Topic 2 ElectricField

andElectric Flux

LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this topic, you should be able to: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Sketch electric field line patterns for point charges and for an electric dipole; Calculate the electric field at a specified location in the vicinity of a group of point charges; Define the electric field; Calculate the electric flux through a surface; and Apply Gauss's Law to find the electric fields of point charges, hollow spherical conductor, and parallel plates.

INTRODUCTION

In the last topic, we saw how Coulombs Law was used to find the force between two charges separated by a distance in empty space. But how does the first charge actually detect the presence of the second charge? And how is the force transmitted between them? To answer these challenging questions, we have to reformulate Coulombs Law by using the concept of the electric field. We will begin by describing the concept of electric field lines, which is a convenient aid to for visualizing electric field patterns. We will also obtain the general formula for the electric field strength of a point charge. Then the electric flux will be defined and Gausss law will be introduced. This law will help you gain a deeper insight into electric fields. Finally, Gausss law will be used to find the electric fields for points inside and of hollow spherical conductors and on charged parallel plates.

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2.1

ELECTRIC FIELD LINES

How do we visualise electric fields? Michael Faraday introduced the concept of electric field lines to help us develop a mental picture of the electric field. Properties of the electric field lines: Electric field lines always originate from a positive charge and terminate on a negative charge. 1. In a region where the electric field is stronger, the lines are closer together. Conversely, in regions where the electric field is weaker, the lines are widely separated. Electric field lines never cross one another. At any point, the direction of the electric field is tangent to the electric field line that passes through that point.

2. 3.

Figure 2.1(a) shows the electric field lines emanating from a positive point charge +q .Observe how the lines point radially outward from the charge. On the other hand, the electric field lines of a point charge q are directed radially inward, as shown in Figure 2.1(b). Figure 2.1(c) shows the electric field lines of an electric dipole, a special configuration consisting of two equal and opposite charges.

Figure 2.1: Electric Field lines for (a) a point charge, (b) a negative charge and (c) for an electric dipole

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2.2

THE ELECTRIC FIELD

The electric field is a vector quantity, having magnitude and direction. The direction of the electric field is the direction of the force that acts on a positive test charge that is placed in the field. An electric field is said to exist in the region of space around a charge. When another charge enters the field, the it is the electric field that exerts a force on the second charge Now consider Figure 2.2 that shows a small, positive test charge q0 placed a distance r from a point charge +Q. We already know that a charge can experience an electrostatic force due to the presence of another charge. The test charge experiences a repulsive force F that point away from the point charge +Q.

Figure 2.2: The direction of the electric force at a point where a positive test charge q0 is placed at distance r from a point charge +Q .

The test charge does not interact directly with +Q, it only reacts to the electric field it encounters that is due to +Q. We define the electric field strength E at the location of the test charge to be the electric force acting on it F divided by the magnitude of the test charge q0 :
E = F

q0

(2.1)

The electric field is defined quantitatively using the term electric field strength. The SI unit of the electric field is Newton per Coulomb (N/C). Conversely, if we know the electric field E at some point, the force F acting on a point charge q placed at that point can be found by rearranging equation (2.1) as follows:

F = qE

(2.2)

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From the above equation, if q is positive, then both F and E would point in the same direction. However, if q is negative, then F and E will act in opposite directions.

2.3

THE ELECTRIC FIELD DUE TO A POINT CHARGE Q

Lets consider Figure 2.2 again. According to Coulombs Law, the magnitude of the force F acting on the test charge q0 due to the +Q charge is: Qq F = k 20 r The magnitude of electric field strength is given by:

E =

F q0

= k

Q r2

(2.3)

Equation (2.3) is known as the electric field of a point charge. We can always use this equation to calculate the magnitude of the electric field at a distance r from a point charge Q. It is an important result as it allows us to determine the electric field at any point due to the presence of several charges. And what about the direction of the electric field? The electric field always points away from a positive charge toward a negative charge. Example 2.1 (a) (b) Calculate the magnitude of the electric field at a point 2.0 m from a point charge of magnitude 4.0 C . Find the electric force on a proton placed at that point. EXERCISE 2.1 1.
6.0 10 5 N at angle 30 when placed at a point in an electric field.

A small object carrying a charge of +20 C experiences a force of

o

What are the magnitude and direction of the electric field at that point? 2.

An electron is accelerated by a constant electric field of magnitude 300N/m. (a) (b) What is the acceleration of the electron? Find the electrons speed after 1 ns, assuming that it started from rest.

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2.4

THE SUPERPOSITION PRINCIPLE

We have just seen how to calculate the electric field produced by a single charge as given by equation (2.3). This equation is important as it allows us to determine the electric field at any point due to the presence of several charges using the superposition principle. How would you calculate the electric field at a particular point P in space due to the presence of, say, three charges, Q1, Q2 and Q3? We can apply the superposition principle that we discussed in the previous topic to find the answer. According to this principle, we must first find the magnitudes of the 3 electric fields produced at P by the charges using equation (2.3). After that, we only have to add these electric fields vectorially to obtain the resultant electric field at P. The following examples will illustrate this technique. Example 2.2 2 charges are placed along the x-axis. The first charge q1 = +8.5C is at x1 = +3.0 cm. The second charge q2 = 21C is at x1 = +9.0 cm. Find the magnitude and direction of the resultant magnetic field at (a) (b) x = 0cm, and x = +6cm.

Solution (a) Since q1 is positive, the electric field points away from it. At point A, the electric field E1 points to the left, in the x direction. Since q2 is negative, the electric field points toward it.

At point A, the electric field E2 points to the right, in the +x direction. The net electric field is E = E1 + E2. We can use the E = kq / r 2 , to find the magnitude of the electric field due to each point charge.

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The net electric field at the origin (point A) is E = E1 + E2:

E = E1 + E2 = = k q1 r12 + k q2 r22

9 109 N m 2 /C 2

( 3.0 10

)(8.5 10 C ) + ( 9 10 N m /C )( 21 10 m) ( 9.0 10 m )
6 9 2 2 2 2 2

= 6.2 107 N/C

The minus sign tells us that the net electric field points along the x axis. (b) Since q1 is positive, the electric field points away from it.

At point B, the electric field points to the right, in the +x direction. Since q2 is negative, the electric field points toward it. At point B, the electric field points to the right, in the +x direction. The net electric field is E = +E1 + E2. The net electric field at x = +6.0 cm (point B) is E = +E1 + E2 E = E1 + E2 =
9

kq1 r12

kq2 r22
6 9 6

( 9 10 )(8.5 10 ) + ( 9 10 )( 21 10 ) = ( 3.0 10 ) ( 3.0 10 )

2 2 2 2

= +2.9 108 N/C

The plus sign tells us that the net electric field points along the +x axis.

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Example 2.3 Charge q1 = 9C is at the origin (0,0).A second charge q2 = 90C lies on the x-axis, 0.3 m to the left of the origin. Find the magnitude of the electric field at point P having coordinates (0, 0.4)m. Solution E1 P

E2

0.4m

0.5m

q1 0.3m q2

We will apply the superposition technique that was introduced in the previous topic to calculate the resultant electric field at P, indicated by E. Note the directions of E1 and E2 . As q1 is a positive charge, the electric field E1 acts away from it, i.e., in the vertically upward direction at P as shown. On the other hand, as q2 is a negative charge, E2 acts towards it. The magnitudes of E1 and E 2 can be found using Equation 2.3: E1 E2 = k = k q1 90 109 9 106 = = 5.06 106 N/C 2 2 r1 0 .4

q2 9 109 90 106 = = 3.24 106 N/C 2 2 r2 0 .5 3 4 From our diagram, cos = ,sin = 5 5

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Now lets resolve E1 and E 2 into their respective x - and y components x- component E1 E2 0 y- component

5.06 106 N/C 3.24 106 sin = 2.59 106 N/C

3.24 106 cos = 1.94 106 N/C

We can now add up the two forces vectorially to find the x and y components of the resultant electric field, E :

Ex = 1.94 106 N/C E y = 5.06 106 - 2.59 106 = 2.47 106 N/C
2 2 6 The magnitude of the resultant electric field is E = Ex + E y = 3.14 10 N / C

and it makes an angle of with the x-xis that is given by E 2.47 0 = tan 1 y = tan 1 = 51.8 , above the +x axis 1.94 Ex

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EXERCISE 2.2
1 Two point charges are placed on the x-axis as follows: The first charge of +12.0 C is located at x =1.20 cm and the second charge of 8.0 C is located at x= 0.80 cm. Find the magnitude and direction of the electric field at (i) x= 0.80 cm, and (ii) x= 0.00 cm. Three point charges +2 C , 6 C and +8 C are placed in the coordinates (2.0 mm, 0), (0, 2.0 mm) and (2.0 mm, 0), respectively. Find the magnitude and direction of the resultant electric field at the origin (0, 0) An electric dipole consists of two equal charges of opposite sign separated by a distance of 2a as shown below:

2.

3.

P
l

+Q

-Q

Use the superposition principle to show that the magnitude of electric field of the dipole at point P in the diagram below is given by the following expression kQa EP = 3 ( a2 + l 2 ) 2

2.5

ELECTRIC FLUX AND GAUSSS LAW

Previously we learnt that electric charges are able to create electric fields in the spaces surrounding them. In principle at least, we can always calculate the resultant electric field at a particular point due to such charges by using Coulombs Law, the definition of the electric field and the superposition principle. But the process becomes more difficult when dealing with many charges. However, there is a way out of this difficulty if we know the relationship that exists between these charges and the field that is created. Fortunately, such a relationship is encapsulated in a remarkable law known as Gauss Law.

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Electric Flux
Lets consider an electric field of magnitude E whose field lines cut through or penetrate a surface of area A that is perpendicular to the field as shown in Figure 2.3(a). We define the electric flux, E through this surface as the product of E and A:

E = EA

(2.4)

From equation 2.4, we can deduce that the SI units of the electric flux are Nm 2 /C . The flux can be imagined as a measure of the number of electric lines that passes through a given surface area. If the surface area is not perpendicular to the field as in Fig 2.3(b), then the expression for the electric flux would be given by:

E = EA cos
where is the angle between the E and the normal direction to the surface.

(2.5)

Figure 2.3: The electric flux through a surface when (a) the field is perpendicular the surface area, and (b) when the surface area is not perpendicular to the field

From the last equation, the flux through a surface has a maximum value of EA when the surface A is perpendicular to the field E ie when = 90 . Note also that the flux is zero when A is parallel to E, i.e., when = 00 .
By convention, the flux entering the enclosed volume of a closed surface is taken to be ve , while those leaving is taken to be +ve.

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Example 2.4 A cylinder is immersed in a uniform electric field of magnitude E, with the cylinder axis parallel to the field, shown below. What is the flux through this closed surface?

Solution: A cylinder has three surfaces that is made up of a left circular cap, a right circular cap and a cylindrical surface. Let the area of each circular cap be A . We need to add up the flux through all 3 surfaces to find the total flux through this cylinder. For the left circular cap of area A, the flux is negative as it enters the enclosed volume of the cylinder. From equation (2.4), the total flux is 1 = EA For the right circular cap, the flux must be positive as it leaves the enclosed volume of the cylinder. Then from equation (2.4), the total flux is 2 = EA For the cylindrical surface, the flux just skims or touches this surface without ever entering it. So the flux through this surface has to be zero: 3 = 0 So, the total flux through the cylinder is 1 SELF-CHECK 2.1 A V-shaped surface is placed in the region of a uniform electric field. Are the magnitudes of the electric flux penetrating these two surfaces equal? Explain. + 2 + 3 = 0

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2.6

GAUSSS LAW

Now lets consider a positive point charge q that is located at the center of a closed spherical surface of radius r as shown in Figure 2.4.

Figure 2.4: A positive point charge q that is located at the centre of a closed spherical surface of radius r

This closed surface is often referred to as the Gaussian surface. Since all points on the surface are equidistant from the center, the electric field E everywhere on the surface has a constant value. This value is given by equation (2.3):

E = k

q r2

E is also perpendicular at all points on the spherical surface. Since the surface area A of the sphere is equal to 4r 2 , we can calculate the electric flux through this spherical surface using equation (2.4):
E = EA =

q ( 4r 2 ) = 4kq r2
1 4 0
, we find that

(2.6)

But if we replace k by

q 0

(2.7)

This is a very important result with some important consequences. It shows that the electric flux (i) (ii) Depends only on the charge q enclosed by the sphere, and Is independent of the radius of the surface.

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If q is positive, the flux is positive, meaning that the electric field is directed outward from the charge. If q is negative, the flux is negative, meaning that the electric field is directed toward the charge. The flux will be zero if q is zero. It can be shown that our result can be generalised to any closed surface, whatever its shape. For example, if the surface surrounding the charge q is a cube, then the q flux through its surfaces will still be . 0 In general, the relation between the electric flux through any closed surface and the net charge enclosed by that surface is given by Gauss Law:

Q 0

(2.8)

Gauss Law can be stated in words as follows:

The total electric flux through any closed surface is equal to the net charge Q.
Also, when dealing with closed surfaces, we need to differentiate between the flux entering and leaving a closed surface. Gauss Law is valid for the electric field of a system of charges or a continuous distribution of charge. But it is most effective in situations where there is a high degree of symmetry.

Example 2.5
A positive charge of magnitude q is distributed uniformly on the surface of a thin spherical shell of radius R. Use Gausss law to obtain at any point the magnitude of the electric field (a) outside the shell, and (b) inside the shell.

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Solution:
(a) We select a spherical Gaussian surface of radius r, where r > R, outside the charged shell. This Gaussian surface is concentric with the shell. See the figure below: thin shell carrying charge q

Gaussian surface For all points on the Gaussian surface, the magnitude of the electric field E is constant due to spherical symmetry. From equation (2.7), the electric flux through this surface is

q , where q is the charge inside the Gaussian surface. 0

But according to equation (2.4), E = EA, A is the area of the Gaussian spherical surface. Hence the electric field is

EA = E =

q 0 q q kq = = 2 2 A 0 4 0 r r (2.9)

This result is exactly the same as for a point charge - see equation (2.3). (b) We select a spherical Gaussian surface of radius r, where r < R, inside the charged shell. This gaussian surface is concentric with the shell. See the figure below: thin shell carrying charge q

Gaussian surface

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The charge inside the Gaussian surface is now zero. So the value of q is zero in Equation 2.9. It follows that the electric field inside the charged shell must also be zero. SELF-CHECK 2.2 A rubber balloon has a single point charge inside it. Does the electric flux through the balloon depend on whether or not it is fully inflated? Explain your reasoning.

2.7

CHARGED PARALLEL CONDUCTING PLATES

Two parallel conducting plates separated by a distance d in vacuum are given charges of opposite sign but of equal magnitude Q, as illustrated in Figure 2.3. The electric field E between the parallel plates is quite uniform (Figure 2.5). We will ignore the spreading of the electric field near the edges of the plate.

Figure 2.5

If A is the surface area of each plate, the charge density is:

Q A At the Gaussian surface, the electric flux is given by: =

= EA =

A 0

Therefore, the electric field at any point between the plates is then:
E= 0

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SELF-CHECK 2.3 Knowing that like charges repel and that charges have freedom of motion within the conductor, explain why excess charge on an isolated conductor must reside on its surface. EXERCISE 2.3 1. A vertical wall of area 18 m 2 in a house faces due west. A uniform electric field has a magnitude of 100 N/C. This field points 60 north of west. Find the electric flux through the wall. A closed surface encloses a net charge of 8.85 C . According Gausss law, what is the net electric flux through the surface?

2.

An electric field exists around any charged body. It is a region where an electric force is acting on other charges bodies placed in the region Electric field lines are arbitrary drawn lines that provide a picture of electric field. They are directed away from positive charges and toward negative charges. A region of high electric field density is where the electric field lines are closed to each other. Electric field lines never intersect. The electric field strength is the force per unit charge. The direction of the electric field is the direction of the force exerted by a positive test charge. Electric flux is a measure of the flow of electric field through a surface and can be calculated from E = EA. Gausss law states that the total electric flux through a closed surface equals Q the total charge divided by the permittivity of a medium, or E = 0

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Electric Field Electric Flux

Gausss Law Superposition principle

1.

Charge q1 = 1C is at the origin (0,0).A second charge q2 = +10C lies on the x-axis, 0.4 m to the right of the origin. Find the magnitude of the electric field at point P having coordinates (0,0.3)m. A proton accelerates from rest to a speed of 1105 m/s in 1s in a uniform electric field of magnitude E. Find the value of E.

2.

1. 2.

A cube encloses a net charge of 10 C . Calculate the net electric flux through the surfaces of the cube. (a) (b) State Gausss Law A charged solid conducting sphere has an excess charge Q distributed uniformly on the surface of the sphere of radius R. No charges are present inside the conductor. (i) (ii) What is the electric field inside the sphere? What is the electric field outside the sphere?