real Roots
Use the following z-transforms (
d
rad.)
{
o o
o
o
c
c
c
2 2
) cos( 2
) sin(
) sin(
- -
-
-
- -

e z e z
z e
k e
d
d
d
k
Z
{
d
j
d
d
d
k
e e z
e z e z
e z z
k e
c o
o o
o
o
c
c
c
-
- -
-
-

- -
-

2 , 1
2 2
) cos( 2
)] cos( [
) cos( Z
Same denominator
32
Residues With Complex
Conjugate Poles
*
*
) (
p z
z A
p z
Az
z F
-
-
-

( ) ( )
[ ]
A p A p
k j k j k
k k
e e p A
p A Ap k f
0 0 0 0 - - -
-
-
.
) (
* *
0
p
(0
A
) = angle of pole p ( partial fraction coefficient A)
( )
( )
A p
k
jx jx
k p A k f
e e x
0 0 -
-
-
cos 2 ) (
2 ) cos( : Use
33
Example
Find the inverse z-transform of
z
2
+2z+1
z-0.1 z
2
+z+0.5
Solution (i) Partial Fraction Expansion

2 2
Dividing by z gives
2
2
1 2
2
1 2
z=0.1
34
Example (cont.)
Multiply by the denominator & equate coefficients
z
3
: A
1
+ A
2
+ A = 1
z
1
:0.4 A
1
+ 0.5 A
2
- 0.1 B = 2
A
1
and A
2
known, solve for A and B
A =1.311 B = -1.557
Check calculations
z
0
: - 0.05 A
1
= -0.05 (-20) = 1
z
2
: 0.9 A
1
+ A
2
0.1 A + B
= 0.9(-20)+19.689-0.1(1.311) - 1.557 = 0
Partial fraction expansion (multiply eqn. by z)
F z
z
z
z z
z z
( )
.
.
. .
.
- -
-
-
-
- -
20
19 689
01
1311 1557
05
2
2
35
Example (cont.)
(ii) Table Lookup (1st two terms easy)
o o
o o
c
c c
2 2 2
2
) cos( 2
) sin( )] cos( [ 311 . 1
5 . 0 ) 5 . 0 ( 2
557 . 1 311 . 1
- -
- -
- -
- -

- - -
-
e z e z
Cze e z z
z z
z z
d
d d
Equate denominator
coefficients
707 . 0 5 . 0 / 5 . 0 ) cos(
707 . 0 5 . 0
- - -

-
-
o
o
c e
e
d
c
d
=3 r/4 , angle in 2nd quadrant, sin(c
d
)=0.707
Equate z
1
coefficients in the numerator
426 . 4
557 . 1 ) 311 . 1 ( 5 . 0 ) sin( ) cos( 311 . 1

- - - - -
- -
C
C Ce e
d d
c c
o o
Example (Cont.)
Substitute for the coefficients
36
5 . 0 ) 4 3 cos( ) 707 . 0 ( 2
) 4 3 sin( ) 707 . 0 ( 426 . 4 )] 4 3 cos( ) 707 . 0 ( [ 311 . 1
1 . 0
689 . 19
20 ) (
2
- -
- -
-
-
- -
z z
z z z
z
z
z F
r
r r
{
o o
o
o
c
c
c
2 2
) cos( 2
) sin(
) sin(
- -
-
-
- -

e z e z
z e
k e
d
d
d
k
Z
{
o o
o
o
c
c
c
2 2
) cos( 2
)] cos( [
) cos(
- -
-
-
- -
-

e z e z
e z z
k e
d
d
d
k
Z
37
Example (cont.)
z-transform tables give
0 )], 4 3 sin( 426 . 4 ) 4 3 cos( 311 . 1 [ ) 707 . 0 (
) 1 . 0 ( 689 . 19 ) ( 20 ) (
- -
- -
k k k
k k f
k
k
r r
o
Use Trig. Identities:
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) 283 . 1 288 . 0 2 / 283 . 1 616 . 4 311 . 1 cos
288 . 0 616 . 4 311 . 1 sin 426 . 4 311 . 1 616 . 4
1
1 2 2
- =
= -
-
-
r o
0
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
)] 288 . 0 4 3 sin( ) 707 . 0 ( 616 . 4 ) 1 . 0 ( 689 . 19 ) ( 20 ) (
cos sin cos sin sin
- - - -
- -
k k k f
A B B A B A
k k
r o
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
)] 283 . 1 4 3 cos( ) 707 . 0 ( 616 . 4 ) 1 . 0 ( 689 . 19 ) ( 20 ) (
cos sin cos cos cos
- - - -
- -
k k k f
B A B A B A
k k
r o
38
Example (cont.)
Residue Approach
(i) Partial Fraction Expansion
Dividing by z gives
( ) ( ) [ ]
2 2
3
5 . 0 5 . 0 1 . 0
1 2 ) (
- - -
- -

z z z
z z
z
z F
5 . 0 5 . 0 5 . 0 5 . 0 1 . 0
*
3 3 2 1
j z
A
j z
A
z
A
z
A
- -
-
- -
-
-
-
Obtain partial fraction expansion as in 1
st
approach
( )( )
213 . 2 656 . 0
5 . 0 5 . 0 1 . 0
1 2
5 . 0 5 . 0
3
3
j
j z z z
z z
A
j z
- =
- - -
- -

- -
Pole-Zero Map
39
Real Axis
I
m
a
g
i
n
a
r
y

A
x
i
s
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
-1.5
-1
-0.5
0
0.5
1
1.5
40
Example (cont.)
5 . 0 5 . 0
213 . 2 656 . 0
5 . 0 5 . 0
213 . 2 656 . 0
1 . 0
689 . 19
20 ) (
j z
j
j z
j
z
z
z F
- -
-
-
- -
-
-
-
- -
Convert A
3
from Cartesian to polar form
283 . 1
3
308 . 2 213 . 2 656 . 0
j
e j A -
Inverse z-transform to obtain
)] 283 . 1 4 3 cos( ) 707 . 0 ( 616 . 4 ) 1 . 0 ( 689 . 19 ) ( 20 ) ( - - - - k k k f
k k
r o
as obtained earlier.
( )
A p
k
k p A k f 0 0 - cos 2 ) (
41
MATLAB
G(z) numerator 5(z+3), denominator z
3
+0.1z
2
+0.4z
>> num = 5*[1, 3]
>> den = [1, 0.1, 0.4, 0]
>> denp =conv(den1, den 2) % Multiply polynomials
Partial Fraction Coefficients
>> [r, p, k] = residue( num, den)
p = poles, r = residues , k = coefficients of the
polynomial resulting from dividing the numerator by
the denominator.
MATLAB Example
>> [r,p,k]=residue(num,den)
r =
0.6557 + 2.2131i
0.6557 - 2.2131i
19.6885
-20.0000
p =
-0.5000 + 0.5000i
-0.5000 - 0.5000i
0.1000
0
42
( ) ( ) [ ]
2 2
3
5 . 0 5 . 0 1 . 0
1 2 ) (
- - -
- -

z z z
z z
z
z F
Other Form
>> A=2*real(r(1))
A =
1.3115
>> B=2*real(r(1)*p(2))
B =
1.5574
43 44
III: Repeated Roots
( )
( )
( )
F z
N z
z z z z
A
z z
A
z z r
j
j r
n
i
r i
i
r
j
j j r
n

- -

-
-
-
-
- -
-
j

( )
1
1
1
1
1
1 1
A
i
d
d z
z z F z i r
i
i
i
r
z z
1
1
1
1
1
1
1 2
1
,
( ) !
( ) ( ) , , , . . . ,
-
-
(

(

-
-

45
Example
Obtain the inverse z-transform of the function
F z
z z
( )
( . )

-
1
05
2
Solution
(i) Partial Fraction Expansion (Dividing by z)
F z
z z z
A
z
A
z
A
z
A
z
( )
( . ) .

-
- - -
-
1
05 05
3
11
3
12
2
13 4
( ) A z
F z
z z
z z
4
0 5
3
0 5
05
1
8 -

.
( )
. .
46
Partial Fraction Coefficients
A z
F z
z z
z z
11
3
0 0
1
05
2
-
-

( )
.
( )
A
d
d z
z
F z
z
d
d z z
z
z z
z
12
3
0 0
2
0
1
1
1
05
1
05
4
-

-
-
-


!
( )
.
.
( )
( )( )
( )
A
d
d z
z
F z
z
d
d z
z z
z
z z
13
2
2
3
0
2
0
3
0
1
2
1
2
1
05
1
2
1 2
05
8

|
\

|
.
|
-
-

|
\

|
.
|
- -
-
-

!
( )
. .
47
Example (cont.)
Partial Fraction Expansion
F z
z z
z
z
z z ( )
( . ) .

-

-
- - -
- -
1
05
8
05
2 4 8
2
2 1
(ii) Table Lookup
z-transform tables and Definition 2.1 yield
( ) ( ) ( )
f k
k k k k
k
k
( )
( . ) ,
,

- - - - -
<

8 05 2 2 4 1 8 0
0 0
o o o
48
Example (cont.)
f k
k
k
k
( )
( . ) ,
,

<

-
05 3
0 3
3
Using the delay theorem gives the same answer.
F z
z
z
z ( )
.

-
-
05
3
Evaluating f(k) at k = 0, 1, 2, yields
f(0) = 8 - 8 = 0
f(1) = 8(0.5) - 4 = 0
f(2) = 8(0.5)
2
- 2 = 0
( ) ( ) ( ) k k k k f
k
o o o 8 1 4 2 2 ) 5 . 0 ( 8 ) ( - - - - -
49
The Final Value Theorem
Theorem 2.1 The Final Value Theorem
If a sequence approaches a constant
limit as k tends to infinity, then the limit is
given by
( )
) (
1
) ( 1 ) ( f ) ( f
1
1
1
z F
z
z
z F z k
z
z k
|
.
|

\
|
-

-

_|
_| _|
50
Limitations of Final Value
Limit must exist for final value
theorem to apply.
Does not apply to:
(i) An unbounded sequence.
(ii) An oscillatory sequence.
51
Proof of Final Value Thm.
Let have a constant limit as tends to infinity
= sequence that decays to zero as
_|
k
_|
z1
52
Example 2.17
Verify the final value theorem using the z-
transform of a decaying exponential
sequence and its limit as k tends to infinity.
Solution: z-transform pair
{
T a
kT a
e z
z
e
-
-
-

Z
Limit with a > 0
0 ) ( f
-

kT a
k
e _|
Final value theorem
0
1
) ( f
1

|
.
|

\
|
-
|
.
|

\
|
-

-

T a
z
e z
z
z
z
_|
53
Example 2.18
Obtain the final value for the sequence whose z-
transform is
What can you conclude concerning the constants
a, b and c if it is known that the limit exist?
F z
z z a
z z b z c
( )
( )
( )( )( )

-
- - -
2
1
) 1 )( 1 (
1
) )( (
) (
) ( f
1
c b
a
c z b z
a z z
z
- -
-

- -
-


_|
Solution: Conditions for the validity of the final
value theorem | b | < 1 | c | < 1
Apply the final value theorem
54
Z-transform Solution of
Difference Equations
Example 2.19: Solve the linear difference
equation
with the initial conditions x(0) = 1, x(1) = 5/2
Solution
(i) z-transform
[ ]
) 1 /(
) ( ) 2 / 1 ( )] 0 ( ) ( )[ 2 / 3 ( ) 1 ( ) 0 ( ) (
2 2
-
- - - - -
z z
z X zx z zX zx x z z X z
55
(ii) Solve for X(z)
[ ]
z z X z z z z z
2 2
3 2 1 2 1 5 2 3 2 - - - - - - ( / ) ( / ) ( ) / ( ) ( / / )
[ ]
X z
z z z
z z z
z
z z
( )
( )( )
( )( )( . ) ( ) ( . )

- - -
- - -

- -
1 1 1
1 1 05 1 05
3
2
56
(iii) Partial fraction expansion
The partial fraction of X(z)/ z is
X z
z
z
z z
A
z
A
z
A
z
( )
( ) ( . ) ( ) .

- -

-
-
-
-
-
2
2
11
2
12 3
1 05 1 1 05
( ) A z
X z
z
z
z
z
z
11
2
1
2
1
1
05
1
1 05
2 -
-

-

( )
. .
( )
( ) ( )
1
1 5 . 0
) 5 . 0 (
1
) (
5 . 0
2
2
5 . 0
2
2
5 . 0
3

-

-
-

z
z
z
z
z
z X
z A
57
Equating Coefficients
Multiply by the denominator
z
2
= A
11
(z -0.5) + A
12
(z - 0.5)(z -1) +A
3
(z- 1)
2
Equate coefficient of z
2
z
2
: 1 = A
12
+ A
3
= A
12
+ 1 i.e. A
12
= 0
X z
z
z
z
z
( )
( ) .

-
-
-
2
1 05
2
(iv) Inverse z-transformation: z-transform tables
k
k k x ) 5 . 0 ( 2 ) ( -
58
Plot of the Solution x(k)
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
15
k
x(k)